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12 Good Books on Qualitative Research

By Med Kharbach, PhD | Published: June 20, 2023 | Updated: June 6, 2024

In today’s list, I am sharing with you some of the most impactful books that helped shape my understanding of qualitative research. These books are more than just academic texts; they are powerful tools that unlocked the secrets of data analysis, the art of crafting impactful narratives, and the science of asking the right questions.

Of all the wonderful resources listed, if I had to recommend just one indispensable guide, it would undoubtedly be John W. Creswell’s “ Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches “. This book offers an invaluable roadmap for any researcher, irrespective of their level of expertise, and forms the backbone of a successful research project. Creswell’s ingenious blend of methodologies is not just about theoretical knowledge; it instills the reader with a practical sense of how to design a robust and compelling research project.

For those of you interested in quantitative research, make sure to check out my other post entitled best books on quantitative research .

Books on Qualitative Research

Here are my picks for best books on qualitative research:

1. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, by John W. Creswell and J. David Creswell

This widely recognized book offers a comprehensive study of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed research methodologies. Its distinguishing feature is its juxtaposition of all three research designs, making it a valuable resource for both new and experienced researchers. The authors provide a meticulous guide that starts with a fundamental understanding of philosophical suppositions, essential aspects of the research process, literature review, theory application in research, and the significance of writing and ethics in academic inquiry.

The updated edition includes a detailed discussion on research proposal design and research study steps. It sheds light on the positioning of epistemological and ontological views in relation to the selected research question and methodology. It also delves into the transformative worldview and features expanded insights into case studies, participatory action research, visual methods, and action research in mixed methods.

Find it:  Amazon  |  Bookshop

2. The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research, by Norman K. Denzin, Yvonna S. Lincoln, Michael D. Giardina, Gaile S. Cannella (Editors)

The Sixth Edition of The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research is virtually a new volume, delivering an enriching dialogue on the discipline, practices, and conduct of qualitative inquiry. This edition pioneers fresh perspectives and techniques, with 27 out of 34 chapters focused on innovative topics or approaches not covered in the previous version.

The novel areas of study include intersectionality, critical disability research, postcolonial and decolonized knowledge, diffraction and intra-action, and social media methodologies. Other new chapters explore thematic analysis, collaborative inquiry from the borderlands, qualitative inquiry’s relationship with public health science, co-production and the politics of impact, qualitative research publishing, and academic survival.

3. Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation, by Sharan B. Merriam, Elizabeth J. Tisdell

The fourth edition of this bestselling guide provides an in-depth understanding of qualitative research, from conceptualization to presentation. Emphasizing the importance of theoretical frameworks in designing a study, the book offers practical guidance in an accessible, jargon-free style that caters to both new and seasoned researchers.

The latest edition includes expanded coverage of mixed methods, action research, arts-based research, and online data sources. It also presents the newest developments in data analysis, encompassing both software packages and narrative and poetic analysis techniques. In addition, it offers a new section on diverse ways of presenting qualitative research findings, making it an indispensable resource for effective communication of results.

4. Qualitative Research from Start to Finish , by Robert K. Yin

This insightful book offers a comprehensive understanding of the practice of qualitative research. It guides readers through all significant research phases, from startup and design to data collection, analysis, and composition, covering newly emerging trends in the field. The unique aspect of the book is its portrayal of qualitative research as an adaptive craft, offering readers an array of methodological choices to tailor their studies according to different worldviews and genres.

The new edition provides an enhanced discussion on different worldviews, including constructivism, postpositivism, and pragmatism, and how these relate to methodological choices. There is a clearer emphasis on executing a generalized qualitative study while acknowledging the existence of 12 specialized genres, such as action-based research, arts-based research, autoethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, and others. The book also features expanded discussions of diverse qualitative study samples and mixed methods.

5. Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach, by Joseph A. Maxwell

Joseph A. Maxwell’s third edition of Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach offers a user-friendly, step-by-step guide to planning qualitative research. The book’s main strength is its interactive approach, which highlights the interplay among the various components of research design.

The author provides a strategic framework for creating coherent and viable relationships among these components, emphasizing key design issues. The book’s language is informal and free of heavy jargon, making it accessible to a broad range of readers.

The book is sprinkled with real-world examples and hands-on exercises designed to reinforce the concepts discussed and to provide practical insights into the planning and execution of qualitative research. This comprehensive guide is an invaluable resource for both students and researchers embarking on their qualitative research journey.

Find it:  Amazon  |  Bookshop

6. Qualitative Research: Bridging the Conceptual, Theoretical, and Methodological, by Sharon M. Ravitch, Nicole Mittenfelner Carl

The second edition of Qualitative Research emphasizes the harmonization of theoretical, methodological, and conceptual dimensions, providing deeper insights into their interplay in qualitative research. This comprehensive resource equips students with the necessary knowledge and skills to conduct rigorous, valid, and respectful qualitative research.

The book serves as an effective learning tool for both newcomers and those already familiar with qualitative research, helping students develop a comprehensive understanding of a research approach that seeks, designs for, and engages in criticality.

The new edition has amplified and relocated the discussion on research ethics to a prominent position, reflecting its importance in students’ inquiry. It offers more insights on reflexivity in data collection and specific methods for qualitative data collection. There is a more detailed chapter on coding and other types of qualitative data analysis. Additionally, the resource sections have been expanded, including links to the comprehensive appendices to further aid students on their qualitative research journey.

7. Qualitative Research , by David Silverman (Editor)

This edition of Qualitative Research serves as a comprehensive guide, providing students with a holistic view of qualitative research. It not only explains the rationale behind such research but also provides practical advice on how to get started, select appropriate methods, conduct research, and perform data analysis. Each chapter, akin to a masterclass from a leading scholar in qualitative research, comes with practical tips, summaries, exercises, and further reading to assist in understanding and application.

The fourth edition has been streamlined to guide readers through the research process in a step-by-step manner. A significant new section with four chapters has been added, focusing on the collection and analysis of online data. A new chapter on reflexive ethnography is also included, offering insights into this nuanced qualitative research method.

8. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design , by John W. Creswell, Cheryl N. Poth

The revised Fourth Edition of this best-selling text is a comprehensive exploration of the philosophical foundations, historical development, and crucial elements of five qualitative inquiry approaches: narrative research, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study.

The Fourth Edition is enhanced with new content, articles, pedagogical features, and references. It provides a broader discussion on research ethics and serves as an excellent introduction to the theories, strategies, and practices of qualitative inquiry. This book is an ideal resource for those embarking on their qualitative research journey, offering nuanced understanding and practical strategies for choosing among these five significant approaches in qualitative research.

9. Qualitative Research Methods, by Sarah J. Tracy

This comprehensive guide brings together both theoretical underpinnings and practical applications of qualitative research in a way that is engaging and accessible. The book adopts a phronetic-iterative approach, leading readers through every phase of a qualitative research project, from design to data collection and analysis, through to theory development and effective communication of results.

The book provides in-depth coverage of a variety of topics, including qualitative theories, research ethics, sampling techniques, interviewing methods, and ensuring quality in qualitative research. Practical advice on fieldwork is also included, offering clear and concise guidance on how to design and conduct robust research projects.

Find it:  Amazon  |  Bookshop

10. Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods, by Michael Quinn Patton

Drawing from over 40 years of applied social science research and program evaluation experience, author Michael Quinn Patton presents the most systematic and comprehensive book on qualitative research and evaluation methods available. In this fourth edition, he offers a more balanced view of applied research and evaluation.

The book shines a light on all facets of qualitative inquiry, using new examples, stories, cartoons, and over a hundred new summarizing and synthesizing exhibits. For the first time, it includes full case studies that illustrate extended research and evaluation examples. Additionally, each chapter contains an in-depth “rumination” about a core issue of persistent debate and controversy, which is intended to be both emphatic and engaging.

12. Qualitative Data Collection Tools, by Felice D. Billups

This unique supplementary text guides students and new researchers to design, develop, and apply qualitative tools to gather qualitative data. This essential aspect of qualitative research, often overlooked in general textbooks, forms the backbone of the data collection process. Felice D. Billups uses her experience as a qualitative researcher and in teaching and advising students about qualitative research to develop the templates in this book as a starting point for those conducting original qualitative research.

The book briefly describes each method of data collection and offers readers suggestions for using and adapting the qualitative instrument templates within the text. The text is filled with templates for interview protocols, focus group moderator guides, content analysis tools, document analysis tools, reflective questionnaires, diary and journal logs, and observational rubrics.

Final thoughts

If you’re new to qualitative, consider this list your foundational toolkit. And for seasoned researchers, may these books provide fresh insights or perhaps remind you of important tenets you may have forgotten. The beauty of qualitative research is its ever-evolving nature, and these books offer lenses through which you can appreciate its many facets.

And don’t just stop at qualitative research. If your work leans into the quantitative side of things, make sure to circle back to my other post on the best books for quantitative research . It’s all about having a well-rounded toolset, right?

Related Posts

Meet Med Kharbach, PhD

Dr. Med Kharbach is an influential voice in the global educational landscape, with an extensive background in educational studies and a decade-long experience as a K-12 teacher. Holding a Ph.D. from Mount Saint Vincent University in Halifax, Canada, he brings a unique perspective to the educational world by integrating his profound academic knowledge with his hands-on teaching experience. Dr. Kharbach's academic pursuits encompass curriculum studies, discourse analysis, language learning/teaching, language and identity, emerging literacies, educational technology, and research methodologies. His work has been presented at numerous national and international conferences and published in various esteemed academic journals.

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The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research

• Norman K. Denzin - University of Illinois, Urbana - Champaign, USA
• Yvonna S. Lincoln - Texas A&M University, USA
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• New contributors offer 19 completely new chapter topics , including indigenous methodologies, methodologies in an age of new technologies, queer/quare theory, ethnodrama, data and its problematics, triangulation, collaborative inquiry, digital ethnography, the global audit culture, and much more.
• Substantial revisions from returning authors provide reinvigorated content resulting in very different chapters.
• Content on a wide range of key topics, diverse perspectives, and current controversies derived from members of an international and interdisciplinary editorial board ensure the timeliest revision.
• Six classic chapters cover topics from paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging confluences, to performance ethnography, writing as a method of inquiry, strategies for composition, and creating narratives and research reports.
• Contributions from well-known international scholars allow readers to study the differences in approach among European, Australian, and American practitioners and theoreticians, as well as to hear the voices of non-Western authors.
• Coverage of state-of-the-art t opics include critical social science, critical pedagogy, mixed methods, narrative inquiry, qualitative research and technology, online ethnography, oral history, human rights, disability communities, queer theory, and performance ethnography.
• Discussions on a wide range of methods expand the reader's repertoire of methodologies, enlarging the range of data that can be brought to bear on social and educational issues. 

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The Oxford handbook of qualitative research

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Home » Research Methods » Qualitative Methods "How-To" Guides » Titles Available as e-Books

Qualitative Methods "How-To" Guides Edited by Patricia Leavy

This series provides researchers and students with step-by-step, practical instruction on established and emerging qualitative methods. Authors are leaders in their respective areas of expertise who demystify the research process and share innovative practices and invaluable insider advice. The basics of each method are addressed, including philosophical underpinnings, and guidance is offered on designing studies; generating, analyzing, interpreting, and representing data; and evaluating the quality of research. With accessible writing, robust examples, and ample pedagogical features, books in this series are ideal for use in courses or by individual researchers.

10 Best Research Books For Qualitative And Quantitative Research

Research books are designed to help you improve your research skills and conduct studies more effectively. So, if you’re on the hunt for research materials, check out our collection of the best research books!

Research methodology comes in many shapes and forms. Regardless of whether you are interested in qualitative or quantitative research, it is essential to find a book that can help you plan your research project adequately.

Research design can vary from hard sciences to social sciences, but data analysis following a case study is usually similar. Therefore, you need a practical guide that can help you complete a research project and finish your research paper—interested in this field of topic? You’ll love our round-up of the best books for quantum physics !

1. Qualitative Research: A Guide To Design And Implementation, 4th Edition

2. research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, 4th edition, 3. the research methods knowledge base, 3rd edition, 4. the craft of research, 5. doing your research project: open up study skills, 5th edition, 6. qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches, 3rd edition, 7. the essential guide to doing your research project, 2nd edition, 8. introducing research methodology: a beginner’s guide to doing a research project, 2nd edition, 9. the sage handbook of qualitative research, 5th edition, 10. research methods in education, 7th edition, the final word on the best research books, what is the difference between quantitative research and qualitative research, how do i figure out which academic journal to publish my research in.

Unlimited access to more than 5,500 nonfiction bestsellers. Free trial available.

Popular Research Books to Read

When someone talks about qualitative research in academia, they refer to research that focuses on overall concepts and takeaways instead of complex numbers. For those conducting academic research, understanding the basics of this process is critical. Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation , by Sharan B. Merriam and Elizabeth J. Tisdell, 4th edition, is one of the best books available because it focuses on action research, mixed methods, online data sources, and some of the latest technology that people can use to complete their projects.

A significant portion of this book focuses on data analysis software packages, which have become critically important in an era where publishing in the best academic journals is critical for every successful researcher. Finally, this book explains topics so that nearly everyone can understand.

Suppose you are looking for a book that can teach you the best research methodology. In that case, you will want to check out Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches by John W. Creswell, 4th edition. John Creswell is one of the most well-respected writers in case study research.

As books on how to research go, this one on quantitative and qualitative research methods is a great tool that will help you learn the basics of forming a research project in every field. This book covers philosophical assumptions and research projects, theory and research approaches, and conducts an effective literature review. These elements are also crucial in helping you form a step-by-step guide for your upcoming research project, and this book will teach you the basics of data analysis.

The first two editions were already solid, but the third edition of The Research Methods Knowledge Base , by William M.K. Trochim and James P. Donnelly, features many updates to quantitative and qualitative research methods, teaching graduate students the basics of data collection before diving into the details for more advanced learners.

One of the significant advantages of this text is that it is a comprehensive tool that can be used for both undergraduate and graduate-level courses. It has a relatively informal style and conversational feel, which means readers will not be intimidated by walls of text. The research methods it teaches are straightforward, applicable, and relevant to anyone looking to complete a research project in the current era.

The Craft of Research , by Wayne C. Booth, Gregory C. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams, covers various research approaches that teach everyone the basics of forming a solid research project. In particular, this book focuses on what to do with the data after it has been collected.

People need to think about how their readers will interpret the structure of the paper, proactively anticipating questions they might have. By answering the reader’s questions in the initial version of the paper, it is easier to hold their attention from start to finish.

Of course, one of the most critical questions that must be asked when writing a research paper is, “so, what? Why does this information matter?” Researchers can keep this in mind while writing the introduction and conclusion of the paper so they will have an easier time constructing a powerful academic manuscript that is more likely to be accepted into the top academic journals.

Doing Your Research Project: Open Up Study Skills , by Judith Bell, is a must-read for new researchers looking to make their way in academic research. This book is helpful because it teaches people how to conduct a research project using step-by-step advice. A research project can be daunting for new learners because it’s easy to focus on the final project and feel intimidated before taking the first step.

This book is indispensable because it teaches people everything they need to know to develop a research project, draft a hypothesis, carry out the project, and finalize a research paper after conducting detailed data analysis. Furthermore, this text will dive into common mistakes, pitfalls, and obstacles researchers need to overcome. Time is your most valuable resource, and nobody wants to spend time on trials that will not be relevant to the final project.

Qualitative Inquiry And Research Design: Choose Among Five Approaches , 3rd Edition, Is The Latest In A Line Of Best-Selling Research Books From Creswell. This Book Ties Into People’s Philosophical Underpinnings When Developing A Research Project. It Also Looks At The History Of Various Research Projects, Which Serve As An Example For The Reader.

Overall, there are five traditions in qualitative research; grounded theory, phenomenology, narrative research, case study, and ethnography. Creswell uses an accessible writing style to help the reader understand when to use each of these narratives. Then, he dives into strategies for writing research papers using each of these approaches.

The Essential Guide To Doing Your Research Project by Zina O’Leary is geared more toward young learners. As books on how to research, it focuses on how to develop a research project, analyze data, and write up the results. Every stage of the book is clearly explained, with the author specifying why it is essential to carry out that step correctly.

It also focuses on practical tips and tricks that learners can use to successfully carry out their research projects. The book includes helpful chapter summaries, a complete glossary, and boxed definitions for essential terms that should not be overlooked. The author also has a variety of suggestions for further reading, which is helpful for more advanced learners who may want to pick up a text that is a bit more detailed. Finally, the book also comes with access to a companion website. The website includes journal articles, real projects, worksheets, and podcasts.

Introducing Research Methodology: A Beginner’s Guide to doing a research project, by Uwe Flick is ideal for new researchers. the author guides readers through the fundamentals that underpin a strong research project. He focuses on essential steps, common mistakes, and ways to expedite the research process.

Then, the author dives into some of the most critical skills readers need to have if they want to collect and analyze data properly. he goes into basic organizational tactics that make data easier to interpret, explains how to shorten the analytical process, and dives into real-life quantitative and qualitative research methods. He uses his research as an example, explaining to people how to pull out the essential parts of the research project before writing them up.

The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research by Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln focuses on global research. This text teaches readers how to synthesize existing literature, identify current research, and focus on caps that can be filled. the authors gather contributions from some of the most well-renowned researchers, addressing issues in research projects today. This text focuses more on research regarding social justice therefore, this is better for people in the social sciences.

Research Methods in Education , by Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manon, and Keith Morrison, is essential for students and professional researchers who want to learn how to create a comprehensive research project. It’s broken up into helpful chapters wrapped up by a convenient summary at the end, explaining to readers how to hit the high points.

Research Methods in Education also comes with a helpful companion website that contains PowerPoint slides for every chapter. This book can be read independently and discussed with a classroom full of students. The book has been written at a level that is accessible even to high school students, but the basics can be a helpful review for graduate researchers.

Academic research comes in many shapes and forms, with qualitative and quantitative research having high points; however, the basics are the same across all fields. Researchers need to learn how to develop a hypothesis, put together a research methodology, collect their data, interpret it, and write up their findings.

It can be helpful to use the books about research above to refine your research methods . Each book focuses on a slightly different facet of academic research, so readers need to find the right book to meet their needs. With a substantial text, readers can avoid common mistakes, follow in the footsteps of successful researchers, and increase their chances of writing a solid research paper for school or getting their paper accepted into an academic journal.

Books About Research FAQs

Quantitative research focuses more on numbers and statistics. This type of research is more common in hard sciences such as biology, chemistry, and physics.

Qualitative research focuses more on overall meanings and concepts. This type of research is more common in social sciences such as anthropology, archaeology, and research topics focusing on social justice.

It would help compare prior articles in that academic journal to the article you have written. Most academic journals focus on a specific field, and you need to submit your article to a publication that shares research articles similar to your own. Be sure to consider the prestige of the journal before submitting your paper.

If you enjoyed this round-up of the best research books, you might also like our top 11 essay writing tips for students .

Essentials of Descriptive-Interpretive Qualitative Research

Robert elliott and ladislav timulak.

This practical, step-by-step guide explains the most important principles for using a generic approach to descriptive-interpretive qualitative research. This book offers a no-nonsense, step-by-step approach to qualitative research in psychology and related fields, presenting principles for using a generic approach to descriptive-interpretive qualitative research. Based on more than 50 years of combined experience doing qualitative research on psychotherapy, the authors offer an overarching framework of best research practices common to a wide range of approaches.

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Essentials of Qualitative Methods Series

Essentials of narrative analysis, ruthellen josselson and phillip l. hammack.

In this book, Ruthellen Josselson and Phillip L. Hammack introduce readers to narrative analysis, a qualitative method that investigates how people make meaning of their lives and experiences in both social and cultural contexts. This method offers researchers a window into how individuals’ stories are shaped by the categories they inhabit, such as gender, race, class, and sexual identity, and it preserves the voice of the individual through a close textual analysis of their storytelling.

Essentials of Autoethnography

Christopher n. poulos.

In this step-by-step guide to writing autoethnography, Christopher Poulos provides a step-by-step guide to writing autoethnography, illustrating its essential features and practices with excerpts from his own and others’ work. 

Essentials of Critical-Constructivist Grounded Theory Research

Heidi m. levitt.

This practical, step-by-step guide explains how to use critical-constructivist grounded theory methods, a flexible approach to investigating topics within psychological, interpersonal, and sociocultural contexts. This flexible approach can aid researchers in investigating topics within psychological, interpersonal, and sociocultural contexts.

Essentials of Ideal-Type Analysis

Emily stapley, sally o'keeffe, and nicholas j. midgley.

This book explains how to conduct a qualitative research study using ideal-type analysis, an ideal method for studying individual cases in depth but also understanding patterns across multiple study participants. Essentials of Ideal-Type Analysis is the perfect guide for qualitative researchers who want to explore individual cases in depth, but also understand patterns across multiple study participants. Ideal-type analysis is a method for forming typologies from qualitative data.

Essentials of Discursive Psychology

Linda m. mcmullen.

In this step-by-step guide to conducting a research study, Linda McMullen describes the innovative ways in which discursive psychology analyzes language at both the micro and macro levels. Discursive psychologists reconceptualize talk and text as being situated in a social context, rather than thinking of talk as a route to our thoughts. For example, this approach could be used to study how people use arguments for and against the notion of human-induced climate change, or how they criticize each other in face-to-face encounters. Discursive psychologists reconceptualize talk and text as being situated in a social context, rather than thinking of talk as a route to our thoughts. For example, this approach could be used to study how people use arguments for and against the notion of human-induced climate change, or how they criticize each other in face-to-face encounters.

Essentials of Consensual Qualitative Research

Clara e. hill and sarah knox.

This concise, practical guide provides step-by-step advice and tips on how to plan and conduct a consensual qualitative research study. In this volume, Clara E. Hill and Sarah Knox describe consensual qualitative research (CQR), an inductive method characterized by open-ended interview questions, small samples, a reliance on words over numbers, the importance of context, an integration of multiple viewpoints (for example, the consensus of the research team and auditors), and a high emphasis on rigor and replicability.

Essentials of Existential Phenomenological Research

Scott d. churchill.

In this book, Scott D. Churchill introduces readers to existential phenomenological research, an approach that seeks an in-depth, embodied understanding of subjective human existence that reflects a person’s values, purposes, ideals, intentions, emotions, and relationships. This method helps researchers understand the lives and needs of others by helping identify and set aside theoretical and ideological prejudgments.

Essentials of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

Jonathan a. smith and isabella e. nizza.

Essentials of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis is a step-by-step guide to a research method that investigates how people make sense of their lived experience in the context of their personal and social worlds. It is especially well-suited to exploring experiences perceived as highly significant, such as major life and relationship changes, health challenges, and other emotion-laden events.

Essentials of Critical Participatory Action Research

Michelle fine and maría elena torre.

In this book, Michelle Fine and María Elena Torre provide an introduction to critical participatory action research, an approach that reveals the everyday stories of struggle and survival of the persons being studied, combats social injustice, and leverages social science research for action. Critical participatory action research challenges the traditional and narrow ways in which research has been conducted and elevates the voices and perspectives of formerly marginalized groups.

Essentials of Thematic Analysis

Gareth terry and nikki hayfield.

In this book, Gareth Terry and Nikki Hayfield introduce readers to reflexive thematic analysis, a method of analyzing interview and focus group transcripts, qualitative survey responses, and other qualitative data. Central to this method is the recognition that we are all situated in a particular context, and that we see and speak from that position. This leads researchers to produce knowledge that represents situated truths, providing insights into people’s perspectives on a given topic.

Essentials of Conversation Analysis

Alexa hepburn and jonathan potter.

In this book, Alexa Hepburn and Jonathan Potter provide an introduction to conversation analysis, a qualitative approach that examines the actions and interactions that take place in face-to-face conversations, phone calls, texts, and various forms of media. The book is designed as a practical analytic handbook that provides a comprehensive introduction to the different elements and phases in analyzing conversation. The authors guide the reader through data collection, transcription, analysis, and writing papers, providing an invaluable starting point for researchers who wish to explore conversation analysis and get a foothold in its literature.

Essentials of Qualitative Meta-Analysis

Ladislav timulak and mary creaner.

This book is a step-by-step guide to conducting qualitative meta-analysis (QMA). This flexible and generic method synthesizes the findings of several research studies investigating similar phenomena. Given the ever-increasing number of qualitative studies in the social sciences, QMA answers the need for rigorous secondary analysis that offers a more conclusive picture of a field of inquiry.

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• Introduction

Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. [1] Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervening or introducing treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypothenar to further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences, perceptions, and behavior. It answers the hows and whys instead of how many or how much. It could be structured as a standalone study, purely relying on qualitative data, or part of mixed-methods research that combines qualitative and quantitative data. This review introduces the readers to some basic concepts, definitions, terminology, and applications of qualitative research.

Qualitative research, at its core, asks open-ended questions whose answers are not easily put into numbers, such as "how" and "why." [2] Due to the open-ended nature of the research questions, qualitative research design is often not linear like quantitative design. [2] One of the strengths of qualitative research is its ability to explain processes and patterns of human behavior that can be difficult to quantify. [3] Phenomena such as experiences, attitudes, and behaviors can be complex to capture accurately and quantitatively. In contrast, a qualitative approach allows participants themselves to explain how, why, or what they were thinking, feeling, and experiencing at a particular time or during an event of interest. Quantifying qualitative data certainly is possible, but at its core, qualitative data is looking for themes and patterns that can be difficult to quantify, and it is essential to ensure that the context and narrative of qualitative work are not lost by trying to quantify something that is not meant to be quantified.

However, while qualitative research is sometimes placed in opposition to quantitative research, where they are necessarily opposites and therefore "compete" against each other and the philosophical paradigms associated with each other, qualitative and quantitative work are neither necessarily opposites, nor are they incompatible. [4] While qualitative and quantitative approaches are different, they are not necessarily opposites and certainly not mutually exclusive. For instance, qualitative research can help expand and deepen understanding of data or results obtained from quantitative analysis. For example, say a quantitative analysis has determined a correlation between length of stay and level of patient satisfaction, but why does this correlation exist? This dual-focus scenario shows one way in which qualitative and quantitative research could be integrated.

Qualitative Research Approaches

Ethnography

Ethnography as a research design originates in social and cultural anthropology and involves the researcher being directly immersed in the participant’s environment. [2] Through this immersion, the ethnographer can use a variety of data collection techniques to produce a comprehensive account of the social phenomena that occurred during the research period. [2] That is to say, the researcher’s aim with ethnography is to immerse themselves into the research population and come out of it with accounts of actions, behaviors, events, etc, through the eyes of someone involved in the population. Direct involvement of the researcher with the target population is one benefit of ethnographic research because it can then be possible to find data that is otherwise very difficult to extract and record.

Grounded theory

Grounded Theory is the "generation of a theoretical model through the experience of observing a study population and developing a comparative analysis of their speech and behavior." [5] Unlike quantitative research, which is deductive and tests or verifies an existing theory, grounded theory research is inductive and, therefore, lends itself to research aimed at social interactions or experiences. [3] [2] In essence, Grounded Theory’s goal is to explain how and why an event occurs or how and why people might behave a certain way. Through observing the population, a researcher using the Grounded Theory approach can then develop a theory to explain the phenomena of interest.

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is the "study of the meaning of phenomena or the study of the particular.” [5] At first glance, it might seem that Grounded Theory and Phenomenology are pretty similar, but the differences can be seen upon careful examination. At its core, phenomenology looks to investigate experiences from the individual's perspective. [2] Phenomenology is essentially looking into the "lived experiences" of the participants and aims to examine how and why participants behaved a certain way from their perspective. Herein lies one of the main differences between Grounded Theory and Phenomenology. Grounded Theory aims to develop a theory for social phenomena through an examination of various data sources. In contrast, Phenomenology focuses on describing and explaining an event or phenomenon from the perspective of those who have experienced it.

Narrative research

One of qualitative research’s strengths lies in its ability to tell a story, often from the perspective of those directly involved in it. Reporting on qualitative research involves including details and descriptions of the setting involved and quotes from participants. This detail is called a "thick" or "rich" description and is a strength of qualitative research. Narrative research is rife with the possibilities of "thick" description as this approach weaves together a sequence of events, usually from just one or two individuals, hoping to create a cohesive story or narrative. [2] While it might seem like a waste of time to focus on such a specific, individual level, understanding one or two people’s narratives for an event or phenomenon can help to inform researchers about the influences that helped shape that narrative. The tension or conflict of differing narratives can be "opportunities for innovation." [2]

Research Paradigm

Research paradigms are the assumptions, norms, and standards underpinning different research approaches. Essentially, research paradigms are the "worldviews" that inform research. [4] It is valuable for qualitative and quantitative researchers to understand what paradigm they are working within because understanding the theoretical basis of research paradigms allows researchers to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the approach being used and adjust accordingly. Different paradigms have different ontologies and epistemologies. Ontology is defined as the "assumptions about the nature of reality,” whereas epistemology is defined as the "assumptions about the nature of knowledge" that inform researchers' work. [2] It is essential to understand the ontological and epistemological foundations of the research paradigm researchers are working within to allow for a complete understanding of the approach being used and the assumptions that underpin the approach as a whole. Further, researchers must understand their own ontological and epistemological assumptions about the world in general because their assumptions about the world will necessarily impact how they interact with research. A discussion of the research paradigm is not complete without describing positivist, postpositivist, and constructivist philosophies.

Positivist versus postpositivist

To further understand qualitative research, we must discuss positivist and postpositivist frameworks. Positivism is a philosophy that the scientific method can and should be applied to social and natural sciences. [4] Essentially, positivist thinking insists that the social sciences should use natural science methods in their research. It stems from positivist ontology, that there is an objective reality that exists that is wholly independent of our perception of the world as individuals. Quantitative research is rooted in positivist philosophy, which can be seen in the value it places on concepts such as causality, generalizability, and replicability.

Conversely, postpositivists argue that social reality can never be one hundred percent explained, but could be approximated. [4] Indeed, qualitative researchers have been insisting that there are “fundamental limits to the extent to which the methods and procedures of the natural sciences could be applied to the social world,” and therefore, postpositivist philosophy is often associated with qualitative research. [4] An example of positivist versus postpositivist values in research might be that positivist philosophies value hypothesis-testing, whereas postpositivist philosophies value the ability to formulate a substantive theory.

Constructivist

Constructivism is a subcategory of postpositivism. Most researchers invested in postpositivist research are also constructivist, meaning they think there is no objective external reality that exists but instead that reality is constructed. Constructivism is a theoretical lens that emphasizes the dynamic nature of our world. "Constructivism contends that individuals' views are directly influenced by their experiences, and it is these individual experiences and views that shape their perspective of reality.” [6]  constructivist thought focuses on how "reality" is not a fixed certainty and how experiences, interactions, and backgrounds give people a unique view of the world. Constructivism contends, unlike positivist views, that there is not necessarily an "objective"reality we all experience. This is the ‘relativist’ ontological view that reality and our world are dynamic and socially constructed. Therefore, qualitative scientific knowledge can be inductive as well as deductive.” [4]

So why is it important to understand the differences in assumptions that different philosophies and approaches to research have? Fundamentally, the assumptions underpinning the research tools a researcher selects provide an overall base for the assumptions the rest of the research will have. It can even change the role of the researchers. [2] For example, is the researcher an "objective" observer, such as in positivist quantitative work? Or is the researcher an active participant in the research, as in postpositivist qualitative work? Understanding the philosophical base of the study undertaken allows researchers to fully understand the implications of their work and their role within the research and reflect on their positionality and bias as it pertains to the research they are conducting.

Data Sampling 

The better the sample represents the intended study population, the more likely the researcher is to encompass the varying factors. The following are examples of participant sampling and selection: [7]

• Purposive sampling- selection based on the researcher’s rationale for being the most informative.
• Criterion sampling selection based on pre-identified factors.
• Convenience sampling- selection based on availability.
• Snowball sampling- the selection is by referral from other participants or people who know potential participants.
• Extreme case sampling- targeted selection of rare cases.
• Typical case sampling selection based on regular or average participants. 

Data Collection and Analysis

Qualitative research uses several techniques, including interviews, focus groups, and observation. [1] [2] [3] Interviews may be unstructured, with open-ended questions on a topic, and the interviewer adapts to the responses. Structured interviews have a predetermined number of questions that every participant is asked. It is usually one-on-one and appropriate for sensitive topics or topics needing an in-depth exploration. Focus groups are often held with 8-12 target participants and are used when group dynamics and collective views on a topic are desired. Researchers can be participant-observers to share the experiences of the subject or non-participants or detached observers.

While quantitative research design prescribes a controlled environment for data collection, qualitative data collection may be in a central location or the participants' environment, depending on the study goals and design. Qualitative research could amount to a large amount of data. Data is transcribed, which may then be coded manually or using computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software or CAQDAS such as ATLAS.ti or NVivo. [8] [9] [10]

After the coding process, qualitative research results could be in various formats. It could be a synthesis and interpretation presented with excerpts from the data. [11] Results could also be in the form of themes and theory or model development.

Dissemination

The healthcare team can use two reporting standards to standardize and facilitate the dissemination of qualitative research outcomes. The Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research or COREQ is a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. [12] The Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) is a checklist covering a more comprehensive range of qualitative research. [13]

Applications

Many times, a research question will start with qualitative research. The qualitative research will help generate the research hypothesis, which can be tested with quantitative methods. After the data is collected and analyzed with quantitative methods, a set of qualitative methods can be used to dive deeper into the data to better understand what the numbers truly mean and their implications. The qualitative techniques can then help clarify the quantitative data and also help refine the hypothesis for future research. Furthermore, with qualitative research, researchers can explore poorly studied subjects with quantitative methods. These include opinions, individual actions, and social science research.

An excellent qualitative study design starts with a goal or objective. This should be clearly defined or stated. The target population needs to be specified. A method for obtaining information from the study population must be carefully detailed to ensure no omissions of part of the target population. A proper collection method should be selected that will help obtain the desired information without overly limiting the collected data because, often, the information sought is not well categorized or obtained. Finally, the design should ensure adequate methods for analyzing the data. An example may help better clarify some of the various aspects of qualitative research.

A researcher wants to decrease the number of teenagers who smoke in their community. The researcher could begin by asking current teen smokers why they started smoking through structured or unstructured interviews (qualitative research). The researcher can also get together a group of current teenage smokers and conduct a focus group to help brainstorm factors that may have prevented them from starting to smoke (qualitative research).

In this example, the researcher has used qualitative research methods (interviews and focus groups) to generate a list of ideas of why teens start to smoke and factors that may have prevented them from starting to smoke. Next, the researcher compiles this data. The research found that, hypothetically, peer pressure, health issues, cost, being considered "cool," and rebellious behavior all might increase or decrease the likelihood of teens starting to smoke.

The researcher creates a survey asking teen participants to rank how important each of the above factors is in either starting smoking (for current smokers) or not smoking (for current nonsmokers). This survey provides specific numbers (ranked importance of each factor) and is thus a quantitative research tool.

The researcher can use the survey results to focus efforts on the one or two highest-ranked factors. Let us say the researcher found that health was the primary factor that keeps teens from starting to smoke, and peer pressure was the primary factor that contributed to teens starting smoking. The researcher can go back to qualitative research methods to dive deeper into these for more information. The researcher wants to focus on keeping teens from starting to smoke, so they focus on the peer pressure aspect.

The researcher can conduct interviews and focus groups (qualitative research) about what types and forms of peer pressure are commonly encountered, where the peer pressure comes from, and where smoking starts. The researcher hypothetically finds that peer pressure often occurs after school at the local teen hangouts, mostly in the local park. The researcher also hypothetically finds that peer pressure comes from older, current smokers who provide the cigarettes.

The researcher could further explore this observation made at the local teen hangouts (qualitative research) and take notes regarding who is smoking, who is not, and what observable factors are at play for peer pressure to smoke. The researcher finds a local park where many local teenagers hang out and sees that the smokers tend to hang out in a shady, overgrown area of the park. The researcher notes that smoking teenagers buy their cigarettes from a local convenience store adjacent to the park, where the clerk does not check identification before selling cigarettes. These observations fall under qualitative research.

If the researcher returns to the park and counts how many individuals smoke in each region, this numerical data would be quantitative research. Based on the researcher's efforts thus far, they conclude that local teen smoking and teenagers who start to smoke may decrease if there are fewer overgrown areas of the park and the local convenience store does not sell cigarettes to underage individuals.

The researcher could try to have the parks department reassess the shady areas to make them less conducive to smokers or identify how to limit the sales of cigarettes to underage individuals by the convenience store. The researcher would then cycle back to qualitative methods of asking at-risk populations their perceptions of the changes and what factors are still at play, and quantitative research that includes teen smoking rates in the community and the incidence of new teen smokers, among others. [14] [15]

Qualitative research functions as a standalone research design or combined with quantitative research to enhance our understanding of the world. Qualitative research uses techniques including structured and unstructured interviews, focus groups, and participant observation not only to help generate hypotheses that can be more rigorously tested with quantitative research but also to help researchers delve deeper into the quantitative research numbers, understand what they mean, and understand what the implications are. Qualitative research allows researchers to understand what is going on, especially when things are not easily categorized. [16]

• Issues of Concern

As discussed in the sections above, quantitative and qualitative work differ in many ways, including the evaluation criteria. There are four well-established criteria for evaluating quantitative data: internal validity, external validity, reliability, and objectivity. Credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability are the correlating concepts in qualitative research. [4] [11] The corresponding quantitative and qualitative concepts can be seen below, with the quantitative concept on the left and the qualitative concept on the right:

• Internal validity: Credibility
• External validity: Transferability
• Reliability: Dependability
• Objectivity: Confirmability

In conducting qualitative research, ensuring these concepts are satisfied and well thought out can mitigate potential issues from arising. For example, just as a researcher will ensure that their quantitative study is internally valid, qualitative researchers should ensure that their work has credibility. 

Indicators such as triangulation and peer examination can help evaluate the credibility of qualitative work.

• Triangulation: Triangulation involves using multiple data collection methods to increase the likelihood of getting a reliable and accurate result. In our above magic example, the result would be more reliable if we interviewed the magician, backstage hand, and the person who "vanished." In qualitative research, triangulation can include telephone surveys, in-person surveys, focus groups, and interviews and surveying an adequate cross-section of the target demographic.
• Peer examination: A peer can review results to ensure the data is consistent with the findings.

A "thick" or "rich" description can be used to evaluate the transferability of qualitative research, whereas an indicator such as an audit trail might help evaluate the dependability and confirmability.

• Thick or rich description:  This is a detailed and thorough description of details, the setting, and quotes from participants in the research. [5] Thick descriptions will include a detailed explanation of how the study was conducted. Thick descriptions are detailed enough to allow readers to draw conclusions and interpret the data, which can help with transferability and replicability.
• Audit trail: An audit trail provides a documented set of steps of how the participants were selected and the data was collected. The original information records should also be kept (eg, surveys, notes, recordings).

One issue of concern that qualitative researchers should consider is observation bias. Here are a few examples:

• Hawthorne effect: The effect is the change in participant behavior when they know they are being observed. Suppose a researcher wanted to identify factors that contribute to employee theft and tell the employees they will watch them to see what factors affect employee theft. In that case, one would suspect employee behavior would change when they know they are being protected.
• Observer-expectancy effect: Some participants change their behavior or responses to satisfy the researcher's desired effect. This happens unconsciously for the participant, so it is essential to eliminate or limit the transmission of the researcher's views.
• Artificial scenario effect: Some qualitative research occurs in contrived scenarios with preset goals. In such situations, the information may not be accurate because of the artificial nature of the scenario. The preset goals may limit the qualitative information obtained.
• Clinical Significance

Qualitative or quantitative research helps healthcare providers understand patients and the impact and challenges of the care they deliver. Qualitative research provides an opportunity to generate and refine hypotheses and delve deeper into the data generated by quantitative research. Qualitative research is not an island apart from quantitative research but an integral part of research methods to understand the world around us. [17]

• Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Qualitative research is essential for all healthcare team members as all are affected by qualitative research. Qualitative research may help develop a theory or a model for health research that can be further explored by quantitative research. Much of the qualitative research data acquisition is completed by numerous team members, including social workers, scientists, nurses, etc. Within each area of the medical field, there is copious ongoing qualitative research, including physician-patient interactions, nursing-patient interactions, patient-environment interactions, healthcare team function, patient information delivery, etc. 

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Disclosure: Steven Tenny declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Janelle Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Grace Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

• Cite this Page Tenny S, Brannan JM, Brannan GD. Qualitative Study. [Updated 2022 Sep 18]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

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Qualitative Research Methods: Collecting Evidence, Crafting Analysis, Communicating Impact 2nd Edition

• Written in an engaging and accessible narrative style by an acclaimed scholar and researcher
• Offers new and updated examples of coding and qualitative analysis, full-color photos and illustrations, and a companion instructor website
• Synthesizes the most up-to-date multidisciplinary literature on qualitative research methods including seven main approaches to qualitative inquiry: grounded theory, case study, ethnography and ethnography of communication, phenomenology, narrative inquiry and autoethnography, participatory action research, and creative, performative, and arts-based research
• Presents innovative qualitative data collection methods and modern representation strategies, such as virtual ethnography, photovoice, and mobile interviewing

Qualitative Research Methods: Collecting Evidence, Crafting Analysis, Communicating Impact is an ideal resource for undergraduate and graduate students, instructors, and faculty across multiple disciplines including the social sciences, healthcare, education, management, and the humanities, and for practitioners seeking expert guidance on practical qualitative methods.

• ISBN-10 1119390788
• ISBN-13 978-1119390787
• Edition 2nd
• Publisher Wiley-Blackwell
• Publication date August 13, 2019
• Language English
• Dimensions 7 x 1.2 x 10 inches
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SARAH J. TRACY is Professor of Human Communication, Arizona State University-Tempe, and an internationally recognized expert on qualitative research methods. She has contributed more than 75 essays to publications such as Qualitative Inquiry, Communication Monographs, and Management Communication Quarterly, and developed the renowned “eight big tent model” for high quality qualitative research.

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• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Wiley-Blackwell; 2nd edition (August 13, 2019)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 432 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 1119390788
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1119390787
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.98 pounds
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About the author

Sarah j. tracy.

Dr. Sarah J. Tracy is Professor of qualitative methodology and organizational communication in The Hugh Downs School of Human Communication at Arizona State University, in Tempe, AZ, United States. She has given over 75 keynotes and workshops around the world for students, professors, and professionals in multiple disciplines related to her research.

Professor Tracy’s scholarly work examines emotion, communication, and identity in the workplace with focus on emotional labor, compassion, bullying, and organizational flourishing. She is an interdisciplinary leader in qualitative research methods. Sarah created the “Eight big-tent criteria” model for excellent qualitative research and is author of Qualitative Research Methods: Collecting Evidence, Crafting Analysis, Communicating Impact, a YouTube channel called Get Your Qual On, and more than 100 scholarly monographs.

She has been honored as Distinguished Scholar by The National Communication Association, Fellow by the International Communication Association, and Distinguished Teacher by The Western States Communication Association. Stanford University’s Career Rankings list her in the top 2% of scientists in the world across fields.

Sarah aims to provide people with relatable and actionable tips that they can use to immediately improve the quality, efficiency, impact, and enjoyment of their research. She approaches research from a use-inspired standpoint and endeavors toward creating scholarship that inspires wisdom, compassion, transformation, and well-being.

In her free-time, Sarah enjoys cuddling her rescue pup and kitten, novice crew rowing, and traveling with her husband.

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