autism paper thesis statement

Autism - List of Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

Autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), refers to a broad range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech, and nonverbal communication. Essays could explore the causes, symptoms, and treatment of autism, the experiences of individuals with autism, and societal understanding and acceptance of autism. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Autism you can find at Papersowl. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Rain Man and Autism

The film Rain man was released into theaters in 1988 and was awarded many awards along with an Academy Award. The movie starts off by showing Charlie who works as a car salesman, attempting to close on a deal involving four Lamborghinis. Charlie decides to drive with his girlfriend Susanna to ensure that this deal goes through. On the drive over Charlie receives a call telling him that his father has just passed away. Charlie and his girlfriend go his […]

Applied Behavior Analysis and its Effects on Autism

Abstract During my research i have found several studies that have been done to support the fact that Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) does in fact make a positive impact on children with Autism through discrete trials. It is based on the thought that when a child is rewarded for a positive behavior or correct social interaction the process will want to be repeated. Eventually one would phase out the reward. Dr Lovaas, who invented this method, has spent his career […]

The Unique Parenting Challenges are Faced by the Parents of Special Children

Introduction For typical children, parenting experiences are shared by other parents whereas the unique parenting challenges are faced by the parents of special children. Mobility and Inclusion of the parents as well as children are affected many a times. Even though careful analysis often reveals abilities, habitual tendency to perceive the disabilities from society’s part often hinders effective normalization and proper rehabilitation. All impose severe identity crisis and role restrictions even in knowledgeable parents.. In some conditions, as in the […]

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Autism in Japanese Manga and its Significance on Current Progression in J-pop Culture

Abstract In this paper I will explore and examine Autism in Manga, the social and cultural context of Autism in Manga, its movement, and importance of Tobe Keiko’s, “With the Light.” Manga is a huge part of Japanese culture and can be appreciated by so many different people. There are different types of Manga that have been specifically produced for that type of audience. In this paper, I will address the less talked about, women’s Manga or also known as […]

Speech Therapist for Autism

Abstract Autism Spectrum Disorder is a condition that consists of various challenges to an individual such as social skills, nonverbal communication, repetitive behaviors and difficulties with speech. So far doctors have not been able to find out what causes autism although it is believed that it involves both environmental and genetic factors. Autism can usually be detected at an early age, therefore giving the patient and therapist an early start to improve their verbal skills. Speech language pathologists also known […]

Virtual Reality in Regards to Health and how it Can be Life-Changing

        Exploring Virtual Reality in Health Diego Leon Professor Ron Frazier October 29, 2018, Introduction When most individuals think of technology involving computers, they think it can solely involve two of the five senses we humans have – vision (sight) and hearing (audition). But what if we could interact with more than two sensorial channels? Virtual reality deals with just that. Virtual reality is defined as a “high-end user interface that involves real-time simulation and interaction through […]

Growing up with Autism

Autism is a profound spectrum disorder; symptoms, as well as severity, range. It is one of the fastest-growing developmental disorders in America. For every 68 children born in the United States, 1 is diagnosed with a neurological development disorder that impairs their ability to interact and communicate on what we constitute as normal levels. Autism is multifaceted; it affects the brain development of millions worldwide. Not only are those diagnosed on the Autism Spectrum facing difficulties, but the family members […]

Kids with Autism

In this earth we have many different lifeforms. Animals, plants, insects, and people. Humans have populated the earth all throughout it. Some people are born healthy and some are born will disorders and illnesses and diseases. One of the disorders is Autism. Autism is constantly affecting the people who have it and the people around them all over the world. So what is Autism? Autism is a disorder that impairs the ability for social interaction and communication. It is very […]

My Personal Experience of Getting to Know Asperger’s Syndrome

The beginning of this paper covers the history of Asperger’s Syndrome, followed by an explanation of what Asperger’s is. The history provides detailed insights into Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner, and their relationship to each other. Their work has significantly enriched our understanding of the research surrounding Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome. The paper also discusses the process leading to Asperger’s becoming a recognized diagnosis, including the contributions of Lorna Wing and Ulta Frita. Furthermore, it traces Asperger’s entry into the […]

Cultural Stereotypes and Autism Disorder

“It’s the fastest growing developmental disability, autism” (Murray, 2008, p.2). “It is a complex neurological disorder that impedes or prevents effective verbal communication, effective social interaction, and appropriate behavior” (Ennis-Cole, Durodoye, & Harris, 2013). “Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a lifelong disorder that may have comorbid conditions like attention deficit disorder (ADD)/attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety disorder, stereotypical and self-stimulatory behaviors, insomnia, intellectual disabilities, obsessive compulsive disorder, seizure disorder/epilepsy, Tourette syndrome, Tic disorders, gastrointestinal problems, and other conditions. Another certainty, […]

Understanding Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a cognitive disability that affects a person’s “communication, social, verbal, and motor skills” . The umbrella term of ASD created in 2013 by the American Psychiatric Association that covered 5 separate autism diagnosis and combined them into one umbrella term, the previous terms being Autistic Disorder, Rett syndrome, Asperger’s Disorder, Childhood disintegrative Disorder, and Pervasive Developmental Disorders. The word spectrum in the diagnosis refers to the fact that the disability does not manifest itself in […]

Defining Altruism Issue

In current society, it can be justified that the level of autonomy directly influences the amount of altruism an autistic adolescent implements. Defining Altruism: When it comes to the comprehension of socialization within the development of behaviors in adolescents, altruism is vital. Although there is no true altruism, more or less altruism can be determined based upon the involuntary actions and behaviors of an individual. In the absence of motivation, altruism cannot transpire. An altruist must have the inherent belief […]

911 Telecommunicators Response to Autism

Autism is becoming more prevalent every day. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention released new statistics in 2018. Nationally, 1 in 59 children have autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and boys are 4 (four) times more likely to have autism than girls. 1 in 37 boys and 1 in 151 girls were found to have autism. These are incredibly high statistics that will affect our communities across the United States We, as Telecommunicators, need to know how to understand and […]

Representation of Autism in the Netflix TV Show “Atypical”

In the first season of the TV show “Atypical”, the viewer meets the Gardner family, a seemingly normal family with an autistic teenage son, Sam, as the focus. This show failed initially to deviate from typical portrayals of autistic people on screens, as a white male, intellectually gifted, and seemingly unrelatable, although it seemed to try. Sam acts in ways that seem almost unbelievable for even someone with autism to, such as when he declares his love for someone else […]

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of developmental disorders that challenges a child’s skills in social interaction, communication, and behavior. ASD’s collective signs and symptoms may include: making little eye contact, repetitive behaviors, parallel play, unexplainable temper tantrums, misunderstanding of nonverbal cues, focused interests, and/or sensory overload. Positive symptoms of ASD may reflect above-average intelligence, excellence in math, science, or art, and the ability to learn things in detail. A question that many parent has is whAlthough an individual […]

The Complexity of Autism

Autism spectrum disorder is a complex disease that affects the developmental and speech capabilities of adolescents that carries with them to adulthood. It is distinctly apparent when the child is still very young and able to be diagnosed from about a year and a half old onwards. Although the disease cannot be pinpointed to one specific area of the brain, it is believed to stem from a glitchy gene that makes the child more susceptible to developing autism, oxygen deprivation […]

An Overview of the Five Deadly Diseases that Affect the Human Brain

There are hundreds of diseases that affect the brain. Every day, we fight these diseases just as vehemently as they afflict their carriers. Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's, depression, autism, and strokes are just five of the most lethal and debilitating diseases that afflict human brains. Parkinson's disease alone claims up to 18,000 lives a year (Hagerman 1). But what is it? Parkinson's disease occurs when a brain chemical called dopamine begins to die in a region that facilitates muscle movement. Consequently, […]

Autism Genes: Unveiling the Complexities

“Autism is a brain disorder that typically affects a person’s ability to communicate, form relationships with others and respond appropriately to the environment (www.childdevelopmentinfo.com).” There are different levels of autism. “There is the autistic disorder, Asperger's syndrome and pervasive developmental syndrome (www.asws.org).” According to (www.everydayhealth.com/autism/types), “Each situation is unique as there are many levels and severities of it. Many cases also include sensory difficulties. These can range from imaginary sights and sounds to other sensations.” There are many different characteristics […]

Autism and Assistive Technology for Autistic Children

Autism is a complex neurobehavioral condition that is found in a person from early childhood days where the person faces difficulty in communicating with another person. It is also known as ASD or Autism Spectrum Disorder. It is a spectrum disorder because its effect varies from person to person. This is caused due to some changes that happen during early brain development. It is suggested that it may arise from abnormalities in parts of the brain that interpret sensory input […]

The Evolution of Autism Diagnosis: from Misunderstanding to Scientific Approach

Autism has come a long way from the early 1980s when it was rarely diagnosed to today where 100 out 10,000 kids are diagnosed. Autism is defined as a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior (NIMH 2018). There are many aspects surrounding Autism and the underlying effects that play a role in Autism. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, people with Autism have “Difficulty with communication and interaction with other people Restricted interests and repetitive […]

Do Vaccines Cause Autism

In a world of medicines and “mommy bloggers”, there is a controversy between pro-vaxxers and anti-vaxxers. The vaccination controversy cause an uproar for many people, understandably, it’s very polarized- you strongly believe in them or you strongly do not. For me, at the age of 15, I strongly believe in the Pro-Vaccine movement and I have data that can back me up. For starters, you may wonder ‘what is a vaccine’ or ‘how to do they work’. For a general […]

Autism: Characteristics, Diagnosis, and Understanding

The prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder has nearly doubled in recent years, and the numbers are staggering: nearly 1 in every 59 children are diagnosed with autism in the United States alone. Yet, there are so many questions surrounding the complexity and increase in diagnoses of this condition that affects so many in such diverse ways. (Autism Speaks) How autism originates in the first place and its impact on communication, both verbal and nonverbal, are questions that need to be […]

Autism Spectrum Disorder and its Positive Effects

 What would it feel like if you were constantly ignored or treated as though you have little usefulness? Many people experience this kind of treatment their entire lives. Long has it been assumed that people with mental disabilities such as Autism, were meant to be cared for but to never expect any value from them. Evil men such as Hitler even went so far as to kill them because he thought they had no use to society. However, there is […]

Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders and ADHD

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder that affects communication and behavior, generally diagnosed within the early stages of life. No two individuals living with Autism experience the same symptoms, as the type and severity varies with each case (Holland, 2018.). Autism has been around for hundreds of years, but the definition has evolved immensely. In 1943, scientists Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger conducted research on individuals with social and emotional deficits to better refine the definition […]

Raising a Child with Autism

All impose severe identity crisis and role restrictions even in knowledgeable parents.. In some conditions, as in the case of physical challenges, the child needs physical reassurance and support from the parents against those conditions of cognitive deficits in which the demands are always parent’s constant attention and feedback. As far as autism is concerned, the child’s deficits are many namely social, emotional, communicational, sensual, as well as behavioral. Symptoms are usually identified between one and two years of age. […]

Is Autism a Kind of Brain Damage

Many people have different views about autism. Autism may be only one simple word, but with this one word comes many forms in the way it could affect people with this disability. Autism should not be looked down on as much as this disability is from others in society. It may seem as if it has more “cons” than “pros” as some call them, but if looked at from a better perspective, there could be more pros than cons and […]

Trouble with Social Aspects and People on the Autism Spectrum

Autism in childhood starts as early as age two, and symptoms will become more severe as children continue into elementary school. When a child goes to a psychiatrist, they will work on social development. Adolescence with autism struggle when attempting to project others pain. For example, my brother has Asperger's and when I have a bone graph done on my hand, he could not stop touching my hand. He needed constant reminders to not touch and remind him of when […]

Effects of Autism

When he was eight years old, the parents of Joshua Dushack learned that their son was different. He had been diagnosed with Autism. According to the doctors, Joshua would never be able to read, write, talk, or go to school on his own. This might have been the case, had his parents accepted it. But his mother saw her son as a normal boy, and treated him as such. He did need some extra help in school, but because of […]

How Different Types of Assistive Technology Can Help Children with Autism

I. Introduction An anonymous speaker once said, “some people with Autism may not be able to speak or answer to their name, but they can still hear your words and feel your kindness.” Approximately thirty percent of people diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder never learn to speak more than a few words (Forman & Rudy, 2018). Fortunately in today’s society, new technologies have made it possible for these individuals to communicate and socialize with others. Purpose The primary focus of […]

Searching Employment Autism

Over the last 20 years, there has been an alarming increase for children who have been diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in the United States. According to the Centers for Disease Control, in the year 2000 1 in 159 children would be diagnosed with ASD. In the latest version of the study, the number has been reduced to 1 in 59 children will be diagnosed with ASD (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018). This is a subject that […]

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How To Write an Essay About Autism

Understanding autism.

Before writing an essay about autism, it's essential to understand what autism is and the spectrum of conditions it encompasses. Autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), is a complex developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior. It is characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech, and nonverbal communication. Start your essay by explaining the nature of autism, its symptoms, and the spectrum concept, which acknowledges a range of strengths and challenges experienced by individuals with autism. It's also important to discuss the causes and diagnosis of autism, as well as the common misconceptions and stereotypes surrounding it. This foundational knowledge will set the stage for a more in-depth exploration of the topic.

Developing a Focused Thesis Statement

A strong essay on autism should be centered around a clear, focused thesis statement. This statement should present a specific angle or argument about autism. For example, you might discuss the importance of early intervention and therapy, the representation of autism in media, or the challenges faced by individuals with autism in education and employment. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and ensure that your analysis is structured and coherent.

Gathering and Analyzing Data

To support your thesis, gather relevant data and research from credible sources. This might include scientific studies, statistics, reports from autism advocacy organizations, and personal narratives. Analyze this data critically, considering different perspectives and the quality of the evidence. Including a range of viewpoints will strengthen your argument and demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Discussing Implications and Interventions

A significant portion of your essay should be dedicated to discussing the broader implications of autism and potential interventions. This can include the impact of autism on individuals and families, educational strategies, therapeutic approaches, and social support systems. Evaluate the effectiveness of these interventions, drawing on case studies or research findings. Discussing both the successes and challenges in managing and understanding autism will provide a balanced view and demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the key points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence and examples provided. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the significance of understanding and supporting individuals with autism. You might also want to highlight areas where further research or development is needed or the potential for societal changes to improve the lives of those with autism.

Final Review and Editing

After completing your essay, it's important to review and edit your work. Ensure that your arguments are clearly articulated and supported by evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers or experts in the field to refine your essay further. A well-crafted essay on autism will not only inform but also engage readers in considering the complexities of this condition and the collective efforts required to support those affected by it.

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100 Autism Research Paper Topics

Careful selection of autism research paper topics is very important. That’s because there are many autism topics that students can research and write about. The topic that a learner chooses dictates the direction that their research and writing process will take. As such, students should select their topic ideas based on their academic goals. Ideally, what a learner opts to write about should help them accomplish their study goals.

Autism can be defined as a spectral disorder that makes a child seem to have a world of their own. Many parents misinterpret this disorder and assume that the child does not notice them. However, this is usually not the case. Parents are the first people to notice this disorder. With more children being diagnosed with this disorder, educators are asking learners to write about autism essay topics.

If you’ve been asked to write about this subject, take your time to research this disorder. You can even read the autobiographies of autistic people. If possible, meet and interact with autistic people before you start writing. This will give you an idea of what this condition is all about. Our psychology topics may also come in handy. In most cases, you will be required to focus your paper or essay on the creation of more autism awareness. This article highlights some of the topics in autism that you can consider for your paper or essay.

Basic Autism Research Paper Topics

Autism is a broad research area. Researchers have delved into this field and came up with different findings. However, you can still pick a topic for your research in this field and come up with new information. Here are some of the most interesting research topics in autism that can form the basis of your academic paper or essay.

• Why some people autistic and others are not?
• Does being autistic have advantages?
• Why is being autistic disadvantageous?
• Some people have a good memory or recall skills, explain why
• Facts that people should know about autism
• Explain the chemical brain differences between autistic and non-autistic individuals
• Discuss some of major breakthroughs in autism research
• Why do people with autism have difficulty socializing with others?
• What can normal people learn from autistic people’s brains?
• What characteristics should a person with autism have?
• How should an autistic person be trained during care provision?
• What should caregivers understand about autism to do their job right?
• Explain the behavior of autistic individuals towards family members
• Provide an average autistic individual’s overview
• How can the social interactions of autistic people be improved?
• Explain what causes autism
• What educational programs do autistic people have?
• How to diagnose autism in the early stages
• Explain the role of music in an autistic person’s life
• Is there a treatment for reducing autistic people’s disadvantages?
• What are the employment limitations and opportunities for autistic people?
• Discuss the major stories about autism that have been shared in the media
• What is yet to be discovered about autism?
• Explain how healthcare workers can help autistic individuals go through their daily life
• Describe the top 5 autistic individuals that are best known in history

These are some of the most interesting autism topics for research paper or essay. However, you should research them extensively before you start writing. That’s because each of these topics requires you to include verifiable facts in your paper or essay.

Strong Autism Dissertation Topics

With so many children being diagnosed with autism, more learners are writing dissertations on this subject. And there are many autism research topics from which a learner can choose. Here are some of the best autism thesis topics to consider.

• Is there evidence to prove that environmental triggers are responsible for rising autism cases?
• Explain the relationship between stimming self-regulator for anxiety and autism
• Why is autism prevalence in western society greater?
• How is autism related to mental health?
• How can family doctors be supported to take care of autistic people?
• Discuss autism and childhood immunization
• Discuss some of the prominent individuals in history that were most likely autistic
• How can autistic people be supported at the workplace?
• How do autistic females differ from autistic males?
• Can autistic children adapt to mainstream education?
• What are the positives and negatives of special education for autistic children?
• Should autistic children attend special schools?
• Why do people consider autism a spectrum disorder?
• What diagnostic changes have raised the concern that Asperger’s Syndrome might no longer exist
• Does lifestyle play a role in autism?

Some of these topics on autism may seem complex to research and write about. However, you can find relevant and sufficient supporting evidence from different sources. You just need the time and resources required to write about any of these topics about autism.

Autism Parent Training Topics

Raising an autistic child is not easy. Parents and caregivers should learn about autism spectrum disorder and its effects on their children. They should also learn how this disorder affects the entire family. It’s for this reason that researchers focus on research topics in autism that educate parents and caregivers about taking care of autistic children. Here are some of the best autism social learning topics.

• How to manage the parenting challenges for people with autistic children
• How to enhance the communication skills of autistic children
• How to enhance the coping skills of autistic children
• How to address the negative behaviors of autistic children
• How to increase the play skills of autistic children
• How to diagnose autism early in children
• How to increase the independence of autistic children
• How to improve self-help in autistic children
• How does autism in one child affect the other family members?
• How to solve the daily problems of autistic children

Each of these topics is meant to produce a paper or essay that can help parents of autistic children cope with the disorder. The information can also help the parents make their children lead a better life despite their condition.

Paper Topics about Autism and Education

Since it’s a complex disorder that affects brain development, autism touches on education as well. Here are some of the good research paper topics on autism and education that you can write about.

• Why is autism worth researching?
• Discuss the causes of autism
• Discuss the development realms that are affected by autism
• What resources do autistic people have access to?
• Explain how autistic children learn
• Explain how autism affects the learning process
• Explain the struggles of autistic students
• Explain parent training autism
• Discuss the major types of autism
• How does learning differ between autistic and normal students?

These topics focus on the relationship between autism and learning or education. Just like the topics in the other categories, they require extensive research to write about too.

Autism Research Proposal Topics

A lot of information about autism is being discussed by researchers across the world. This makes it hard for some learners to pick proposal topics for their autism papers. Here are some of the topics to consider if struggling to pick your proposal topic.

• What is autism therapy?
• Is autism therapy helpful?
• How should caregivers provide care to autistic persons?
• What is the best way to work for an autistic person?
• Working with an autistic person- What are the major challenges?
• How do you cope with an autistic family member?
• How should autistic people be treated in social places?
• What limitations do autistic people have in modern society?
• Is the current society considerate of autistic people?
• How does modern technology benefit autistic people?

If you pick a research topic on autism from this category, take the time to research it extensively to write a brilliant paper or essay.

Thought-Provoking Autism Debate Topics

Perhaps, you want to write a paper or essay that can form the basis of a debate about autism. In that case, consider one of these topics.

• How celebrities and pseudo-scientists have caused serious damage by claiming that autism is related to vaccinations
• How to educate society about autism
• How to change the future of autistic children with early interventions
• How school officials can help autistic children
• How to help autistic kids whose parents are uncooperative or in denial
• How autistic children can benefit from occupational therapy
• Discuss the DSM-V regarding autism
• How educational opportunities for autistic children compare to those of normal children
• How health officials can convince the public that shots don’t cause autism
• Should children that have not been vaccinated because parents believe that vaccines cause autism be taken to school?
• How to support siblings of an individual with autism
• How to transition a person with autism to community-based services from school-based services.
• How to fight for autistic people’s rights
• How to deal with the psychological struggles of autistic children
• How music affects autistic patients
• Social organizations for autistic people
• Why diagnosing autism early is important
• Can autism be prevented?
• How to interact with autistic people
• What employment options do autistic people have?
• How to manage autism in adults
• A brief history of autism
• How living with an autistic person can affect your life
• How genetics affect autism
• Can the environment cause autism?
• Can medical treatment cause autism?
• A review of autism in different countries
• A review of autism in different cultures
• What signs of autism should parents watch out for?
• How to develop a treatment plan for autism

This category has controversial topics autism researchers can explore too. Nevertheless, whether you choose parenting or autism biology topics for research paper, take the time to research extensively before you start writing. Don’t hesitate to contact us if you need thesis writing help .

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Autism — Why Autism Awareness is Important

Why Autism Awareness is Important

• Categories: Autism Psychological Disorders

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Published: Aug 24, 2023

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104 Autism Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Autism is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder that affects millions of people worldwide. Writing an essay on autism can be challenging, as there are numerous aspects to consider and various topics to explore. To help you get started, here are 104 autism essay topic ideas and examples that cover different aspects of this disorder:

• Historical Perspectives on Autism: Explore the evolution of autism research and how our understanding of the disorder has changed over time.
• Diagnostic Criteria for Autism: Discuss the diagnostic criteria used to identify individuals with autism and how they have evolved.
• Early Signs of Autism: Explore the early signs and red flags that may indicate the presence of autism in young children.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Explain the concept of the autism spectrum and how it encompasses a wide range of abilities and challenges.
• Social Communication Challenges in Autism: Discuss the difficulties individuals with autism face in social interactions and communication.
• Sensory Processing Issues in Autism: Explore how individuals with autism may experience sensory processing issues and how it affects their daily lives.
• Autism and Language Development: Investigate the language development challenges faced by individuals with autism and the different communication methods used.
• The Role of Genetics in Autism: Discuss the genetic factors that contribute to the development of autism and how they interact with environmental influences.
• Autism and Brain Structure: Explore the differences in brain structure and connectivity observed in individuals with autism.
• Autism and Executive Functioning: Discuss the executive functioning challenges faced by individuals with autism and how it affects their planning, organizing, and problem-solving skills.
• Autism and Theory of Mind: Investigate the theory of mind deficit commonly observed in individuals with autism and its impact on their understanding of others' thoughts and emotions.
• Autism and Mental Health: Explore the high prevalence of mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression, among individuals with autism.
• Autism and Co-occurring Conditions: Discuss the common co-occurring conditions associated with autism, such as ADHD, epilepsy, and intellectual disabilities.
• Autism and Gender Differences: Investigate the differences in autism prevalence, presentation, and diagnosis between males and females.
• Autism in Adulthood: Explore the challenges faced by adults with autism, including employment, relationships, and independent living.
• Autism and Education: Discuss the educational strategies and interventions that are effective in supporting individuals with autism in school settings.
• Inclusive Education for Students with Autism: Investigate the benefits and challenges of including students with autism in mainstream classrooms.
• Autism and Specialized Therapies: Explore the various therapies used to support individuals with autism, such as applied behavior analysis (ABA), speech therapy, and occupational therapy.
• Autism and Assistive Technology: Discuss how assistive technology can enhance communication, socialization, and independence for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Employment: Investigate the barriers and opportunities faced by individuals with autism in the workforce.
• Autism and Bullying: Discuss the increased vulnerability of individuals with autism to bullying and strategies to prevent and address it.
• Autism and Parenting: Explore the unique challenges and experiences of parents raising a child with autism.
• Autism and Siblings: Discuss the impact of having a sibling with autism on neurotypical siblings and the importance of support and understanding.
• Autism and Society: Investigate how society can become more inclusive and accepting of individuals with autism.
• Autism and Advocacy: Discuss the importance of advocacy and self-advocacy for individuals with autism in promoting their rights and well-being.
• Autism and Cultural Perspectives: Explore how autism is understood and treated in different cultures and the impact of cultural beliefs on individuals with autism.
• Autism and Vaccines: Investigate the controversies surrounding the alleged link between vaccines and autism and the scientific evidence debunking this myth.
• Autism and Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM): Discuss the use of CAM therapies in treating autism and the importance of evidence-based practices.
• Autism and Technology: Explore how technology, such as mobile apps and virtual reality, can be used to support individuals with autism.
• Autism and COVID-19: Discuss the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on individuals with autism and the challenges they face during lockdowns and social distancing measures.
• Autism and Animal-Assisted Therapy: Investigate the benefits of animal-assisted therapy for individuals with autism, including emotional support and social interaction.
• Autism and Peer Relationships: Discuss the difficulties individuals with autism face in forming and maintaining friendships and strategies to promote positive peer interactions.
• Autism and Sleep Disorders: Explore the high prevalence of sleep disturbances among individuals with autism and the impact on their overall well-being.
• Autism and Aging: Discuss the unique challenges faced by individuals with autism as they transition into older adulthood.
• Autism and Stigma: Investigate the stigma attached to autism and its impact on individuals' self-esteem and social inclusion.
• Autism and Social Skills Training: Explore the effectiveness of social skills training programs in improving social interaction and communication for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Sensory-Friendly Environments: Discuss the importance of creating sensory-friendly spaces to support individuals with autism in various settings, such as schools, workplaces, and public spaces.
• Autism and Sleep Interventions: Investigate evidence-based interventions and strategies to improve sleep quality for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Music Therapy: Explore the benefits of music therapy in supporting individuals with autism, including emotional expression and social engagement.
• Autism and Art Therapy: Discuss the therapeutic benefits of art therapy for individuals with autism, including self-expression and sensory integration.
• Autism and Sports: Investigate the role of sports and physical activities in promoting social skills, physical fitness, and overall well-being for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Transition Planning: Discuss the importance of transition planning for individuals with autism as they move from school to adulthood, including vocational training, independent living, and community integration.
• Autism and Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): Explore the principles and techniques of ABA and its effectiveness in improving skills and reducing challenging behaviors in individuals with autism.
• Autism and Medication: Discuss the use of medication in managing symptoms associated with autism, such as hyperactivity, anxiety, and aggression.
• Autism and Assistive Communication Devices: Investigate the use of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices in facilitating communication for nonverbal individuals with autism.
• Autism and Eating Disorders: Explore the increased risk of eating disorders among individuals with autism and the importance of early detection and intervention.
• Autism and Transition to College: Discuss the challenges and support services available for individuals with autism transitioning to higher education.
• Autism and Employment Accommodations: Explore the reasonable accommodations that can be provided in the workplace to support individuals with autism.
• Autism and Independent Living Skills: Discuss the importance of teaching and developing independent living skills for individuals with autism to enhance their autonomy and quality of life.
• Autism and Emotion Regulation: Investigate the difficulties individuals with autism face in regulating emotions and strategies to support emotional well-being.
• Autism and Visual Supports: Explore the use of visual supports, such as visual schedules and social stories, in promoting understanding and independence for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Executive Functioning Interventions: Discuss evidence-based interventions to improve executive functioning skills in individuals with autism.
• Autism and Transition to Adulthood: Investigate the challenges and opportunities associated with the transition to adulthood for individuals with autism, including housing, employment, and social relationships.
• Autism and Specialized Schools: Explore the benefits and limitations of specialized schools for individuals with autism and inclusive education options.
• Autism and Special Interests: Discuss the role of special interests in the lives of individuals with autism and its potential benefits in skill development and well-being.
• Autism and Savant Skills: Investigate the phenomenon of savant skills observed in some individuals with autism and the theories explaining this exceptional ability.
• Autism and Executive Dysfunction: Explore the impact of executive dysfunction on daily living skills and strategies to support individuals with autism in managing tasks and responsibilities.
• Autism and Mental Health Interventions: Discuss evidence-based interventions and therapies used to address mental health issues in individuals with autism, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and mindfulness.
• Autism and Employment Discrimination: Investigate the challenges and legal protections against employment discrimination for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Early Intervention: Explore the benefits of early intervention programs in promoting positive outcomes for children with autism.
• Autism and Parent Training: Discuss the importance of parent training programs in equipping parents with the necessary skills and knowledge to support their child with autism.
• Autism and Transition to Independence: Investigate the challenges and resources available for individuals with autism transitioning to independent living.
• Autism and Mental Health Stigma: Explore the stigma associated with mental health issues in individuals with autism and strategies to promote acceptance and understanding.
• Autism and Special Education Laws: Discuss the legal protections and rights of individuals with autism in the education system, such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
• Autism and Sleep Hygiene: Investigate the importance of establishing good sleep hygiene habits for individuals with autism and strategies to promote healthy sleep patterns.
• Autism and Peer-Mediated Interventions: Explore the effectiveness of peer-mediated interventions in promoting social skills and inclusion for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Classroom Accommodations: Discuss the accommodations and modifications that can be implemented in the classroom to support students with autism.
• Autism and Mental Health Screening: Investigate the importance of early mental health screening and intervention for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Social Media: Explore the pros and cons of social media use for individuals with autism, including opportunities for connection and potential risks.
• Autism and Trauma: Discuss the increased vulnerability of individuals with autism to experiencing trauma and strategies for trauma-informed care.
• Autism and Parental Stress: Investigate the impact of raising a child with autism on parental stress levels and the importance of self-care and support.
• Autism and Executive Functioning Apps: Explore the use of mobile applications and technology to support executive functioning skills in individuals with autism.
• Autism and Employment Training Programs: Discuss vocational training and employment programs available for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Gender Identity: Investigate the experiences of individuals with autism who identify as transgender or nonbinary and the unique challenges they face.
• Autism and Mental Health Services: Explore the availability and accessibility of mental health services for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Bullying Prevention Programs: Discuss the effectiveness of bullying prevention programs in schools and communities for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Epilepsy: Investigate the relationship between autism and epilepsy, including prevalence rates and shared risk factors.
• Autism and Access to Healthcare: Explore the barriers and challenges individuals with autism face in accessing healthcare services and the importance of healthcare providers being autism-informed.
• Autism and Post-Secondary Education: Discuss the resources and support services available for individuals with autism pursuing post-secondary education.
• Autism and Sleep Training Programs: Investigate evidence-based sleep training programs specifically designed for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Mental Health Disparities: Explore the disparities in mental health services and outcomes for individuals with autism from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds.
• Autism and Transition to Work: Discuss the importance of supported employment programs and job coaching for individuals with autism transitioning into the workforce.
• Autism and Social Skills Groups: Explore the benefits of social skills groups in promoting social competence and peer relationships for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Physical Therapy: Discuss the role of physical therapy in addressing motor coordination difficulties and promoting physical well-being for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Mindfulness Interventions: Investigate the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in reducing anxiety and improving emotional regulation in individuals with autism.
• Autism and Sleep Hygiene Interventions: Explore evidence-based interventions to improve sleep hygiene and establish healthy sleep routines for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Mental Health Policy: Discuss the impact of mental health policies on the availability and quality of services for individuals with autism.
• Autism and Transition to Retirement: Investigate the unique challenges faced by individuals with autism

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Jackie Schuld Art Therapy Blog

• Feb 17, 2023

The Great List of Autistic Essays

I’m a late-identified autistic who loves writing about autism. How much do I love it? I’ve written over 150 essays on it in the past six months alone.

How do I think of so many autistic topics to write about? I’m an art therapist who specializes in late-identified autistic adults. That means I not only have my personal experience to draw from, but also the hundreds of hours spent listening to my clients.

I share most of my essays here on Medium, which means it has now become quite the library. In an effort to make my essays more accessible to those wanting clear, relatable information about late-identified autism in adults, I’ve sorted my essays into topics below. While I wish I could provide a link to each of them for you… I’ve got to prioritize my time and energy. So if a specific essay interests you, just pop it into the search and it’ll come up

Autism in a Neurotypical World

What Would a World Designed by Autistic People Be Like

The Harm in "They're a Little Autistic"

Autism Does Not Directly Cause Socializing Problems

Please Trust My Lived Autistic Experience

Can Someone Please Create a Neurodivergent Intentional Living Community

What if I Accept that Most Neurotypicals Won't Like Me

How Neuro-Bias Shows Up in Professional Testing

Your Autistic Experience Sounds Just LIke my Neurotypical One

Neurotypical Words that Don't Work for Autistics: Overachiever

But Neurotypicals Experience That, Too!

Neurotypical Norms That Don’t Work for Autistics: Hustle Goals

The Fear of Being a Hypocritical Autistic

Neurodiversity: Us vs Them?

How to Meet an Autistic Adult Exactly Where They're At

Autism Characteristics

The Autistic Mind Loves to Take Detours

4 Reasons Why Autism Symptoms Lists are Confusing

My Autistic Brain: Sunshine and Detours

The Joys of Being Autistic: Part 1

Stop Saying Autistic People Can't Empathize

Redefining Fun for Autistic Adults

9 Reasons Why Autism Looks So Similar to CPTSD

We Need More Depictions of the Interior Experience of Autism

Clarity is What my Autistic Mind Craves

How Trauma and Autism Can be a Confusing Mix to Decipher

Why am I like This? Understanding the Autistic Brain

My Autistic Mind Does What it Wants

The Dissociated Autistic Performance State

The Joys of Being Autistic: Increased Creativity and Innovation

My Autistic Memory Is Not the Same as Others

The Firehouse Dilemma: Autism and Infodumping

The Variability of the Autistic Sensory System

5 Reasons Autistics are Especially Hard on Themselves

The Shame That Often Accompanies Autism

Knowing You’re Different as an Autistic Adult

3 Reasons Autism is Worse After You Learn You're Autistic

Disability and Internalized Ableism

I Had to Dismantle My Fear of Autistic People

Is Autism a Disability?

I’m Ok With Saying I have a Disability, Right?

Dog Training

The Difficulties of Adjusting to a New Dog When You're Autistic

Tips for Adjusting to a New Dog When You're Autistic

5 Tips to Integrate a Dog into Your Autistic Life

Defining and Explaining Autism

What I Wish Others Knew About Autism

Let’s Drop the “Disorder” From Autism Spectrum Disorder

How Low and High Autism Labels are Misleading

We Need All the Autism Theories and Models

Autism Can Be a Murky Thing To Understand

How I Explain Autism to Someone Unfamiliar With It

What is Late Identified Autism

Autistic Statistics are Not Accurate for Late-Identified Autistics

I'm Here for the Autistic Awakening

How It Helps to Know You’re Autistic

Why It Matters to Know You're Neurodivergent

What is Neurodiversity and Why Does it Matter

How Neurodivergent Acceptance Can Improve Our Lived Experiences

How Unidentified Autistics are Taught to Socially Camouflage and Mask

Is There a World Where I can Be Unmasked?

The False Dichotomy of Masked and Unmasked Autism

6 Reasons Why UnMasking Is Harder Than it Sounds

What if You have to Mask Everywhere?

My Personal Experience as an Autistic

Hating Cooking as an Autistic Adult

I Make Giant Lists About Autism for Fun

The Challenges of Writing Publically About Autism

The Risk of Sharing my Autistic Passions with Others

I'm Reclaiming Weird for My Autistic Self

I Expand and Then I Contract

I Stopped Seeing Myself As Broken When I learned I was Autistic

Respecting my Limits as an Autistic Business Owner

I Need to Lessen the Pressure on my Autistic Self

My Autistic Brain Doesn’t Want to Watch TV Right Now

Embracing Who I am as an Autistic Adult

I Used to be a Very Judgemental When I Didn’t Know I was Autistic

A Letter from An Autistic Adult to Trust

Don’t Get So Upset: A Line that Doesn’t Work for This Autist

Why This Autistic Writer Didn't Respond to Your Comment

Relationships

Is Dating Worth it as an Autistic Adult?

Is it Possible to be Happily Partnered as an Autistic Adult?

Not Liking People as an Autistic Adult

Self-Identification

So You Think You Might Be Autistic

Dearly Newly Identified Autistic Person

Am I Actually Autistic?

Dearest Smart, Weird, and Caring Autistic

I Am Deeply Unsure About Autism

How to Self Identify Autism as an Adult

When the Past Makes Sense after a Late-Identification of Autism

Where to Start When You First Learn You’re Autistic

6 Strategies to Harness the Hyperfocus Power of an Autistic Mind

Leave the Gremlin In the Cave: Self-Isolation as a Necessary Autistic Tool

No Plans Days as an Autistic Tool

Making Accommodations for Myself as an Autistic Adult

How Many Accommodations Can We Ask for as Autistic Adults?

Using Art to Help Your Autistic Mind

Dissociation as an Autistic Tool

The Power of the Home Environment for Autistics

Is It Ok to Honor My Autistic Needs?

Recognizing When It's Not Time to Make Decisions as an Autistic

Therapy for Autistics

Dearest Autistic Client of Mine

8 Ways Therapy Can Help With Late Identified Autism

Gaslighting the Autistic Experience

Dearest Therapist Who Knows Barely Anything About Autism

I'm an Autistic Therapist: Sometimes It's Easier Than Everyday Life

Does Your Therapist Know Enough About Autism to Help You?

Questions to Ask a Potential Therapist When You're Autistic

How I Work with Newly Identified Autistic People

What to Ask When You're Seeking Therapy for Late-Identified Autism

12 Ways Therapy Can Enhance Life for Late Identified Autistic Adults

Therapy is Not for Fixing Autism

The Harm I Caused When I Didn't Know about Autism

A Newly Identified Autistic Therapist Working with Newly Identified Autistics

Common Therapy Advice That is Counterproductive for Autistics

A Therapist Told Me Treating Autism is Like Treating Depression

Who Can Diagnose Autism in Adults?

Autistic Adults Deserve Better from the Mental Health Field

Undiagnosed Autism

The Correlation Between Intelligence and Undiagnosed Autism

10 Consequences of a Life with Unidentified Autism

The Gap Between “Diagnosable Autism” and a Lifetime of Unidentified Autism

Autism Diagnosis Criteria are Limiting for Men Too

No Autistic Should Receive a Diagnosis Letter Like Mine

Identifying Autism in Undiagnosed Women Abstract

How I Identify Autism in Undiagnosed Women

Autistic Stereotypes Block People From Knowing They're Autistic

Thank you for reading. If you’d like to read more, sign up for my FUNletter . If you would like to explore your autistic identity with an autistic therapist, you can learn more about my therapy services here .

Recent Posts

My Autistic Sensory System is a Demanding, Bougie Princess

My Autistic Silence Does Not Mean Agreement

This Autistic is Quitting the News

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• Transl Pediatr
• v.9(Suppl 1); 2020 Feb

Autism spectrum disorder: definition, epidemiology, causes, and clinical evaluation

Holly hodges.

1 Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine and Meyer Center for Developmental Pediatrics, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, USA;

Casey Fealko

2 Western Michigan University Homer Stryker MD School of Medicine, Kalamazoo, MI, USA;

Neelkamal Soares

3 Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Western Michigan University Homer Stryker MD School of Medicine, Kalamazoo, MI, USA

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors. There have been recent concerns about increased prevalence, and this article seeks to elaborate on factors that may influence prevalence rates, including recent changes to the diagnostic criteria. The authors review evidence that ASD is a neurobiological disorder influenced by both genetic and environmental factors affecting the developing brain, and enumerate factors that correlate with ASD risk. Finally, the article describes how clinical evaluation begins with developmental screening, followed by referral for a definitive diagnosis, and provides guidance on screening for comorbid conditions.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors ( 1 ). In 2013, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders —5 th edition (DSM-5) was published, updating the diagnostic criteria for ASD from the previous 4 th edition (DSM-IV) ( Table 1 ) ( 1 , 2 ).

ASD, autism spectrum disorder; SPCD, social (pragmatic) communication disorder.

In DSM-5, the concept of a “spectrum” ASD diagnosis was created, combining the DSM-IV’s separate pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) diagnoses: autistic disorder, Asperger’s disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), into one. Rett syndrome is no longer included under ASD in DSM-5 as it is considered a discrete neurological disorder. A separate social (pragmatic) communication disorder (SPCD) was established for those with disabilities in social communication, but lacking repetitive, restricted behaviors. Additionally, severity level descriptors were added to help categorize the level of support needed by an individual with ASD.

This new definition is intended to be more accurate and works toward diagnosing ASD at an earlier age ( 3 ). However, studies estimating the potential impact of moving from the DSM-IV to the DSM-5 have predicted a decrease in ASD prevalence ( 4 , 5 ) and there has been concern that children with a previous PDD-NOS diagnosis would not meet criteria for ASD diagnosis ( 5 - 7 ). There are varying reports estimating the extent of and effects of this change. One study found that with parental report of ASD symptoms alone, the DSM-5 criteria identified 91% of children with clinical DSM-IV PDD diagnoses ( 8 ). However, a systematic review suggests only 50% to 75% of individuals maintain diagnoses ( 9 ) and other studies have also suggested a decreased rate of diagnosis of individuals with ASD under the DSM-5 criteria ( 10 ). Often those who did not meet the requirements were previously classified as high functioning Asperger’s syndrome and PDD-NOS ( 11 , 12 ). Overall, most studies suggest that the DSM-5 provides increased specificity and decreased sensitivity compared to the DSM-IV ( 5 , 13 ); so while those diagnosed with ASD are more likely to have the condition, there is a higher number of children whose ASD diagnosis is missed, particularly older children, adolescents, adults, or those with a former diagnosis of Asperger’s disorder or PDD-NOS ( 14 ). Nevertheless, the number of people who would be diagnosed under the DSM-IV, but not under the new DSM-5 appears to be declining over time, likely due to increased awareness and better documentation of behaviors ( 4 ).

It has yet to be determined how the new diagnosis of SPCD will impact the prevalence of ASD. One study found the new SPCD diagnosis encompasses those individuals who possess subthreshold autistic traits and do not qualify for a diagnosis of ASD, but who still have substantial needs ( 15 ). Furthermore, children who previously met criteria for PDD-NOS under the DSM-IV might now be diagnosed with SPCD.

Epidemiology

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates the international prevalence of ASD at 0.76%; however, this only accounts for approximately 16% of the global child population ( 16 ). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates about 1.68% of United States (US) children aged 8 years (or 1 in 59 children) are diagnosed with ASD ( 6 , 17 ). In the US, parent-reported ASD diagnoses in 2016 averaged slightly higher at 2.5% ( 18 ). The prevalence of ASD in the US more than doubled between 2000–2002 and 2010–2012 according to Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network (ADDM) estimates ( 6 ). Although it may be too early to comment on trends, in the US, the prevalence of ASD has appeared to stabilize with no statistically significant increase from 2014 to 2016 ( 19 ). Changing diagnostic criteria may impact prevalence and the full impact of the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria has yet to be seen ( 17 ).

Insurance mandates requiring commercial plans to cover services for ASD along with improved awareness have likely contributed to the increase in ASD prevalence estimates as well as the increased diagnosis of milder cases of ASD in the US ( 6 , 20 , 21 ). While there was only a modest increase in prevalence immediately after the mandates, there have been additional increases later as health care professionals better understood the regulatory and reimbursement process. The increase in prevalence may also be due to changes in reporting practices. One study in Denmark found the majority of increase in ASD prevalence from 1980–1991 was based on changes of diagnostic criteria and inclusion of outpatient data, rather than a true increase in ASD prevalence ( 21 ).

ASD occurs in all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups, but its diagnosis is far from uniform across these groups. Caucasian children are consistently identified with ASD more often than black or Hispanic children ( 6 ). While the differences appear to be decreasing, the continued discrepancy may be due to stigma, lack of access to healthcare services, and a patient’s primary language being one other than English.

ASD is more common in males ( 22 , 23 ) but in a recent meta-analysis ( 24 ), true male-to-female ratio is closer to 3:1 than the previously reported 4:1, though this study was not done using the DSM-5 criteria. This study also suggested that girls who meet criteria for ASD are at higher risk of not receiving a clinical diagnosis. The female autism phenotype may play a role in girls being misdiagnosed, diagnosed later, or overlooked. Not only are females less likely to present with overt symptoms, they are more likely to mask their social deficits through a process called “camouflaging”, further hindering a timely diagnosis ( 25 ). Likewise, gender biases and stereotypes of ASD as a male disorder could also hamper diagnoses in girls ( 26 ).

Several genetic diagnoses have an increased rate of co-occurring ASD compared to the average population, including fragile X, tuberous sclerosis, Down syndrome, Rett syndrome, among others; however, these known genetic disorders account for a very small amount of overall ASD cases ( 27 - 30 ). Studies of children with sex chromosome aneuploidy describe a specific social functioning profile in males that suggests more vulnerability to autism ( 22 , 23 , 31 , 32 ). With the increased use of chromosomal microarray, several sites (chromosome X, 2, 3, 7, 15, 16, 17, and 22 in particular) have proven to be associated with increased ASD risk ( 28 ).

Other risk factors for ASD include increased parental age and prematurity ( 33 - 35 ). This could be due to the theory that older gametes have a higher probability of carrying mutations which could result in additional obstetrical complications, including prematurity ( 36 ).

ASD is a neurobiological disorder influenced by both genetic and environmental factors affecting the developing brain. Ongoing research continues to deepen our understanding of potential etiologic mechanisms in ASD, but currently no single unifying cause has been elucidated.

Neuropathologic studies are limited, but have revealed differences in cerebellar architecture and connectivity, limbic system abnormalities, and frontal and temporal lobe cortical alterations, along with other subtle malformations ( 28 , 37 , 38 ). A small explorative study of neocortical architecture from young children revealed focal disruption of cortical laminar architecture in the majority of subjects, suggesting problems with cortical layer formation and neuronal differentiation ( 39 ). Brain overgrowth both in terms of cortical size and additionally in terms of increased extra-axial fluid have been described in children with ASD and are areas of ongoing study both in terms of furthering our understanding of its etiology, but also as a potential biomarker ( 40 , 41 ).

Genetic factors play a role in ASD susceptibility, with siblings of patients with ASD carrying an increased risk of diagnosis when compared to population norms, and a much higher, although not absolute, concordance of autism diagnosis in monozygotic twins ( 42 - 44 ).

Genome wide association studies and whole exome sequencing methods have broadened our understanding of ASD susceptibility genes, and learning more regarding the function of these genes can shed light on potential biologic mechanisms ( 45 ). For example candidate genes in ASD include those that play a role in brain development or neurotransmitter function, or genes that affect neuronal excitability ( 46 , 47 ). Many of the genetic defects associated with ASD encode proteins that are relevant at the neuronal synapse or that are involved in activity-dependent changes in neurons, including regulatory proteins such as transcription factors ( 42 , 48 ). Potential “networks” of ASD genetic risk convergence include pathways involved in neurotransmission and neuroinflammation ( 49 ). Transcriptional and splicing dysregulation or alterations in epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation or histone acetylation and modification may play a role ( 42 , 49 - 51 ). A recent study describes 16 newly identified genes associated with ASD that raise new potential mechanisms including cellular cytoskeletal structure and ion transport ( 52 ). Ultimately, ASD remains one of the most genetically heterogeneous neuropsychiatric disorders with rarer de novo and inherited variants in over 700 genes ( 53 ).

While genetics clearly play a role in ASD’s etiology, phenotypic expression of genetic susceptibility remains extremely variable within ASD ( 54 ). Genetic risk may be modulated by prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal environmental factors in some patients ( 35 ). Prenatal exposure to thalidomide and valproic acid have been reported to increase risk, while studies suggest that prenatal supplements of folic acid in patients exposed to antiepileptic drugs may reduce risk ( 55 - 57 ). Research has not confirmed if a small positive trial of folinic acid in autism can be used to recommend supplementation more broadly ( 58 ). Advanced maternal and paternal age have both been shown to have an increased risk of having a child with ASD ( 59 ). Maternal history of autoimmune disease, such as diabetes, thyroid disease, or psoriasis has been postulated, but study results remain mixed ( 60 , 61 ). Maternal infection or immune activation during pregnancy is another area of interest and may be a potential risk factor according to recent investigations ( 62 - 65 ). Both shorter and longer inter-pregnancy intervals have also been reported to increase ASD risk ( 66 ). Infants born prematurely have been demonstrated to carry a higher risk for ASD in addition to other neurodevelopmental disorders ( 34 ). In a prior epidemiologic review, obstetric factors including uterine bleeding, caesarian delivery, low birthweight, preterm delivery, and low Apgar scores were reported to be the few factors more consistently associated with autism ( 67 ). A recent meta-analysis reported several pre, peri and postnatal risk factors that resulted in an elevated relative risk of ASD in offspring ( 35 ), but also revealed significant heterogeneity, resulting in an inability to make true determination regarding the importance of these factors.

Despite the hysteria surrounding the now retracted Lancet article first published in 1998, there is no evidence that vaccines, thimerosal, or mercury is associated with ASD ( 68 - 70 ). In the largest single study to date, there was not an increased risk after measles/mumps/rubella (MMR) vaccination in a nationwide cohort study of Danish children ( 70 ).

Ultimately, research continues to reveal factors that correlate with ASD risk, but no causal determinations have been made. This leaves much room for discovery with investigators continuing to elucidate new variants conveying genetic risk, or new environmental correlates that require further study ( 52 ).

Evaluation in ASD begins with screening of the general pediatric population to identify children at-risk or demonstrating signs suggestive of ASD, following which a diagnostic evaluation is recommended. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines recommend developmental surveillance at 9, 15 and 30 months well child visits and autism specific screening at 18 months and again at 24 or 30 months ( 28 , 71 ). Early red flags for ASD include poor eye contact, poor response to name, lack of showing and sharing, no gesturing by 12 months, and loss of language or social skills. Screening tools for ASD in this population include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised, with Follow-up (M-CHAT-R/F) and Survey of Wellbeing of Young Children (SWYC) ( 72 , 73 ). Red flags in preschoolers may include limited pretend play, odd or intensely focused interests, and rigidity. School age children may demonstrate concrete or literal thinking, have trouble understanding emotions, and may even show an interest in peers but lack conversational skills or appropriate social approach. If there is suspicion of ASD in these groups, screening tools available include the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ), Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), and Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ) ( 74 - 76 ).

If concerns are raised at screening, primary care clinicians are recommended to refer the child to early intervention if less than 3 years of age or to the public school system for psychoeducational evaluation in order to establish an individual education program (IEP) if the child is three years of age or older. Clinicians should additionally refer the child to a specialist (pediatric neurologist, developmental-behavioral pediatrician, child psychiatrist, licensed child psychologist) for a definitive diagnosis and comprehensive assessment ( 71 ). A comprehensive assessment should include a complete physical exam, including assessment for dysmorphic features, a full neurologic examination with head circumference, and a Wood’s lamp examination of the skin. A parent interview, collection of any outside informant observations, and a direct clinician observation of the child’s current cognitive, language, and adaptive functioning by a clinician experienced with ASD should be components of this comprehensive assessment. ( 28 , 71 , 77 , 78 ).

Additionally, primary care clinicians need to be aware of (and evaluate for) potential co-occurring conditions in children with ASD. According to a surveillance study of over 2,000 children with ASD, 83% had an additional developmental diagnosis, 10% had at least one psychiatric diagnosis, and 16% at least one neurologic diagnosis ( 79 ). In the past, rates of co-morbid intellectual disability (ID) in patients with ASD were reported from 50% to 70%, with the most recent CDC estimate reported at 31.0% (26.7% to 39.4%) with ID defined as intelligence quotient (IQ) ≤70 ( 6 , 80 ). Other common co-occurring medical conditions include gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, including dietary restrictions and food selectivity, sleep disorders, obesity, and seizures ( 81 - 84 ). Studies using electronic health record (EHR) analysis revealed prevalence of epilepsy ~20% and GI disorders [without inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)] at 10–12% ( 82 ). Epilepsy has been shown to have higher prevalence rates in ASD with comorbid ID and medical disorders of increased risk such as tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) ( 85 - 87 ). GI disorders or GI symptomatology, including diarrhea, constipation, restrictive eating, or reflux, have been shown to be prominent in ASD across multiple studies ( 81 , 82 , 88 , 89 ). Sleep problems have been reported to occur in anywhere from 50% to 73% of patients with ASD with variation in prevalence dependent on the definition of sleep symptoms or the measurement tool used ( 90 - 92 ). Rates of overweight and obesity in ASD are reported to be roughly 33% and 18% respectively, higher than rates in typically developing children ( 81 - 84 , 93 ).

Other behavioral or psychiatric co-occurring conditions in ASD include anxiety, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive compulsive disorder, and mood disorders or other disruptive behavior disorders ( 81 ). Rates of co-occurring ADHD are reported anywhere from 25% to 81% ( 81 , 94 ). A recent meta-analysis of 30 studies measuring rates of anxiety and 29 studies measuring rates of depression reported a high degree of heterogeneity from the current literature, but stated pooled lifetime prevalence for adults with ASD to be 42% for any anxiety disorder and 37% for any depressive disorder, though the use of self-report measures and the presence of ID could influence estimates ( 95 ). In children with ASD seeking treatment, the rate of any anxiety disorder was found to be similar at 42% and in addition this study reported co-morbid oppositional defiant disorder at a rate of 46% and mood disorders at 8%, with 66% of the sample of over 600 patients having more than one co-occurring condition ( 94 ).

Currently no clear ASD biomarkers or diagnostic measures exist, and the diagnosis is made based on fulfillment of descriptive criteria. In light of a relatively high yield in patients with ASD, clinical genetic testing is recommended and can provide information regarding medical interventions or work up that might be necessary and help with family planning ( 96 ). The American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMGG) guidelines currently recommend chromosomal microarray for all children, fragile X testing in males, and additional gene sequencing, including PTEN and MECP2 , in certain patients as first tier genetic testing in the work up of ASD ( 97 ). High resolution G-banded karyotype, once recommended for all patients with ASD, is no longer routinely indicated based on recent consensus recommendations, but might still be performed in patients with a family or reproductive history suggestive of chromosomal rearrangements or specific syndromes such as sex chromosome anomalies or Trisomy 21 ( 96 - 98 ). Several professional societies recommend genetic testing for ASD, including the American Academy of Neurology, the AAP, ACMGG, and the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and a child may require further referral to a geneticist and/or genetic counselor, depending on results of testing ( 25 , 28 , 97 , 99 ). As the field of genetics continues to advance rapidly, recent publications suggest whole exome sequencing may become the preferred method for clinical genetic testing in individuals with ASD ( 100 , 101 ).

Aside from genetic testing, no other laboratory work up is routinely recommended for every patient with a diagnosis of ASD. However, further evaluation may be appropriate for patients with particular findings or risk factors. Metabolic work-up should be considered in patients with any of the following concerning symptoms or signs: a history of clear developmental regression including loss or plateau of motor skills; hypotonia; recurrent episodes of vomiting, lethargy or hypoglycemia; microcephaly or poor growth; concern for other organ involvement; coarse features; or concern for seizures or ataxia. Based on the patient’s history and presentation, components of a metabolic laboratory evaluation could include complete blood count (CBC), liver and renal function tests, lactate, pyruvate, carnitine, amino acids, an acylcarnitine profile, urine organic acids and/or urine glycosaminoglycans ( 97 , 102 ). Children with a history of pica should have a lead level measured ( 28 , 103 ). In a child with significantly restricted food intake, one should consider a laboratory evaluation of nutritional status. Sleep symptoms may warrant a referral for a possible sleep study, and if restless sleep symptoms are present, an evaluation for iron deficiency is not unreasonable, particularly if dietary rigidity limits iron intake ( 104 ).

Neuroimaging is not routinely recommended for every patient with ASD ( 28 , 99 ), but may be appropriate in patients with a suspicion for TSC or other neurocutaneous disorders, microcephaly, or an abnormal neurologic exam (spasticity, severe hypotonia, unilateral findings). Patients with suspected seizures should have an electroencephalography (EEG) obtained ( 102 ). If accessible, it might be appropriate to immediately refer children with concern for further genetic, metabolic or neurologic conditions to a specialist who can then obtain and interpret the aforementioned testing. At this time there is inadequate evidence to recommend routine testing for celiac disease, immunologic or neurochemical markers, mitochondrial disorders, allergy testing, hair analysis, intestinal permeability studies, erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase studies, stool analysis, urinary peptides or vitamin and mineral deficiencies without a history of severe food selectivity.

ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors. Recent changes to the diagnostic criteria occurred with the transition to the new diagnostic manual (DSM-5) and will likely impact prevalence, which currently stands at 1 in 59 children in the US. ASD is a neurobiological disorder influenced by both genetic and environmental factors affecting the developing brain. Research continues to reveal factors that correlate with ASD risk and these findings may guide further etiologic investigation, but no final causal pathway has been elucidated. Clinical evaluation begins with developmental screening of the general pediatric population to identify at-risk children, followed by referral to a specialist for a definitive diagnosis and comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. Children with ASD should also be screened for common co-morbid diagnoses. While no clear biomarkers or diagnostic measures exist, clinical genetic testing is recommended as part of the initial medical evaluation. Further medical work up or subspecialist referrals may be pursued based on specific patient characteristics.

Acknowledgments

Funding: None.

Ethical Statement : The authors are accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Conflicts of Interest : The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

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Thesis Paper on Autism

Thesis about autism.

Autism is a disorder of neural development . It is characterized by impaired communication and social interaction, which begin before children reach the age of three. In people suffering from this disorder nerve cells and their synapses are altered , which is why information processing in the brain is affected. It is still not very well understood why this happens.

The main symptom that allows to distinguish autism from the other disorders is unusual social development . At first, children are less attracted by the social stimuli, they respond less to their name and don’t like to look at other people or smile at them. With time they continue to resist the eye contact and usually cannot use simple movements to express their desires, such as pointing finger at things. Besides, they exhibit less social understanding and have unusual ways of responding to emotions .

Autistic children practically always have insufficient natural speech to explain their needs. They also usually display various forms of restricted or repetitive behavior, such as stereotypy (body rocking, hand flapping, head rolling, etc.), sameness (resistance to any kind of change), self-injury (head banging, eye poking, hand biting, skin picking, etc.), compulsive behavior (arranging of objects in lines or stacks), restricted behavior (preoccupation with single TV program, game or toy), ritualistic behavior (unvarying pattern of daily activities).

In order to successfully treat the disorder , it is necessary to diagnose it as early as possible and create facilitating and caring environment for a child . It is necessary that…

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One-To-One Programs: Supporting Autistic Children Essay

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Introduction

Literature review, challenges teachers and children with autism face, potential benefits of one-to-one programs, potential disadvantages of one-to-one programs, suggestions and recommendations.

Autism is defined as a neuro-developmental disorder which mostly affects children by impairing their neural development making it difficult for them to interact with other children and adults socially (Newschaffer et al 2007).

The impairment in their neural developmental network causes the sufferer to engage in repetitive behaviour such as repeating the same words or actions because it affects the information processing part of the brain (Caronna et al 2008).

The causes of autism are mostly genetic although some disorders have been caused by birth defects, exposure to heavy metals or vaccinations which might affect children of three years and below. This disease is mostly common in children during their first two years and it continues to progress without any form of remission (Gerber and Offit 2009).

The prevalence of autism according to the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has been estimated to be about 1 to 2 people per every 1,000 people around the world. The number of children that suffer from autism has been estimated to be 9 per every 1,000 children world wide.

The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention has also estimated the ratio of male to females who have autistic disorders to average 4.3:1 (CDC 2010). In the UK, the prevalence rate of children with autism was estimated to be 4.5 per 10,000 children in 1966 while in 1979, the figure rose to 20 per 10,000 children when the criteria for autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) was introduced to determine the prevalence of the disorder in the country.

Before the 1990s, the prevalence rate of autism within the country was estimated to be 4 to 5 cases per 10,000 people. However, according to previous studies conducted by medical researchers and paediatricians, the prevalence rate of autism in 2006 was estimated to be 116 per 10,000 children in the UK.

The researchers noted that the prevalence rate of the disease had increased when compared to the statistics for the previous years. The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) released new data on the prevalence rate of autism and autistic spectrum disorders in 2007 which revealed that prevalence rates of the disorder averaged between 66 to 67 per 10,000 children (Zhang 2008).

Other studies conducted in the UK to determine the prevalence rate of the disorder revealed that 39 per 10,000 children had autism and 77 per 10,000 had autistic spectrum disorders. The total prevalence rate of the disorder in the UK based on the number of children who have been identified with the disease is 44 per 10,000.

Professor Gillian Baird who conducted the study in South London noted that the findings demonstrated children with autism and other autistic spectrum disorders constituted 1% of the child population in Britain (Lister 2006). For years the most suitable estimate for determining the prevalence rate of autism in children three years and below has always been four to five per 10,000 children in the United Kingdom as well as the rest of the world.

The recent studies have however demonstrated that the current diagnostic criteria used to determine the prevalence rate of the disease has been changed to reflect 1 in 500 children with autism and 1 in 166 children with autistic spectrum conditions. These estimates show that the disorder has grown steadily in the UK over the past decades as more and more young children develop autism spectrum conditions (Zhang 2008).

A consensus estimate conducted in 1978 revealed that the prevalence of autism was 4 in 10,000 while the current estimate has shown that autism affects approximately 1% of the population in UK (Cohen et al 2009).

The number of people that have been diagnosed with autism has increased rapidly over the years because of changes to the diagnostic procedures for detecting the disorder. This massive increase can be attributed to a variety of factors which have made it possible to detect and treat children with autism.

These factors include improved recognition and detection technology, changes in the methods used to study the disorder , increasing availability of diagnostic services in many hospitals and specialised care facilities, an increasing awareness by healthcare professionals and parents on ways of dealing with autistic children and the widening criteria that can be used to detect and diagnose the disease.

Such factors have made it easy to determine the various methods and interventions that can be used to deal with the increasing number of autistic children in the UK (Cohen et al 2009).

The purpose of conducting this essay will be to examine the educational intervention of one-to-one support programs during normal school times within a mainstream classroom and also to discuss the challenges faced by teachers and autistic children as well as the advantages and disadvantages of providing one-to-one support to autistic children.

One-to-one educational interventions in treating autism deal with how teachers or class instructors offer children suffering from autism intervention strategies that are meant to address their cognitive and behavioural problems within the classroom setting. One-to-one educational interventions attempt to increase the functional independence of autistic children within the classroom setting where they are able to learn on their own without any assistance from their teachers and peers.

This type of educational intervention is meant to promote self efficacy skills on the part of the autistic child where they are able to do learning tasks on their own. Teachers under the one-to-one support programs design learning programs that they will use to guide the learning of the autistic child.

The main focus of these programs is to reduce the associated deficits of the disease by increasing the independence of the child within the classroom environment and also improving their social interaction with peers (Caronna et al, 2008).

Various researchers such as Johnson and Myers (2007) have conceded that one-to-one programs are usually successfully when all the school resources are utilised to improve the performance of the child in their learning process.

Such resources include classroom peers where their participation in the one-to-one program occurs when they are prevailed upon by their class teachers to engage with the autistic child during class time sessions; the class teachers or instructors who play a major role in designing the learning programs and techniques that will be used to educate the autistic child and the school administration which provides the necessary learning aids, materials and equipment that will be needed to design the learning program (Johnson and Myers 2007).

Medical researchers and paediatricians have been able to note that teaching children in a highly structured one-to-one support setting is an effective technique of teaching children with autism communication skills, interpersonal skills, social interaction skills and behavioural skills. If autistic children are going to succeed in classroom environments, they need to learn how they will behave and learn within social groups.

One-to-one teaching techniques are able to foster the development of learning skills in autistic children and they have been deemed to be effective in teaching autistic children within a classroom set up of eight to ten children.

The one-to-one teaching of autistic children has also been seen as an essential teaching technique for children who have autism and other mental disorders because it offers personalised training and teaching that allows the child to learn at their own pace through the guidance of their course instructor (Cohen et al 2009).

One-to-one educational programs have been developed in educational systems to help children with autism in acquiring self care and social skills as well as behavioural skills that will enable them to associate well with their peers. These programs have also been designed to improve the functioning behaviours of autistic children and to also help them decrease the severity of symptoms related to their disorder.

Medical studies have showed that interventions that are undertaken on autistic children before the age of three are more than likely to help these children with their compulsive and restrictive behaviour. Interventions therefore need to be undertaken during the formative years of the child’s development to ensure that they are able to develop socially and intellectually (Arndt et al 2005).

The National Research Council has endorsed the use of one-to-one training in teaching autistic children with the main reason being that the needs of the child will be adequately addressed during the learning process. The council recognised that one-to-one interventions provided many autistic children with the opportunity to enter into mainstream educational programs that would be beneficial in their intellectual development.

These programs enable the child to progress from one level of education to another as the teacher equips the child with the necessary educational information for their class grade. The specialised attention that the child gets during these programs is also beneficial as it allows the child to progress at their own rate within the classroom setting (Cohen et al 2009).

Kurtz (2008) notes that one-to-one educational programs are suitable educational interventions for children suffering from autism as they allow them to develop social skills during class interactions with their teachers and peers.

This method of teaching and learning caters for the various stages of an autistic child’s development which include the developmental stage that encompasses intellectual and emotional growth, the individual based development of the child where their communication, social, thinking and learning skills begin to form and the relationship based development of the child where their social interaction skills begin to form.

One-to-one support programs cover all the stages of the autistic’s child’s growth thereby ensuring they are able to operate properly within social settings (Rapin and Tuchman 2008).

One-to-one support programs are also beneficial to autistic children as they allow them to gain receptive processing skills as well as social communication skills that will allow them to communicate and process information they acquire from their instructors.

The scheduled sessions that are developed for one-to-one programs are meant to move the autistic child from one level of the learning program to another thereby developing their intellectual, emotional, thinking, learning and social interaction skills (Kurtz 2008). One-to-one support programs also increase the ability of the child to have emotional connections with their parents, siblings and other people who are important to the child.

This method ensures that the child is able to participate in social relationships by equipping them with emotional and social information. Autistic children under one-to-one support programs are able to become more aware of their environments by being equipped with perceptive and relationship building skills.

This method ensures that children suffering from autistic disorders are able to have a better quality of life in the event their behaviour does not become disruptive or problematic (Siegel 2008).

Because the autistic child gets to learn on a one on one basis with their teachers or instructors, their verbal behaviour becomes improved especially during the reading and speaking assignments which allows them to communicate better with their peers and parents.

As outlined earlier in this discussion, autistic children suffer from an inability to effectively communicate with others as they mostly speak in a repetitive manner where their spoken words are disorderly. This method therefore enables them to verbally relay their emotions and feelings to people that are close to them thereby enhancing social understanding.

The one-to-one approach also improves the organizational and planning abilities of autistic children allowing them to adapt to changes in their daily routines which is important given that most autistic children have restricted daily routines that cannot be subjected to change (Gutstein 2007).

The major limitation or challenge of this type of approach in providing educational support to autistic children is that it proves difficult for the teacher to manage especially in a class of ten children or more. The teacher’s attention is usually divided between managing the learning objectives and outcomes of the autistic child and those of the rest of the class during learning sessions.

This might mean that whatever the teacher set out to cover with the autistic child might not be achievable especially if they are forced to pay attention to the learning needs of the rest of the class (Gutstein 2004). One-to-one learning approaches might also require the teacher to allocate a substantial amount of time from their teaching schedules so that they can be able to develop learning goals and objectives for the autistic child.

This presents a challenge for teachers especially in the event the school administrators and paediatricians concerned with the health of the child have been unable to resolve the work schedule for the affected teacher. The workload therefore becomes too much as they have to handle the needs of the autistic child as well as the needs of the other children within the class.

Heavy workloads therefore results in cases of neglect which means that the educational interventions for the child will not be met. Another limitation of one-to-one programs is that additional costs and resources will be needed to manage the teacher-student sessions that come with this type of support program.

School administrators will have to acquire teaching aids designed for autistic children as well as other materials that are needed for the instructors at an increased additional cost to ensure that the child is properly taught on reading, writing and speaking skills (Robledo and Kucharski 2005).

The availability of one-to-one support programs also presents a major challenge to many schools with autistic children especially in the public schools that are funded by the government. Such schools are unable to provide language services that are useful in the one-to-one support programs because of a shortage of language specialists who can be able to properly communicate with the autistic child.

Certain school districts in the UK and in the US have also been unable to provide the recommended intervention of one-to-one instruction for their autistic students because of the high expense incurred by this type of educational intervention (Howlin 2005).

While most autism experts and paediatricians agree that one-to-one support programs for autistic children are usually beneficial, they present a myriad of challenges to both the teachers and students who interact with the autistic child in the classroom everyday. One such challenge is that a substantial amount of time is needed for the one-to-one sessions every day of the week.

The teacher is meant to set aside about 20 to 40 hours every week to provide support for the autistic child during classroom sessions. The reason why a lot of time is needed for these programs is to ensure that the teacher is able to achieve a high level of success during the one-to-one sessions.

This might prove to be a heavy workload for the teacher who has other students to deal with in the classroom and therefore allocating such a huge amount of time to one student might seem to be a waste of their time (Turkington and Anan 2007).

One-to-one programs are also a challenge to class teachers in the event they have to undergo training to enable them to properly conduct the one-to-one learning sessions. This training might require more of their time and effort which becomes a challenge if they have a large workload to deal with in the classroom.

The teachers might at times be required to work hand in hand with autism experts and therapists to ensure that the behavioural and cognitive problems of the child have been properly addressed.

The challenge lies in trying to strike a meaningful relationship between the teacher and the experts where the teacher might feel that a certain educational strategy would be useful in helping the autistic child to learn while the experts might hold a different opinion of how the one-to-one sessions should be conducted by the teacher (Turkington and Anan 2007).

Teachers also face the challenge of overlooking the educational needs of the other children in the classroom especially if the teacher decides to concentrate on the learning efforts of the autistic child. Trying to achieve a balance between managing the learning needs of the autistic child and managing the needs of the other children in the class becomes a challenge.

Also within the classroom, teachers are faced with the challenge of protecting the autistic child from any victimization from the rest of the class. Children who do not properly understand the condition might make fun of the affected child during class sessions such as reading tasks which might further increase the child’s self esteem issues. It therefore falls on the teacher to keep the rest of the class in check when it comes to the learning needs of autistic children (Levy 2006).

The challenges that children with autism face within the school system are usually based on their behavioural problems and the severity of the disorder in the child’s cognitive capabilities. These factors impact significantly on the type of interactions that the child will have with their peers and teachers within the classroom setting.

Since autistic children suffer from emotional and behavioural problems, the kind of interaction that these children have with their teachers and peers might worsen especially for teachers who have less willingness to teach autistic children.

Various studies conducted by researchers such as Cook and Landrum, Pavri and Monda have shown that children with more advanced autistic tendencies might affect the attitudes of teachers when it comes to interacting with the child (Levy 2006).

Autistic children also face the challenge of being taught by uneducated teachers and classroom instructors who have not received any special training to cater for the educational needs of the autistic child.

Most public school systems lack the necessary funds and resources to train their teachers on how they can be able to meet the learning needs of autistic children which means that the children end up not understanding what is being taught in class.

Additionally, the lack of long-term structures in most school systems to address the needs of autistic children makes it difficult for most parents to find conducive environments for their autistic children (Levy 2006).

Children who are transitioning from intensive behavioural programs into the school based systems might find it difficult to adjust to the learning conditions where the characteristics of autistic children present a great inhibition to inclusion. The benefits of placing autistic children within normal school systems is that they can be able to learn from observing the actions of their peers in the classroom and also in the playground. Being included in peer related programs enables the autistic child to learn real-life skills within realistic contexts and settings.

The challenge however becomes determining whether the child will be socially responsive to such a setting and whether they will actively participate in classroom sessions or playtime activities. Since all autistic children are unresponsive to their environment, they might not be able to gain any valuable educational experiences from such contexts (Handleman et al 2004).

According to Siegel (2008), most parents and educators view one-to-one programs as the first step in teaching children with autism on how to communicate or engage in the socialization process before they are integrated into a classroom setting or social group. One-to-one programs offer autistic children with the opportunity to develop an awareness of their environment and surroundings by focusing on the particular needs of the autistic child.

There are an increasing number of schools that can be able to offer one-to-one teaching for autistic children where the teachers involve the use of various one-to-one teaching techniques that are meant to provide the child with basic social and communication skills.

Some of the most commonly used one-to-one treatment programs for autistic children include relationship development interaction (RDI), peer to peer tutoring, facilitated communication and the DIR/floor time model for educational intervention (Siegel 2008).

Peer-to peer tutoring as an approach of one-to-one support programs in the classroom has grown with significance because it improves the child’s social and communication skills among their peers. This method is also suitable as it develops the behaviour of the child to enable them interact with other children during playtime and study group discussions.

Peer tutoring enables the child to demonstrate their intellectual capability by leading other children in classroom activities such as singing, reading and drawing. All these one-to-one techniques are therefore important addressing the communication disabilities of autistic children as their needs are specifically addressed by tutors, peers and teachers (Gutstein 2007).

Peer to peer tutoring is defined as a one-to-one method of teaching autistic children which focuses on educating autistic children together with non-autistic children where they are able to learn faster by observing the behaviour of their peers during class sessions.

This teaching method is mostly common in inclusion schools and also special education classes where the non-autistic children within the class lead the autistic children through a number of tasks that have specific instructions.

The tutor or teacher who utilises this method in treating autistic children first identifies the behavioural issues that are presented by the autistic students in the class. The teacher then makes a list of these behaviours and categorises them to determine how they can be managed in the class (Kurtz 2008).

A peer tutoring program is then developed based on this list where children who are non autistic become the peer tutors of autistic children in the class for a day or two. The children with autism are also allowed to be tutors to their peers in the class which enables them to develop both interpersonal and leadership skills.

Another way to conduct peer-to-peer support within the classroom is when the autistic child is paired with a normal child. The purpose of doing this is to ensure that the autistic child is able to learn from the actions of the normal child during class assignments. The normal children are able to help their autistic peers with the class assignments, homework and other tasks that have been assigned by the teacher.

Peer tutoring is therefore an important one-to-one teaching method that helps to build the social and behavioural learning objectives of autistic children especially when they are given leadership roles within the classroom setting. Peer support proves beneficial in helping the autistic child to develop friendships with their peers within the classroom (Sailor et al 2009).

The relationship development interaction (RDI) is another approach used in one-to-one support programs for autistic children where dynamic sets are developed to measure intelligence in the autistic child so as to improve their quality of life. This educational intervention allows children to participate in genuine emotional relationships that they are exposed to in their current environment.

The main goal that underlies RDI is to systematically develop emotional relationships through the use of motivational tools which enable the child suffering from autism to successfully interact in various social relationships.

The main aspects that are focused on in the relationship development intervention method are the establishment of building blocks that will be used in fostering social connections that are a common feature in early childhood development (Gerber and Offit 2009).

Relationship interaction development is an important technique because it helps the child to have a stronger relationship with their peers and teachers which will eventually lead to cognitive remediation for the child. Cognitive remediation refers to the process of restoring the optimal neural connectivity of the autistic child through a series of self-discovery activities that will be important in their intellectual development process.

The relationship development method is therefore an important technique that can be used to restore the social interaction and connectivity of the child to their school environment since it focuses on specific activities in autistic children that will elicit interactive behaviours (Lam and Aman 2007).

Another one-to-one treatment program for autistic children is the floortime or DIR model which offers a comprehensive framework for understanding and treating children with autism. The acronym DIR stands for three components that make up the floor time model which include developmental, individual difference and relationship-based.

The floortime model of one-to-one treatment focuses on helping autistic children with their communication problems as well as their interpersonal skills rather than on treating them for a particular set of behaviours. The floortime or DIR model was developed by child psychiatrist, Stanley Greenspan, who was also a specialist in autism related disorders.

Greenspan developed a model that would be a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach that would help autistic children with social-emotional functions, psychomotor skills, thinking and learning skills (Kurtz 2008).

The DIR approach basically focuses on floor-time sessions that are meant to enhance the emotional and social interactions that the autistic child has with his/her peers within the school and classroom context so as to facilitate emotional and cognitive growth. The model also focuses on providing therapeutic remedies which can be used to remediate biologically based processing capacities that are necessary in intellectual growth (Myers and Johnson 2007).

The aspect of developmental in the floor time model involves focusing on the developmental aspects of children that are needed for them to grow and mature intellectually and emotionally. This component determines which developmental milestones are important for the autistic child in their childhood so that they can be able to mature intellectually (Kurtz 2008).

The Individual difference component refers to understanding the autistic child’s sensory processing differences which are unique from those of normal children. This particular component of the DIR involves determining how these unique differences will impact on the learning and behavioural patterns of the autistic child.

The relationship-based component of the floor time model focuses on helping the autistic child to develop social interactions and relationships with their primary caregivers and peers which will enable the child to foster social development tendencies. All these components are important in the floor time model as they enable the trained consultant or teacher to design programs that will meet the specific development, relationship and individual needs of the autistic child (Kurtz 2008).

Facilitated communication is another one-to-one method that can be used to teach autistic children within classrooms settings. Facilitated communication involves the teacher physically guiding the learning and communication activities of the autistic child. The tutor or facilitator basically places a hand over the autistic child’s hand or wrist and guides them during the learning process.

The tutor guides the child by holding their hand in identifying various objects, pictures and images to express their thoughts. The purpose of facilitated communication in one-to-one educational support is to enable the child build on their perception, communication and interaction skills.

The child is able to communicate with their hands to the facilitator or tutor allowing them to express their thoughts and opinions. This method also allows autistic children to demonstrate their intelligence levels during the facilitation sessions (Kurtz 2008).

The advantages of one-to-one support programs are that they enable children to adapt to mainstream classroom and playground settings where the child is taught on social interaction and communication skills.

These programs cater for the various stages of a child’s development which include the developmental stage that encompasses intellectual and emotional growth, the individual based development of the child where their communication, social, thinking and learning skills begin to form and the relationship based development of the child where their social interaction skills begin to form.

One-to-one support programs also allow the autistic child to learn at their own pace without necessarily being influenced by the learning progress of other children in the classroom (Gutstein 2004).

One-to-one support programs are beneficial to autistic children since they allow them to develop an awareness of their school environment where they observe the actions of their peers, educators and other important elements of the school system improving their cognitive and behavioural abilities.

One-to-one programs that are peer supported are mostly beneficial for autistic children as they learn from observing the learning actions of their peers. Peer tutors provide the much needed guidance for autistic children as they can be able to interact and relate on the same intellectual level. Autistic children who engage in peer-to-peer support groups can be able to accrue the potential benefits that come with taking turns during tutoring sessions or during playtimes (Siegel 2008).

One-to-one support programs ensure that autistic children receive the best educational training from teachers who are more than likely trained to teach children with this disorder. These support programs have structured moment-to-moment activities that ensure the child is able to cover the curriculum within the allocated time for the sessions.

One-to-one support programs provide a degree of consistency and routine for autistic children allowing them to take advantage of the learning opportunities offered to their peers and also to develop intellectually. This form of educational intervention is also beneficial for the autistic child as it allows the instructor to improve their speech and language difficulties.

In the event the programs are offered in consultation with an autism expert, the instructor might be able to develop language therapy sessions that will allow the child to improve on their speech and language difficulties (Goldstein 2002).

Relative interaction development techniques have proven to be beneficial one-to-one support programs for autistic children as their social and communication skills are improved where the teacher elicits some verbal emotions from the autistic child. RDI improves the ability of the child to relay their emotions and feelings to the people who are close to the child thereby improving social interactions.

Social and emotional skills allow autistic children to be more aware of their environments as their perceptive skills become increased with every relationship building exercise they are engaged in. One-to-one support programs ensure that the child’s learning process is supported throughout every step by the teacher or facilitator so that they can be able to achieve the learning outcomes set by their teacher (Dodd 2005).

According to various studies conducted on autism and the educational interventions that can be used for autistic children (Eikeseth et al 2002: Howard et al 2005: Sallows and Graupner 2005), one-to-one support programs have proven to be efficient in providing autistic children with early intensive behavioural treatment that is important in increasing the academic performance of these children as well as increasing their IQ levels and adaptive behaviour.

When combined with other educational interventions such as applied behavioural analysis, the support programs increase the adaptive behaviour of children that suffer from autism. The studies conducted on this method of treating autism have mostly focused on the treatment of unwanted behaviours such as communication impairment and repetitive behaviour (Lovaas 2003).

A major disadvantage of this method of treating autism is that it focuses on establishing relationships rather than on academic learning and thinking. While these relationships are important to the child, they do not teach the child on how they can be able to form interactions during the learning process.

One-to-one programs in class settings that have eight children or more might fail to be successful because the teacher’s attention will be divided amongst the rest of the class. Some of the approaches used in one-to-one training mostly focus on play times rather than on academic learning which makes this method weak in educational programs (Myers and Johnson 2007).

One-to-one support programs also prove to be disadvantageous when the attention of the teacher is focused on the autistic child rather than on the whole class. Time and attention is taken away from the rest of the class who might in the end feel neglected by the teacher especially if it is a class of ten to twenty students (Lieberman et al 2004).

One-to-one support programs that are administered within the mainstream context pose a challenge to the academic education of autistic children when the teachers who conduct the sessions lack the necessary training to guide the autistic child’s learning process. Teachers who are in mainstream classes within the public school systems lack the proper training and skills that can be used to accommodate the special needs of the autistic child within the general education classes.

Research work has revealed that teachers who are not aware of the learning needs required by autistic children are more than likely to resist having these children in their classrooms. The negative impact of this is that it can lead to a form of regression in autistic children which in the end affects their classroom productivity and educational outcomes (Suomi et al 2003).

Another limitation of one-to-one support programs is that they are generally expensive to operate especially for public schools that are required by the state government to provide special education classes without any additional funds.

The cost of one-to-one support programs according to a 2005 Special Education Expenditures Program (SEEP) report developed by the United States revealed that the cost for student’s in special education programs such as one-to-one educational interventions amounts to $10, 558 when compared to the cost charged for regular education amongst normal children which averaged $6,556 (Schiller et al 2007)

While one-to-one support programs present various challenges, studies conducted on this form of educational intervention have revealed that the benefits far outweigh the challenges. One-to-one support programs need to be improved on to ensure that there are no challenges presented to the student and teacher during the learning process and that the objectives of the program have been met by both the autistic child and instructor.

There should be access to these programs especially in the public school systems to ensure that autistic children from poor income families are able to access special educational services that will meet their learning needs. More awareness needs to be created on the importance of one-to-one support programs especially in the mainstream so that both the teachers and students are able to adapt to the autistic child’s educational needs.

This will also improve peer-to-peer tutoring where normal children will be willing to provide assistance to autistic children during class assignments and tasks. A major recommendation for the study is that more research needs to be conducted on one-to-one support programs in educating autistic children as very few authors used in the study have been able to provide substantive information that can be used to explain this type of educational intervention.

The discussion has focused on one-to-one support programs in the classroom setting by focusing on the challenges, benefits and limitations of this type of programs on the education of an autistic child. The essay has been able to provide an in-depth analysis of one-to-one support programs by examining the various approaches used in teaching autistic child within the classroom.

The study has been able to determine that one-to-one programs ensure that children are able to achieve the learning objectives set by the trained instructors so that they can achieve academic excellence. Overall one-to-one support programs have been termed to be effective especially in developing the communication, behavioural and interpersonal skills of the autistic child

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Empowering Through Service: Creating a Community of Support for Parents of Black Autistic Individuals

28 Pages Posted: 23 Aug 2024

Harlee Onovbiona

University of Arkansas

Lauren Quetsch

Background: To date, the autism literature has narrated the tumultuous experiences of Black caregivers of autistic individuals as they navigate receiving care for their child (e.g., racism, fear, isolation). Less clinical attention has been paid toward creating interventions and support for Black caregivers of autistic youth that leverage their cultural strengths. The present study explored if participation in a culturally-informed support group led to changes in caregiver empowerment and stress.Method: To address this gap, we piloted a 5-session virtual support group for caregivers raising Black autistic individuals (N=7) that incorporated story-telling, communalism, and collectivistic service-driven activities centered around better care for Black autistic individuals. A mixed-methods design was used to assess changes in parental stress, empowerment, healing of racial trauma, and satisfaction of the support group.Results: By the end of the support group, caregivers demonstrated significant reductions in parental stress, (t (5) = 4.716, p =.003) and gains in perceived empowerment (t (6) = -2.230, p =.034). Qualitative findings highlighted the areas of the support group that contributed to caregiver satisfaction (e.g., connection, solution-focused components). Time was noted as a prominent barrier.Conclusion: The study provided preliminary evidence that utilizing a culturally responsive approach to developing a support group could potentially contribute toward reducing caregiver stress, increasing empowerment, and promoting racial trauma resilience among caregivers raising Black autistic youth.

Keywords: support, culture, Black caregivers, autism

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Harlee Onovbiona (Contact Author)

University of arkansas ( email ).

Fayetteville, AR 72701 United States

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