gestalt approach problem solving

What is Gestalt Psychology? Theory, Principles, & Examples

Nathalia Bustamante

Harvard Graduate School of Education

Nathalia Bustamante is a Brazilian journalist at Harvard’s Graduate School of Education.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Key Takeaways

• Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that seeks to understand how the human brain perceives experiences. It suggests that structures, perceived as a whole, have specific properties that are different from the sum of their individual parts.
• For instance, when reading a text, a person perceives each word and sentence as a whole with meaning, rather than seeing individual letters; and while each letterform is an independent individual unit, the greater meaning of the text depends on the arrangement of the letters into a specific configuration.
• Gestalt grew from the field of psychology in the beginning of the 19th Century. Austrian and German psychologists started researching the human mind’s tendency to try to make sense of the world around us through automatic grouping and association.
• The Gestalt Principles, or Laws of Perception, explain how this behavior of “pattern seeking” operates. They offer a powerful framework to understand human perception, and yet are simple to assimilate and implement.
• For that reason, the Gestalt Laws are appealing not only to psychologists but also to visual artists, educators and communicators.

What Does Gestalt Mean?

In a loose translation, the German word ‘Gestalt’ (pronounced “ge-shtalt”) means ‘configuration’, or ‘structure’. It makes a reference to the way individual components are structured by our perception as a psychical whole (Wulf, 1996). That structure provides a scientific explanation for why changes in spacing, organization and timing can radically transform how information is received and assimilated.

How the Gestalt Approach Formed?

Two of the main philosophical influences of Gestalt are Kantian epistemology and Husserl’s phenomenological method .

Both Kant and Husserls sought to understand human consciousness and perceptions of the world, arguing that those mental processes are not entirely mediated by rational thought (Jorge, 2010).

Similarly, the Gestalt researchers Wertheimer, Koffka and Kohler observed that the human brain tends to automatically organize and interpret visual data through grouping.

They theorized that, because of those “mental shortcuts”, the perception of the whole is different from the sum of individual elements.

This idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts – the central tenet of Gestalt psychology – challenged the then-prevailing theory of Structuralism .

This school of thought defended that mental processes should be broken down into their basic components, to focus on them individually.

Structuralists believed that complex perceptions could be understood by identifying the primitive sensations it caused – such as the points that make a square or particular pitches in a melody.

Gestalt, on the other hand, suggests the opposite path. It argues that the whole is grasped even before the brain perceives the individual parts – like when, looking at a photograph, we see the image of a face rather than a nose, two eyes, and the shape of a chin.

Therefore, to understand the subjective nature of human perception, we should transcend the specific parts to focus on the whole.

Gestalt Psychologists

Max wertheimer.

The inaugural article of Gestalt Psychology was Max Wertheimer’s Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement , published in 1912.

Wertheimer, then at the Institute of Psychology in Frankfurt am Main, described a visual illusion called apparent motion in this article.

Apparent motion is the perception of movement that results from viewing a rapid sequence of static images, as happens in the movies or in flip books.

Wertheimer realized that the perception of the whole (the group of figures in a sequence) was radically different from the perception of its components (each static image).

Wolfgang Köhler

Wolfgang Köhler was particularly interested in physics and natural sciences. He introduced the concept of psychophysical isomorphism – arguing that how a stimulus is received is influenced by the brain’s general state while perceiving it (Shelvock, 2016).

He believed that organic processes tend to evolve to a state of equilibrium – like soap bubbles, that start in various shapes but always change into perfect spheres because that is their minimum energy state.

In the same way, the human brain would “converge” towards a minimum energy state through a process of simplifying perception – a mechanism that he called Pragnanz (Rock & Palmer, 1990).

Kurt Koffka

Koffka contributed to expanding Gestalt applications beyond visual perception. In his major article, Principles of Gestalt psychology (1935) he detailed the application of the Gestalt Laws to topics such as motor action, learning and memory, personality and society.

He also played a key role in taking the Gestalt Theory to the United States, to where he emigrated after the rise of Nazism in Germany.

Gestalt principles

Gestalt’s principles, or Laws of Perception, were formalized by Wertheimer in a treaty published in 1923, and further elaborated by Köhler, Koffka, and Metzger.

The principles are grounded on the human natural tendency of finding order in disorder – a process that happens in the brain, not in the sensory organs such as the eye. According to Wertheimer, the mind “makes sense” of stimulus captured by the eyes following a predictable set of principles.

The brain applies these principles to enable individuals to perceive uniform forms rather than simply collections of unconnected images.

Although these principles operate in a predictable way, they are actually mental shortcuts to interpreting information. As shortcuts, they sometimes make mistakes – and that is why they can lead to incorrect perceptions.

Prägnanz (law of simplicity)

• The law of Prägnanz is also called “law of simplicity” or “law of good figure”. It states that when faced with a set of ambiguous or complex objects, the human brain seeks to make them as simple as possible.
• The “good figure” is an object or image that can easily be perceived as a whole.
• A good example of this process is our perception of the Olympic logo. We tend to see overlapping circles (the simpler version) rather than a series of curved, connected lines (Dresp-Langley, 2015).
• This law suggests that we tend to group shapes, objects or design elements that share some similarity in terms of color, shape, orientation, texture or size.
• The law of proximity states that shapes, objects or design elements located near each other tend to be perceived as a group.
• Conversely, randomly located items tend to be perceived as isolated.
• This principle can be applied to direct attention to key elements within a design: the closer visual elements are to each other, the more likely they will be perceived as related to each other, and too much negative space between elements serve to isolate them from one another.

Common Region

• This law proposes that elements that are located within the same closed region – such as inside a circle or a shape – tend to be perceived as belonging to the same group.
• Those clearly defined boundaries between the inside and the outside of a shape create a stronger connection between elements, and can even overpower the law of Proximity or of Similarity.
• This law argues that shapes, objects or design elements that are positioned in a way that suggests lines, curves or planes will be perceived as such, and not as individual elements.
• We perceptually group the elements together to form a continuous image.
• This law suggests that the human brain has a natural tendency to visually close gaps in forms, particularly when identifying familiar images.
• When information is missing, our focus goes to what is present and automatically “fills” the missing parts with familiar lines, colors or patterns.
• Once a form has been identified, even if additional gaps are introduced, we still tend to visually complete the form, in order to make them stable.
• IBM’s iconic logo is one example of applied closure – blue horizontal lines are arranged in three stacks that we “close” to form the letterforms (Graham 2008).

The classic gestalt principles have been extended in various directions. The ones above are some of the most commonly cited, but there are others, such as the symmetry principle (symmetrical components will tend to be grouped together) and the common faith principle (elements tend to be perceived as grouped together if they move together).

Applications of Gestalt

Gestalt Psychology and the Laws of Perception influenced research from a multitude of disciplines – including linguistic, design, architecture and visual communication.

Gestalt Therapy

Gestalt therapy was founded by Frederick (Fritz) and Laura Perls in the 1940s. It focuses on the phenomenological method of awareness that distinguishes perceptions, feelings and actions from their interpretations.

It believes that explanations and interpretations are less reliable than the concrete – what is directly perceived and felt. It is a therapy rooted in dialogue, in which patients and therapists discuss differences in perspectives (Yontef, G, 1993).

Design Professor and specialist Gregg Berryman pointed out, in his book Notes on Graphic Design and Visual Communication (1979), that ‘Gestalt perceptual factors build a visual frame of reference which can provide the designer with a reliable psychological basis for the spatial organization of graphic information’.

In essence, Gestalt provided a framework of understanding upon which designers can make decisions.

What made gestalt theory appealing to visual artists and designers is its attempt to explain “pattern seeking” in human behavior.

The Gestalt Laws provided scientific validation of compositional structure, and were used by designers in the mid-twentieth century to explain and improve visual work.

They are particularly useful in the creation of posters, magazines, logos and billboards in a meaningful and organized way. More recently, they have also been applied to the design of websites, user interfaces and digital experiences (Graham 2008).

Product Development

The product’s form and other perceptual attributes such as color and texture are crucial in influencing customer’s buying decisions.

Product development has adopted Gestalt Laws in approaches that consider how the target customer will perceive the final product.

By considering these perceptions, the product developer is better able to understand potential risks, ambiguities and meanings of the product he or she is working on (Cziulik & Santos 2012).

Education and Learning

In Education, Gestalt Theory was applied as a reaction to behaviorism, which reduced experiences to simple stimulus-response reflections.

Gestalt suggested that students should perceive the whole of the learning goal, and then discover the relations between parts and the whole. That meant that teachers should provide the basic framework of the lesson as an organized and meaningful structure, and then go into details.

That would help students to understand the relation between contents and the overall goal of the lesson.

Problem-based learning methodologies also arose based on Gestalt principles.

When students are exposed to the whole of a problem, they can “make sense” of it before engaging in introspective thinking to analyze the connection between elements and craft independent solutions (Çeliköz et al. 2019).

The Gestalt Principles are applied to the design of advertisement, packaging and even physical stores.

Researchers that investigated how consumers form overall impressions of consumption objects found that they usually integrate visual information with their own evaluation of specific features (Zimmer & Golden, 1988).

More recent applications also analyze how consumer perceptions apply to online shopping environments. The fundamental Gestalt Laws are thus applied to site architecture and visual impact (Demangeot, 2010).

Gestalt Legacy

Most psychologists consider that the Gestalt School, as a theoretical field of study, died with its founding fathers in the 1940s. Two main reasons may have contributed to that decline.

The first reason are institutional and personal constraints: after they left Germany, Wetheimer, Koffka and Köhler obtained positions in which they could conduct research, but could not train PhDs.

At the same time, most of the students and researchers that had remained in Germany broadened the scope of their research beyond Gestalt topics.

The second reason for the decline of Gestalt Psychology were empirical findings dismantling Köhler’s electrical field theory that sought to explain the brain’s functioning.

Neuroscience and cognitive science emerged in the 1960s as stronger frameworks for explaining the functioning of the brain.

Still, nearly all psychology students can expect to find at least one chapter dedicated to Gestalt Psychology in their textbooks.

Similarly, fundamental questions about the subjective nature of perception and awareness are still addressed in contemporary scientific research – with the perks of counting on advanced methods that were not available for the Gestaltists in the first half of the XX Century (Wagemans et al, 2012).

Berryman, G. (1979). Notes on Graphic Design and Visual Communication. Los Altos. William Kaufmann. Inc., t979.

Cziulik, C., & dos Santos, F. L. (2011). An approach to define formal requirements into product development according to Gestalt principles. Product: Management and Development, 9(2), 89-100.

Çeliköz, N., Erisen, Y., & Sahin, M. (2019). Cognitive Learning Theories with Emphasis on Latent Learning, Gestalt and Information Processing Theories. Online Submission, 9(3), 18-33.

Demangeot, C., & Broderick, A. J. (2010). Consumer perceptions of online shopping environments: A gestalt approach. Psychology & Marketing, 27(2), 117-140.

Dresp-Langley, B. (2015). Principles of perceptual grouping: Implications for image-guided surgery. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1565.

Graham, L. (2008). Gestalt theory in interactive media design. Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences, 2(1).

Jorge, MLM. (2010) Implicaciones epistemológicas de la noción de forma en la psicología de la Gestalt. Revista de Historia de la Psicología. vol. 31, núm. 4 (diciembre)

O”Connor, Z. (2015). Colour, contrast and gestalt theories of perception: The impact in contemporary visual communications design. Color Research & Application, 40(1), 85-92.

Rock, I., & Palmer, S. (1990). The legacy of Gestalt psychology . Scientific American, 263(6), 84-91.

Shelvock, M. T. (2016). Gestalt theory and mixing audio. Innovation in Music II, 1-14.

Wagemans, J., Elder, J. H., Kubovy, M., Palmer, S. E., Peterson, M. A., Singh, M., & von der Heydt, R. (2012). A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception : I. Perceptual grouping and figure–ground organization. Psychological bulletin, 138(6), 1172.

Yontef, G., & Simkin, J. (1993). Gestalt therapy: An introduction. Gestalt Journal Press.

Zimmer, M. R., & Golden, L. L. (1988). Impressions of retail stores: A content analysis of consume. Journal of retailing, 64(3), 265.

Further Information

Wagemans, J., Elder, J. H., Kubovy, M., Palmer, S. E., Peterson, M. A., Singh, M., & von der Heydt, R. (2012). A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception: I. Perceptual grouping and figure–ground organization. Psychological bulletin, 138(6), 1172.

Raffagnino, R. (2019). Gestalt Therapy Effectiveness: A Systematic Review of Empirical Evidence. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 7(6), 66-83.

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Sweepstakes
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

Gestalt Psychology

Seeing the Mind and Behavior as a Whole

Gestalt psychology is a  school of thought  that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole. Gestalt psychology suggests that humans don't focus on separate components but instead tend to perceive objects as elements of more complex systems.

Emily Roberts / Verywell

A core belief in Gestalt psychology is holism —that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The approach has played a major role in the study of human sensation and perception .

Gestalt Meaning

Gestalt is a German word that roughly means "configuration" or the way things are put together to form a whole.

The History of Gestalt Psychology

Originating in the work of Max Wertheimer , Gestalt psychology formed in part as a response to the structuralism of  Wilhelm Wundt .

Whereas followers of structuralism were interested in breaking psychological matters down into their smallest possible parts, Gestalt psychologists wanted to look at the totality of the mind and behavior. Guided by the principle of holism, Wertheimer and his followers identified instances where perception was based on seeing things as a complete whole, not as separate components.

A number of thinkers influenced the development of Gestalt psychology, including Immanuel Kant, Ernst Mach, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

Wertheimer developed Gestalt psychology after observing what he called the phi phenomenon while watching alternating lights on a railway signal. The phi phenomenon is an optical illusion where two stationary objects seem to move if they are shown appearing and disappearing in rapid succession. In other words, we perceive movement where there is none.

Based on his observations of the phi phenomenon, Wertheimer concluded that we perceive things by seeing the whole perception, not by understanding individual parts. In the example of blinking lights at a train station, the whole we perceive is that one light appears to move quickly between two points. The reality is that two separate lights are blinking rapidly without moving at all.

Influential Gestalt Psychologists

Wertheimer's observations of the phi phenomenon are widely credited as the beginning of Gestalt psychology and he went on to publicize the core principles of the field. Other psychologists also had an influence on this school of psychology.

Wolfgang Köhler : Köhler connected Gestalt psychology to the natural sciences, arguing that organic phenomena are examples of holism at work. He also studied hearing and looked at problem-solving abilities in chimpanzees.

Kurt Koffka : Together with Wertheimer and Köhler, Koffka is considered a founder of the field. He applied the concept of Gestalt to child psychology , arguing that infants first understand things holistically before learning to differentiate them into parts. Koffka played a key role in bringing Gestalt principles to the United States.

Principles of Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology helped introduce the idea that human perception is not just about seeing what is actually present in the world around us. It is also heavily influenced by our motivations and expectations .

Wertheimer created principles to explain how Gestalt perception functions. Some of the most important principles of Gestalt theory are:

• Prägnanz : This foundational principle states that we naturally perceive things in their simplest form or organization.
• Similarity : This Gestalt principle suggests that we naturally group similar items together based on elements like color, size, and orientation. An example would be grouping dogs based on whether they are small or large, or if they are big or small.
• Proximity : The principle of proximity states that objects near each other tend to be viewed as a group.
• Continuity : According to this Gestalt principle, we perceive elements arranged on a line or curve as related to each other, while elements that are not on the line or curve are seen as separate.
• Closure : This suggests that elements that form a closed object will be perceived as a group. We will even fill in missing information to create closure and make sense of an object. An example of this Gestalt psychology principle is using negative space to give the illusion that a particular shape exists when it doesn't.
• Common region : This Gestalt psychology principle states that we tend to group objects together if they're located in the same bounded area. (For example, objects inside a box tend to be considered a group.)

Uses of Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology is useful in many areas, including therapy, design, product development, and learning.

Gestalt Therapy

Gestalt therapy is based on the idea that overall perception depends on the interaction between many factors. Among these factors are our past experiences, current environment, thoughts, feelings, and needs. Gestalt therapy involves key concepts such as awareness , unfinished business, and personal responsibility.

The main goal of Gestalt therapy is to help us focus on the present . While past context is important for viewing yourself as a whole, a Gestalt therapist will encourage you to keep your focus on your present experience.

Research suggests that Gestalt therapy is effective at treating symptoms of depression and anxiety , and it may help people gain confidence and increase feelings of self-efficacy and self-kindness. It is often a helpful way to structure group therapy .

The therapeutic process is reliant on the relationship between the client and therapist . As a client, you must feel comfortable enough to develop a close partnership with your therapist, and they must be able to create an unbiased environment where you can discuss your thoughts and experiences.

Beginning in the 1920s, designers began incorporating Gestalt principles in their work. Gestalt psychology led these designers to believe that we all share certain characteristics in the way we perceive visual objects and that we all have a natural ability to see "good" design.

Designers embraced Gestalt concepts, using our perception of contrast, color, symmetry, repetition, and proportion to create their work. Gestalt psychology influenced other design concepts, such as:

• Figure-ground relationship : This describes the contrast between a focal object (like a word, phrase, or image) and the negative space around it. Designers often use this to create impact.
• Visual hierarchy : Designers use the way we perceive and group visual objects to establish a visual hierarchy, ensuring that the most important word or image attracts our attention first.
• Associativity : This concept involves the principle of proximity. Designers often use this to determine where to place important objects, including text elements such as headlines, captions, and lists.

Product Development

Product designers use Gestalt psychology to inform their decisions during the development process. Consumers tend to like products that follow Gestalt principles.

This influence can be seen in the appearance of the products themselves and in their packaging and advertising. We can also see Gestalt principles at work in apps and digital products. Concepts like proximity, similarity, and continuity have become standards of our expected user experience.

Learning and Education

The Gestalt Theory of Learning relies on the law of simplicity. In simple terms, it states that each learning stimulus is perceived in its simplest form.

The psychology behind this learning theory states that we use our senses and previous experiences to gain knowledge about the world around us. It also suggests that we learn from the methods by which we are taught, in addition to being impacted by classroom environments and the academic culture.

Impact of Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology has largely been subsumed by other types of psychology, but it had an enormous influence on the field. Researchers like Kurt Lewin and Kurt Goldstein were influenced by Gestalt concepts before going on to make important contributions to psychology.

Gestalt theory is also important in that the idea of the whole being different than its parts has influenced our understanding of the brain and social behavior. Gestalt theory still impacts how we understand vision and the ways that context, visual illusions, and information processing impact our perception.

The Takeaway

Gestalt therapy continues as an effective tool for psychologists today. Its emphasis on a holistic approach plays an important role in cognitive psychology , perception, and social psychology , among other fields.

Frequently Asked Questions

Gestalt psychology was founded by Max Wertheimer, a Czechoslovakian psychologist who also developed a lie detection device to objectively study courtroom testimony. ]Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka are also considered co-founders of the Gestalt theory.

Most of the foundational principles of Gestalt psychology explain how we group things, such as by similarity, proximity, continuity, closure, and common reason. Prägnanz is another Gestalt principle and says that we tend to perceive complex things in their most simple form. Prägnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of simplicity, a concept that was first presented in 1914.

Gestalt psychology has influenced how we study perception and sensation. It also increases our understanding of how our cognitive processes influence the way we behave socially.

Some therapists use Gestalt psychology to help patients focus on the present over the past. Designers and product developers also use Gestalt theory to make their creations more appealing or to draw focus to certain elements over others. Educators may also use Gestalt principles to help their students learn.

Jäkel F, Singh M, Wichmann FA, Herzog MH. An overview of quantitative approaches in Gestalt perception . Vis Res . 2016;126:3-8. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2016.06.004

Wagemans J, Elder JH, Kubovy M, et al. A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception: I. Perceptual grouping and figure-ground organization . Psychol Bull . 2012;138(6):1172-1217. doi:10.1037/a0029333

Bonacchi S, Czerniak S. Introduction: Gestalt as structure principles in science, art and language . Dialogue Universal. 2015;25(4):7-9. doi:10.5840/du201525480

Gundlach H. Max Wertheimer, Habilitation candidate at the Frankfurt Psychological Institute . History Psychol . 2014;17(2):134-48. doi:10.1037/a0036159

Wagemans J. Historical and conceptual background: Gestalt theory . In: Wagemans J, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Perceptual Organization . Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199686858.013.026

Wagemans J, Feldman J, Gepshtein S, et al. A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception II. Conceptual and theoretical foundations . Psychol Bull . 2012;138(6):1218-1252. doi:10.1037/a0029334

O'Leary E. Key concepts of Gestalt therapy and processing . Gestalt Therapy Around the World . doi:10.1002/9781118323410.ch2

Raffagnino R. Gestalt therapy effectiveness: A systematic review of empirical evidence .  Open J Soc Sci . 2019;7(6):66-83. doi:10.4236/jss.2019.76005

Moszkowicz J. Gestalt and graphic design: An exploration of the humanistic and therapeutic effects of visual organization .  Des Issues . 2011;27(4):56-67. doi:10.1162/DESI_a_00105

O’Connor Z. Colour, contrast and Gestalt theories of perception: The impact in contemporary visual communications design .  Color Res Appl . 2015;40(1):85-92. doi:10.1002/col.21858

Valencia-Romero A, Lugo J. An immersive virtual discrete choice experiment for elicitation of product aesthetics using Gestalt principles . Design Sci . 2017;3:E11. doi:10.1017/dsj.2017.12

Liang Y. Application of Gestalt psychology in product human-machine interface design . IOP Conf Series: Materials Sci Engineer . 2018;392:062054. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/392/6/062054

Lee C. Instructional design models and theories: The Gestalt psychology of learning . Arizona State University.

Britannica. Max Wertheimer: Czech psychologist .

Koenderink J, van Doorn A, Pinna B. Measures of Prägnanz? Gestalt Theory . 2018;40(1):7-28. doi:10.2478/gth-2018-0002

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center

Gestalt psychology

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• Frontiers - Gestalt Theory Rearranged: Back to Wertheimer
• Gestalt Institute of Cleveland - What is Gestalt?
• Verywell Mind - What is Gestalt Psychology?
• Social Sciences LibreTexts - Gestalt Psychology
• Academia - Gestalt psychology
• Open Text WSU - The Gestalt Principles of Perception
• BCcampus Open Publishing - Gestalt Psychology: History and Modern-Day Practices
• Simply Psychology - What is Gestalt Psychology?

Gestalt psychology , school of psychology founded in the 20th century that provided the foundation for the modern study of perception . Gestalt theory emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. That is, the attributes of the whole are not deducible from analysis of the parts in isolation. The word Gestalt is used in modern German to mean the way a thing has been “placed,” or “put together.” There is no exact equivalent in English. “Form” and “shape” are the usual translations; in psychology the word is often interpreted as “pattern” or “configuration.”

Gestalt theory originated in Austria and Germany as a reaction against the associationist and structural schools’ atomistic orientation (an approach which fragmented experience into distinct and unrelated elements). Gestalt studies made use instead of phenomenology . This method, with a tradition going back to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , involves nothing more than the description of direct psychological experience, with no restrictions on what is permissible in the description. Gestalt psychology was in part an attempt to add a humanistic dimension to what was considered a sterile approach to the scientific study of mental life. Gestalt psychology further sought to encompass the qualities of form, meaning, and value that prevailing psychologists had either ignored or presumed to fall outside the boundaries of science .

The publication of Czech-born psychologist Max Wertheimer ’s “Experimentelle Studien über das Sehen von Bewegung” (“Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement”) in 1912 marks the founding of the Gestalt school. In it Wertheimer reported the result of a study on apparent movement conducted in Frankfurt am Main , Germany, with psychologists Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka . Together, these three formed the core of the Gestalt school for the next few decades. (By the mid-1930s all had become professors in the United States.)

The earliest Gestalt work concerned perception , with particular emphasis on visual perceptual organization as explained by the phenomenon of illusion . In 1912 Wertheimer discovered the phi phenomenon , an optical illusion in which stationary objects shown in rapid succession, transcending the threshold at which they can be perceived separately, appear to move. The explanation of this phenomenon—also known as persistence of vision and experienced when viewing motion pictures —provided strong support for Gestalt principles.

Under the old assumption that sensations of perceptual experience stand in one-to-one relation to physical stimuli , the effect of the phi phenomenon was apparently inexplicable. However, Wertheimer understood that the perceived motion is an emergent experience, not present in the stimuli in isolation but dependent upon the relational characteristics of the stimuli. As the motion is perceived, the observer’s nervous system and experience do not passively register the physical input in a piecemeal way. Rather, the neural organization as well as the perceptual experience springs immediately into existence as an entire field with differentiated parts. In later writings this principle was stated as the law of Prägnanz , meaning that the neural and perceptual organization of any set of stimuli will form as good a Gestalt, or whole, as the prevailing conditions will allow.

Major elaborations of the new formulation occurred within the next decades. Wertheimer, Köhler, Koffka, and their students extended the Gestalt approach to problems in other areas of perception, problem solving , learning , and thinking . The Gestalt principles were later applied to motivation, social psychology , and personality (particularly by Kurt Lewin ) and to aesthetics and economic behaviour. Wertheimer demonstrated that Gestalt concepts could also be used to shed light on problems in ethics , political behaviour, and the nature of truth. Gestalt psychology’s traditions continued in the perceptual investigations undertaken by Rudolf Arnheim and Hans Wallach in the United States .

Gestalt Theory: Understanding Perception and Organization

Gestalt theory, a psychological framework developed in the early 20th century by German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, provides valuable insights into how humans perceive and make sense of the world around them. The term “gestalt” itself translates to “form” or “whole” in German, emphasizing the theory’s focus on understanding patterns and configurations rather than isolated elements.

At its core, gestalt theory suggests that our minds naturally organize sensory information into meaningful wholes or coherent patterns. Instead of perceiving individual parts separately, we tend to perceive objects as complete entities with inherent relationships among their components. This holistic approach to perception allows us to recognize familiar objects and scenes effortlessly.

One of the fundamental principles of gestalt theory is known as “the law of proximity.” This principle states that elements that are close to each other tend to be perceived as belonging together. For example, when presented with a group of dots arranged closely in space, we will perceive them as forming a single shape or pattern rather than separate entities.

Overall, gestalt theory offers valuable insights into human perception and cognition by highlighting our innate tendency to organize sensory information into meaningful wholes. By understanding these underlying principles, we can gain a deeper appreciation for how our minds construct meaning from the world around us.

Overview of Gestalt Theory

Gestalt theory is a psychological framework that focuses on how people perceive and experience the world around them. It emphasizes that our perception is not simply a collection of individual elements, but rather, it is influenced by the way these elements are organized into meaningful patterns or “Gestalts.” In this section, we’ll delve into the key concepts and principles of Gestalt theory.

One fundamental principle of Gestalt theory is the idea that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This means that when we perceive something, we don’t just see individual objects or elements in isolation. Instead, our minds automatically organize these elements into cohesive wholes. For example, when looking at a painting, we don’t focus solely on each brushstroke or color patch; instead, we perceive it as a complete image with its own unique meaning and emotional impact.

Another important concept in Gestalt theory is known as “figure-ground relationship.” According to this principle, our minds naturally separate visual stimuli into distinct figures (the objects of interest) and background (the surrounding context). This separation allows us to focus our attention on specific elements while simultaneously perceiving their relation to the broader environment. For instance, when observing a tree in a forest, we can distinguish it from the other trees and appreciate its form despite being surrounded by foliage.

Gestalt psychology also highlights the role of perceptual grouping in shaping our perception. Our brains tend to group similar elements together based on various factors such as proximity (objects close to each other are seen as related), similarity (objects that share common features are grouped together), continuity (we tend to perceive smooth curves rather than abrupt changes), and closure (our tendency to fill in missing information to create complete shapes).

Additionally, Gestalt theorists emphasize that perception involves more than just visual stimuli; it encompasses all aspects of human experience including auditory, tactile, olfactory sensations, and even abstract concepts. Gestalt theory suggests that our minds naturally organize and interpret these diverse stimuli in a holistic manner, seeking patterns, meaning, and coherence.

By understanding the principles of Gestalt theory, we can gain insights into how our perception works and how we make sense of the world around us. It offers valuable perspectives for fields such as psychology, design, art, and even problem-solving. As we explore further in this article, we’ll delve into specific examples and applications of Gestalt theory to better grasp its practical implications.

Remember, this section is just the beginning of our exploration into Gestalt theory. Stay tuned for more fascinating insights and real-world examples that will deepen your understanding of this influential psychological framework.

Key Principles of Gestalt Theory

Gestalt theory, coined by German psychologists in the early 20th century, is a school of thought that emphasizes how individuals perceive and interpret the world around them. In this section, we’ll delve into the key principles of Gestalt theory that shed light on our perceptual experiences.

• The Law of Proximity: According to the law of proximity, objects that are close to each other are perceived as belonging together. This principle highlights how our brains naturally group elements based on their physical closeness. For example, imagine a series of dots scattered randomly on a page. Our minds instinctively organize them into clusters or patterns based on their proximity.
• The Law of Similarity: The law of similarity states that objects with similar features tend to be grouped together in our perception. Whether it’s shape, color, size, or texture, similarities between elements influence how we perceive and categorize them. Think about an array of differently shaped fruits displayed at a farmers’ market; we tend to group similar fruits together based on their shared characteristics.
• The Law of Closure: The law of closure suggests that our brains have a tendency to complete incomplete shapes or figures by filling in missing information. Even when presented with fragmented visual stimuli, we unconsciously connect the dots and perceive them as whole objects or forms. This principle explains why we can identify familiar symbols like logos even when they’re partially obscured.
• The Law of Figure-Ground Relationship: The law of figure-ground relationship describes how we perceive an image by differentiating between the main object (the figure) and its background (the ground). Our minds automatically separate an object from its surroundings to create distinct focal points in our perception. For instance, when looking at a photograph against a textured backdrop, we effortlessly distinguish between the subject and its environment.
• The Law of Continuity:

The law of continuity posits that our brains prefer to perceive continuous, smooth patterns rather than abrupt changes or disruptions. This principle suggests that we tend to follow the smoothest path when perceiving visual information and that our minds naturally connect elements along a common pathway. For example, when observing a winding river, we perceive it as a continuous flow rather than separate segments.

Understanding these key principles of Gestalt theory gives us insights into how our minds organize and make sense of the world. By recognizing these fundamental principles, we can better appreciate the complexities of perception and apply them in various design disciplines such as graphic design, architecture, and psychology.

Perception and Organization in Gestalt Theory

When it comes to understanding how we perceive the world around us, Gestalt theory provides valuable insights. This theory highlights that our minds have a natural inclination to organize sensory information into meaningful patterns and wholes, rather than perceiving individual elements in isolation.

One key concept in Gestalt theory is the idea of “figure-ground” perception. It suggests that we instinctively separate objects or figures from their background, allowing us to focus our attention on what stands out. For example, imagine looking at a photograph of a person standing in front of a beautiful landscape. Our mind automatically distinguishes between the person (the figure) and the background scenery (the ground), enabling us to perceive each element separately.

Another important principle within Gestalt theory is the notion of “closure.” Our brains tend to fill in missing information or gaps when presented with incomplete stimuli. This means that even if we are only given fragments or partial shapes, we can still recognize them as complete objects. For instance, if you see an image consisting of several disconnected lines forming an incomplete square, your mind will likely perceive it as a whole square.

Furthermore, Gestalt theory emphasizes how our minds naturally seek simplicity and order in visual perception. The principle of “simplicity” suggests that we tend to interpret complex stimuli by organizing them into simpler forms or patterns. By doing so, we make sense of what we see and reduce cognitive load. For instance, when presented with a scatterplot graph displaying various data points, our brain might automatically group similar points together based on proximity or shape.

Overall, understanding perception and organization through the lens of Gestalt theory sheds light on how our minds process visual information. It reveals our innate ability to form coherent perceptions by grouping elements together based on their relationships and characteristics. By grasping these principles, we can gain deeper insights into human cognition and enhance various fields such as design, psychology, and even marketing.

Gestalt Laws and Their Applications

Let’s delve into the fascinating world of Gestalt theory and explore its laws and practical applications. Understanding these principles can provide valuable insights into how we perceive and interpret the world around us.

• Law of Proximity: According to this principle, objects that are close together tend to be perceived as a group or related. For instance, imagine a group of people standing in a line. Even though they are separate individuals, our brain automatically groups them together due to their proximity.
• Law of Similarity: The law of similarity states that objects that share similar visual characteristics, such as shape, size, color, or texture, are perceived as belonging to the same group. Consider a collection of circles and squares arranged randomly on a page; we instinctively group the circles together and the squares together based on their similarity.
• Law of Closure: This principle suggests that our minds tend to fill in missing information or gaps in order to perceive whole shapes or patterns. For example, if you see an incomplete circle with a small gap at the bottom, your brain will naturally complete it as a full circle.
• Law of Continuity: The law of continuity proposes that our brains prefer smooth and continuous lines rather than abrupt changes in direction or pattern. When presented with intersecting lines or curves, we perceive them as flowing continuously rather than disjoined segments.
• Law of Figure-Ground Relationship: This principle deals with how we distinguish between an object (figure) and its background (ground). Our brains tend to focus on one element while perceiving others as less prominent or secondary. Think about how you can easily differentiate between words on a page and the blank space surrounding them.

These laws have various real-world applications across different fields:

• Graphic Design: Designers often utilize Gestalt principles to create visually appealing layouts by leveraging proximity, similarity, closure, continuity techniques.
• Advertising: Advertisers use these laws to capture viewers’ attention and create memorable visuals that communicate their message effectively.
• User Experience (UX) Design: Applying Gestalt principles in UX design helps designers create intuitive interfaces, ensuring users can easily navigate through websites or applications.
• Psychology and Perception: The study of Gestalt theory has contributed significantly to our understanding of human perception and cognitive processes.

By recognizing the power of Gestalt laws and implementing them consciously, we can enhance communication, design, and overall user experience in various aspects of our lives.

Gestalt Therapy: A Practical Approach

When it comes to therapy, there are various approaches that aim to help individuals overcome challenges and improve their well-being. One such approach is Gestalt therapy, which focuses on the here and now, emphasizing self-awareness and personal responsibility. In this section, I’ll delve into the practical aspects of Gestalt therapy and how it can be applied in real-life situations.

• Awareness in the Present Moment: Gestalt therapy places great importance on being fully present in the current moment. This means paying attention to our thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and behaviors as they arise. By cultivating awareness of what is happening internally and externally, individuals can gain insight into their patterns of behavior and make more conscious choices.

For example, let’s say someone is struggling with anger management issues. Through Gestalt therapy techniques like focusing on bodily sensations associated with anger or exploring the underlying emotions triggering this response, individuals can develop a greater understanding of their anger triggers. This heightened awareness empowers them to respond differently in similar situations in the future.

• Taking Responsibility for One’s Actions: Another key aspect of Gestalt therapy is the emphasis on personal responsibility for one’s actions and choices. It encourages individuals to acknowledge that they have control over how they perceive situations and how they respond to them.

For instance, consider a person who constantly blames external circumstances for their unhappiness or lack of success. In Gestalt therapy sessions, they would be encouraged to explore their role in creating these outcomes and take ownership of their choices. By recognizing their ability to make different decisions or change perspectives, individuals become active participants in shaping their own lives.

• Integration of Parts: Gestalt therapists often work with clients to help integrate different parts of themselves that may feel disconnected or conflicting. This involves exploring inner dialogue between these parts and finding ways to bring them together harmoniously.

Let’s imagine someone struggling with indecisiveness and feeling torn between different desires or values. Through Gestalt therapy techniques like the “empty chair” exercise, where individuals have a dialogue with imagined aspects of themselves, they can explore conflicting thoughts and emotions. This process facilitates self-acceptance and integration, leading to greater clarity and decision-making ability.

In summary, Gestalt therapy offers a practical approach to personal growth and healing by focusing on present awareness, taking responsibility for one’s actions, and integrating different parts of oneself. By incorporating these principles into therapeutic practice, individuals can develop a deeper understanding of themselves and work towards making positive changes in their lives.

Critiques and Controversies Surrounding Gestalt Theory

When it comes to the field of psychology, Gestalt theory has undoubtedly made its mark. However, like any prominent theory, it is not without its fair share of critiques and controversies. Let’s delve into a few key points that have sparked debate among scholars and researchers.

• Reductionism: One criticism often leveled against Gestalt theory is its perceived lack of emphasis on reductionism. Some argue that the holistic approach advocated by Gestalt psychologists undermines the importance of breaking down complex psychological processes into smaller components for analysis. Critics contend that this limits our understanding of human behavior and cognition.
• Subjectivity and Interpretation: Another point of contention revolves around the subjective nature of perception in Gestalt theory. While proponents highlight how individuals actively organize sensory information into meaningful patterns, skeptics argue that interpretation plays a significant role in determining these patterns. This subjectivity raises questions about the reliability and universality of perceptual organization principles proposed by Gestalt psychologists.
• Empirical Evidence: In scientific circles, rigorous empirical evidence holds great significance when evaluating theories. Some critics claim that the experimental support for certain aspects of Gestalt theory is limited or inconclusive. They argue that more research is needed to validate some fundamental assertions put forth by this influential school of thought.
• Cultural Bias: A recurring concern within critiques surrounding many psychological theories is their potential cultural bias. Similar concerns arise with respect to Gestalt theory, as some scholars question whether its principles are applicable across diverse cultural contexts or if they are rooted in Western perspectives alone.
• Integration with Other Theories: Lastly, there are debates about how well Gestalt theory integrates with other branches of psychology and related disciplines such as neuroscience or cognitive psychology. Critics argue that despite its contributions, the gestalt framework might not fully account for all aspects of human behavior and cognition when considered alongside other theoretical frameworks.

It’s important to note that these criticisms and controversies do not negate the valuable contributions made by Gestalt theory. Rather, they serve as thought-provoking avenues for further exploration and refinement of our understanding of human perception and cognition.

In the next section, we’ll explore some real-world applications of Gestalt theory in various fields to showcase its practical relevance. Stay tuned!

Influence of Gestalt Theory on Modern Psychology

Gestalt theory, with its emphasis on the whole being greater than the sum of its parts, has had a profound influence on modern psychology. By examining how individuals perceive and interpret information, Gestalt theory has provided key insights into human cognition and behavior. Let’s delve into some examples that highlight the impact of this theory.

• Perception and Organization: Gestalt psychologists emphasized that our minds have an innate tendency to organize sensory stimuli into meaningful patterns. An example of this is the concept of figure-ground perception, where we naturally distinguish between objects (figures) and their surrounding background (ground). This understanding has greatly influenced research in visual perception, advertising design, and even user interface development.
• Problem-Solving and Insight: Gestalt theory also sheds light on problem-solving processes by emphasizing the role of insight or “aha” moments. According to this perspective, problem-solving involves restructuring our mental representation of a problem to achieve a sudden realization of the solution. This notion has informed various fields like education, cognitive psychology, and creativity studies.
• Holistic Approach in Therapy: The principles of Gestalt therapy align closely with its theoretical counterpart. Instead of focusing solely on isolated symptoms or behaviors, therapists using this approach aim to understand clients as integrated beings within their environment. The therapeutic process focuses on fostering self-awareness, personal growth, and enhancing relationships through exploring emotions in the present moment.
• Social Perception: Gestalt principles extend beyond individual perception to social contexts as well. Social psychologists have applied these ideas to explore how people form impressions about others based on fragmented information or cues they receive when encountering someone for the first time. This research highlights how our minds automatically fill in missing details to create a more coherent understanding of others’ personalities.
• Group Dynamics: Understanding group dynamics is another area significantly influenced by Gestalt theory concepts such as proximity, similarity, and closure. These principles help explain how individuals form affiliations, make group decisions, and perceive themselves as part of a larger collective. Such insights have informed fields like organizational psychology and leadership development.

Gestalt theory has left an indelible mark on modern psychology by offering novel perspectives on perception, problem-solving, therapy, social cognition, and group dynamics. Its holistic approach continues to shape our understanding of human behavior and enrich various domains within the field of psychology.

In this article, we have explored the fascinating concept of Gestalt theory and its impact on psychology and perception. Let’s summarize the key points we’ve discussed:

• Perception is more than the sum of its parts: According to Gestalt theory, our minds naturally organize sensory information into meaningful patterns and wholes. We perceive objects as unified entities rather than a collection of individual elements.
• The principles of Gestalt theory: We have examined several fundamental principles that govern how we perceive visual stimuli, including figure-ground relationship, proximity, similarity, closure, and continuity. These principles help us make sense of the world around us and facilitate efficient processing of visual information.
• Applications in various fields: Gestalt theory has found applications in many domains beyond psychology. It has influenced art, design, advertising, user experience (UX) design, and even problem-solving techniques. Understanding how people perceive and interpret visual information can greatly enhance communication and effectiveness in these areas.
• Limitations and criticisms: While Gestalt theory offers valuable insights into perception, it also faces criticism for oversimplifying complex cognitive processes. Some argue that it neglects other factors such as attention and memory that influence perception.
• Ongoing research: Despite being introduced over a century ago, researchers continue to explore the intricacies of Gestalt theory and its implications today. Advancements in neuroscience allow us to delve deeper into understanding how our brains process visual stimuli.

In conclusion,

Gestalt theory provides a framework for understanding how our minds organize sensory information to create meaningful perceptions of the world around us. By studying these perceptual principles, we gain insights into human cognition that can be applied across various disciplines.

Remembering that perception is not simply about individual elements but about the whole picture helps designers create visually appealing graphics or interfaces while advertisers use this knowledge to engage their target audience effectively.

As technology advances further and our understanding grows deeper through ongoing research efforts, we can expect to uncover even more about the intricacies of perception and its implications for our daily lives.

So, next time you marvel at a beautiful painting or get captivated by an engaging advertisement, remember that Gestalt theory plays a significant role in shaping your perception.

Related Posts

What Is Hedonic Adaptation and How Does It Affect Us?

How to Date Someone with BPD: Navigating Relationships

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• PubMed/Medline
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Gestalt’s perspective on insight: a recap based on recent behavioral and neuroscientific evidence.

1. Introduction

2. the role of perceptual experience in problem-solving cognition: was the parallelism between bistable figures and insight problem-solving warranted, 3. the holistic approach: what has recent research discovered about the idea that solutions to problems sometimes come to mind in an off-on manner.

Using Koffka ’s ( 1935, p. 176 ) words: “The whole is something else than the sum of its parts, because summing is a meaningless procedure, whereas the whole-part relationship is meaningful”. Similarly, insight problem-solving is processed in a discrete off–on manner, and when solutions to problems emerge, they do so as a “whole”, and the solver cannot retroactively report the reasoning process that led him or her to the solution.

4. The Gestalt Psychologists Assume That the Solution to Problems Comes “With Sudden Clarity.” Can We See in This Statement a Proto-Assumption That Insightful Solutions Might Be Characterized by a Perception of Higher Accuracy?

5. conclusions and future directions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Becker, Maxi, Simone Kühn, and Tobias Sommer. 2021. Verbal insight revisited—Dissociable neurocognitive processes underlying solutions accompanied by an AHA! experience with and without prior restructuring. Journal of Cognitive Psychology 33: 659–84. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Beversdorf, D. Q., J. D. Hughes, B. A. Steinberg, L. D. Lewis, and K. M. Heilman. 1999. Noradrenergic modulation of cognitive flexibility in problem-solving. Neuroreport 10: 2763–67. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Bianchi, Ivana, Erika Branchini, Roberto Burro, Elena Capitani, and Ugo Savardi. 2020. Overtly prompting people to “think in opposites” supports insight problem-solving. Thinking & Reasoning 26: 31–67. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bijleveld, Erik, Ruud Custers, and Henk A. G. Aarts. 2009. The unconscious eye opener: Pupil dilation reveals strategic recruitment of resources upon presentation of subliminal reward cues. Psychological Science 20: 1313–15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Bowden, Edward M., Mark Jung-Beeman, Jessica Fleck, and John Kounios. 2005. New approaches to demystifying insight. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9: 322–28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Campbell, Heather L., Madalina E. Tivarus, Ashleigh Hillier, and David Q. Beversdorf. 2008. Increased task difficulty results in greater impact of noradrenergic modulation of cognitive flexibility. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 88: 222–29. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Chapman, C. Richard, Shunichi Oka, David H. Bradshaw, Robert C. Jacobson, and Gary W. Donaldson. 1999. Phasic pupil dilation response to noxious stimulation in normal volunteers: Relationship to brain evoked potentials and pain report. Psychophysiology 36: 44–52. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Corbetta, Maurizio, Gaurav Patel, and Gordon L. Shulman. 2008. The reorienting system of the human brain: From environment to theory of mind. Neuron 58: 306–24. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Coull, Jennifer T., Christian Büchel, Karl J. Friston, and Chris D. Frith. 1999. Noradrenergically mediated plasticity in a human attentional neuronal network. NeuroImage 10: 705–15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Danek, Amory H. 2018. Magic tricks, sudden restructuring, and the Aha! experience: A new model of nonmonotonic problem-solving. In Insight . London: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ]
• Danek, Amory H., and Carola Salvi. 2018. Moment of Truth: Why Aha! Experiences are Correct. The Journal of Creative Behavior 54: 484–86. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Danek, Amory H., and Jasmin M. Kizilirmak. 2021. The whole is more than the sum of its parts—Addressing insight problem solving concurrently from a cognitive and an affective perspective. Journal of Cognitive Psychology 33: 609–15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Danek, Amory H., and Jennifer Wiley. 2017. What about False Insights? Deconstructing the Aha! Experience along Its Multiple Dimensions for Correct and Incorrect Solutions Separately. Frontiers in Psychology 7: 2077. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Danek, Amory H., Thomas Fraps, Albrecht von Müller, Benedikt Grothe, and Michael Öllinger. 2014. Working Wonders? Investigating insight with magic tricks. Cognition 130: 174–85. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• de Rooij, Alwin, Ruben D. Vromans, and Matthijs Dekker. 2018. Noradrenergic modulation of creativity: Evidence from pupillometry. Creativity Research Journal 30: 339–51. [ Google Scholar ]
• Duncan, Seth, and Lisa Feldman Barrett. 2007. The role of the amygdala in visual awareness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11: 190–92. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Einhäuser, Wolfgang, James Stout, Christof Koch, and Olivia Carter. 2008. Pupil dilation reflects perceptual selection and predicts subsequent stability in perceptual rivalry. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105: 1704–09. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ellen, Paul. 1982. Direction, experience, and hints in creative problem solving: Reply to Weisberg and Alba. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 111: 316–25. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Feldman, Harriet, and Karl Friston. 2010. Attention, Uncertainty, and Free Energy. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 4: 215. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Friston, Karl. 2009. The free-energy principle: A rough guide to the brain? Trends in Cognitive Sciences 13: 293–301. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Friston, Karl, Thomas FitzGerald, Francesco Rigoli, Philipp Schwartenbeck, and Giovanni Pezzulo. 2017. Active Inference: A Process Theory. Neural Computation 29: 1–49. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Friston, Karl, Thomas FitzGerald, Francesco Rigoli, Philipp Schwartenbeck, John O’Doherty, and Giovanni Pezzulo. 2016a. Active inference and learning. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 68: 862–79. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Friston, Karl, Vladimir Litvak, Ashwini Oswal, Adeel Razi, Klaas E. Stephan, Bernadette C. M. van Wijk, Gabriel Ziegler, and Peter Zeidman. 2016b. Bayesian model reduction and empirical Bayes for group (DCM) studies. Neuroimage 128: 413–31. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Haarsma, J., P. C. Fletcher, J. D. Griffin, H. J. Taverne, H. Ziauddeen, T. J. Spencer, C. Miller, T. Katthagen, I. Goodyer, K. M. J. Diederen, and et al. 2021. Precision weighting of cortical unsigned prediction error signals benefits learning, is mediated by dopamine, and is impaired in psychosis. Molecular Psychiatry 26: 9. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hedne, Mikael R., Elisabeth Norman, and Janet Metcalfe. 2016. Intuitive Feelings of Warmth and Confidence in Insight and Noninsight Problem Solving of Magic Tricks. Frontiers in Psychology 7: 1314. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jung-Beeman, Mark, Edward M. Bowden, Jason Haberman, Jennifer L. Frymiare, Stella Arambel-Liu, Richard Greenblatt, Paul J. Reber, and John Kounios. 2004. Neural activity when people solve verbal problems with insight. PLoS Biology 2: 500–10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kietzmann, Tim C., Stephan Geuter, and Peter König. 2011. Overt Visual Attention as a Causal Factor of Perceptual Awareness. PLoS ONE 6: e22614. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Koch, Christof, and Naotsugu Tsuchiya. 2007. Attention and consciousness: Two distinct brain processes. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11: 16–22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Koffka, Kurt. 1935. Principles of Gestalt Psychology . Brace: Harcourt. [ Google Scholar ]
• Köhler, Wolfgang. 1925. The Mentality of Apes . Brace: Harcourt, p. viii+, 342. [ Google Scholar ]
• Korovkin, Sergei, Anna Savinova, Julia Padalka, and Anastasia Zhelezova. 2021. Beautiful mind: Grouping of actions into mental schemes leads to a full insight Aha! experience. Journal of Cognitive Psychology 33: 620–30. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kounios, John, and Mark Beeman. 2009. The Aha! Moment: The Cognitive Neuroscience of Insight. Current Directions in Psychological Science 18: 210–16. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kounios, John, and Mark Beeman. 2014. The Cognitive Neuroscience of Insight. Annual Review of Psychology 65: 71–93. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kounios, John, Jennifer L. Frymiare, Edward M. Bowden, Jessica I. Fleck, Karuna Subramaniam, Todd B. Parrish, and Mark Jung-Beeman. 2006. The prepared mind: Neural activity prior to problem presentation predicts subsequent solution by sudden insight. Psychological Science 17: 882–90. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Kounios, John, Jessica I. Fleck, Deborah L. Green, Lisa Payne, Jennifer L. Stevenson, Edward M. Bowden, and Mark Jung-Beeman. 2008. The Origins of Insight in Resting-State Brain Activity. Neuropsychologia 46: 281–91. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Laeng, Bruno, and Dinu-Stefan Teodorescu. 2002. Eye scanpath during visual imagery reenact those of perception of the same visual scene. Cognitive Science 26: 207–31. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Laukkonen, Ruben E., and Jason M. Tangen. 2017. Can observing a Necker cube make you more insightful? Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal 48: 198–211. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Laukkonen, Ruben E., Benjamin T. Kaveladze, Jason M. Tangen, and Jonathan W. Schooler. 2020. The dark side of Eureka: Artificially induced Aha moments make facts feel true. Cognition 196: 104122. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Laukkonen, Ruben E., Daniel J. Ingledew, Hilary J. Grimmer, Jonathan W. Schooler, and Jason M. Tangen. 2021. Getting a grip on insight: Real-time and embodied Aha experiences predict correct solutions. Cognition and Emotion 35: 918–35. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Laukkonen, Ruben E., Margaret Webb, Carola Salvi, Jason M. Tangen, Heleen A. Slagter, and Jonathan W. Schooler. 2023. Insight and the selection of ideas. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 153: 105363. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Maier, N. R. F. 1940. The behavior mechanisms concerned with problem solving. Psychological Review 47: 43–58. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Metcalfe, Janet. 1986. Feeling of knowing in memory and problem solving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12: 288–94. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mungan, Esra. 2023. Gestalt theory: A revolution put on pause? Prospects for a paradigm shift in the psychological sciences. New Ideas in Psychology 71: 101036. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Oh, Yongtaek, Christine Chesebrough, Brian Erickson, Fengqing Zhang, and John Kounios. 2020. An insight-related neural reward signal. NeuroImage 214: 116757. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Salvi, Carola. 2023. Markers of Insight. Available online: https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/73y5k (accessed on 15 September 2023).
• Salvi, Carola, and Edward M. Bowden. 2016. Looking for creativity: Where do we look when we look for new ideas? Frontiers in Psychology 7: 161. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Salvi, Carola, Claudio Simoncini, Jordan Grafman, and Mark Beeman. 2020. Oculometric signature of switch into awareness? Pupil size predicts sudden insight whereas microsaccades predict problem-solving via analysis. NeuroImage 217: 116933. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Salvi, Carola, Emanuela Bricolo, John Kounios, Edward Bowden, and Mark Beeman. 2016. Insight solutions are correct more often than analytic solutions. Thinking & Reasoning 22: 443–60. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Salvi, Carola, Emanuela Bricolo, Steven L. Franconeri, John Kounios, and Mark Beeman. 2015. Sudden insight is associated with shutting out visual inputs. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 22: 1814–19. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Salvi, Carola, Emily K. Leiker, Beatrix Baricca, Maria A. Molinari, Roberto Eleopra, Paolo F. Nichelli, Jordan Grafman, and Joseph E. Dunsmoor. 2021. The Effect of Dopaminergic Replacement Therapy on Creative Thinking and Insight Problem-Solving in Parkinson’s Disease Patients. Frontiers in Psychology 12: 646448. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sara, Susan J. 2009. The locus coeruleus and noradrenergic modulation of cognition. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 10: 211–23. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sara, Susan J., and Sebastien Bouret. 2012. Orienting and reorienting: The locus coeruleus mediates cognition through arousal. Neuron 76: 130–41. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Smith, Roderick W., and John Kounios. 1996. Sudden insight: All-or-none processing revealed by speed-accuracy decomposition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 22: 1443–62. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Thorndike, Edward L. 1911. Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies . New York: Macmillan. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tik, Martin, Ronald Sladky, Caroline Di Bernardi Luft, David Willinger, André Hoffmann, Michael J. Banissy, Joydeep Bhattacharya, and Christian Windischberger. 2018. Ultra-high-field fMRI insights on insight: Neural correlates of the Aha!-moment. Human Brain Mapping 39: 3241–52. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Webb, Margaret E., Daniel R. Little, and Simon J. Cropper. 2016. Insight Is Not in the Problem: Investigating Insight in Problem Solving across Task Types. Frontiers in Psychology 7: 1424. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Weisberg, Robert. 1986. Creativity: Genius and Other Myths . New York: W H Freeman/Times Books/Henry Holt & Co., p. 169. [ Google Scholar ]
• Weisberg, Robert W., and Joseph W. Alba. 1981. An examination of the alleged role of “fixation” in the solution of several “insight” problems. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 110: 169–92. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Weisberg. 2018. Problem solving. In The Routledge International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning . Edited by L. J. Ball and V. A. Thompson. Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group, pp. 607–23. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wertheimer, Max. 1923. Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt. II. Psychologische Forschung 4: 301–50. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wertheimer, Max. 1959. Productive Thinking . New York: Harper, p. xvi, 302. [ Google Scholar ]

Share and Cite

Vitello, M.; Salvi, C. Gestalt’s Perspective on Insight: A Recap Based on Recent Behavioral and Neuroscientific Evidence. J. Intell. 2023 , 11 , 224. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11120224

Vitello M, Salvi C. Gestalt’s Perspective on Insight: A Recap Based on Recent Behavioral and Neuroscientific Evidence. Journal of Intelligence . 2023; 11(12):224. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11120224

Vitello, Mary, and Carola Salvi. 2023. "Gestalt’s Perspective on Insight: A Recap Based on Recent Behavioral and Neuroscientific Evidence" Journal of Intelligence 11, no. 12: 224. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11120224

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

• Memberships

Gestalt Psychology: Theory and Definition

Gestalt Psychology: this article provides a practical explanation of Gestalt psychology by Max Wertheimer , Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler . This article also contains the general Gestalt Psychology definition , its principles and a practical example. After reading, you’ll understand the basics of this psychology theory. Enjoy reading.

What is Gestalt Psychology? The theory

The word gestalt originates from German and is being used to talk about the way something is put together. Often, it is translated into English as the “form” , “shape” or unified whole.

Gestalt psychology can be defined as a school of thought that emerged in the early twenties and believes that the whole of an object or a scene is greater and more important than its components.

Through this concept, we are encouraged to see and treat the mind and behavior as a whole. Gestalt states that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This approach creates clarity in chaos by helping to unify separate parts of information and to look for patterns.

The movement also contributed to the study of sensation and perception. The aim was to understand how humans give meaning to the world they live in, and how they identify the order in disorder.

According to Gestalt Psychology, humans interpret what they see in the world, depending on what they expect to see, and will try to find a pattern in what they see and experience.

The definition of Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt Psychology is a school of thought which seeks to explain the perception humans have of several facets of life. This school of thought explains human perception on the basis that the whole of an image or structure is more important to our brain than the individual components.

Who is the founder of Gestalt Psychology?

Gestalt Psychology was founded in Germany during the early twenty century by psychologist Max Wertheimer and co-founders Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler . Other names that are associated with this movement are Kurt Goldstein and Ernst Mach.

They all met at the Psychological Institute of Frankfurt University, where Wertheimer was working as a professor while Koffka and Köhler were assisting him in his work. The University is also where they formed the school of thought, Gestalt Psychology.

Max Wertheimer is known for a concept called the Phi phenomenon. During his traveling, he noticed how at a train station, two separate lights going on and off created the illusion of movement. Max Wertheimer then became interested in the study of perception, which formed the beginning of his research on Gestalt Psychology.

With his research, he responded to structuralism and the approach by psychologist Wilhelm Wundt who was known for breaking down psychological events into separate parts.

Max Wertheimer , on the other hand, found that the parts were related and believed in looking at the human mind and behavior as a whole.

Experiments

An experiment, similar to Max Wertheimer his experience with the two flashing lights at the train station, formed the beginning of research on Gestalt Psychology. For this experiment Wertheimer and his colleagues, Koffka and Köhler focused on the concept of “apparent perception” .

What they discovered was that when two lights flash right after one another, it will create an illusion of uninterrupted motion.

Instead of seeing two separate lights, the person would perceive one light to be moving from the point of the first light to the spot where the second light was standing.

This was another result that added to the Gestaltists belief that the human mind has its way of organizing and that it’s based on perceiving things as a whole rather than individual parts.

What are the main principles of Gestalt Psychology?

After Gestalt Psychology was founded, co-founder Kurt Koffka published Principles of Gestalt Psychology, in which he presented the Gestalt theory and its principles.

The following principles from Gestalt psychology describe the way human perception works and how we give meaning to objects and events. These principles are often referred to as the gestalt laws.

Proximity law

The law of proximity states that, when the human eye sees elements that are placed close to each other, we perceive them to be a set or a group.

An example is the way we read a text. When letters are put together, our perception is that they form a word.

Similarity law

Another way humans tend to group elements in their visual fields is by looking for similarities. Elements that look alike will automatically be grouped together. For example, during a sports event, people who wear the same color shirt are perceived to be on the same team. This is called the law of similarity.

Continuation

Also, part of Gestalt Psychology is the continuation principle, or law of continuity. It states that the human eye prefers to see a continuous line or perception of movement rather than separate elements.

An example. We perceive objects, such as a sign on a building of which a tree partly covers a letter X.

Our mind will still perceive it to be the letter X and we’ll read the sign without any problem. We can see the continuity of the lines.

The law of closure explains how humans prefer to see complete elements. When seeing incomplete elements, we can fill in missing information to still perceive it as complete.

This principle is often used for advertisements. Advertisers come up with indicative phrases for the public to complete. This approach is believed to trigger interest and greater involvement from the audience.

Figure-ground

The principle of figure and ground explains how humans in their visual field make a distinction between figure and ground. The figure is the object or person that’s central in our visual field, while the ground is less present and is perceived as the background.

This explains how a human’s perception of an object or situation can be different from someone else’s perception, which depends on what is perceived as the figure and the ground.

This principle was used by Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin , who experimented with optical illusion.

Common fate

Another principle of Gestalt Psychology is the principle of common fate. When the human eye sees elements moving together in a certain direction, they are usually perceived as a group.

An example of a common fate is when we see children heading to the playground, which can make us perceive them as a whole. It is possible to look at the elements separately when done intentionally.

Law of Pragnänz

It’s impossible to spend time and energy on everything around us. Therefore, we tend to organize the elements we see in the simplest way possible. The human mind prefers simplicity and that is why we try to simplify what we perceive.

This way, when we see a car, we don’t need any additional information to know what we are looking at. This is called the law of Pragnänz . Pragnänz is a German word, meaning conciseness in English.

The principles mentioned above help us to understand how human perception works.

Gestalt theorists recognize that the way we see the world, is also influenced by other factors such as personality , expectations, and experiences.

Example of Gestalt Psychology

One of the examples used to explain Gestalt Psychology is the following: When there is no movement, humans can still have the perception that there is movement, which was also the case with the two flashing lights that led to the Phi phenomenon.

A film, for example, is a series of individual images, but by rapidly showing the images we perceive them as a continuous motion while in reality there is none. According to Gestalt psychologists, this is the result of our minds filling in missing information. In this example, the missing information is the gaps between the images.

This shows that the “whole” plays a more significant role in human minds than the sum of individual parts.

Another Gestalt Psychology example can be based on one or more of the main principles of this school of thought.

The similarity law clearly demonstrates how we simplify information. A group of many different breeds of dogs will be perceived as “a group of dogs” instead of “a Pomeranian, a labradoodle and two chow chows” . In this sense, the most important aspect is the bigger picture: the group of dogs.

Application of Gestalt Psychology

1. basic psychology.

Basic psychological processes, such as perception and attention, are greatly influenced by Gestalt psychology.

These basic psychological processes are fundamental and applied to practical matters. For example, the development in the study of perception contributes to programs that are carried out to avoid accidents by improving road signs. This can only be done through the knowledge we have on perception.

2. Communication

To be able to trigger the attention of the audience, people working in the field of communication and creativity, use Gestalt Psychology.

For people working as artists, publicists, or designers, it is of importance to understand how the human mind interprets images. This knowledge can help them to produce work that communicates to their audience in the way they intended it to do.

3. Problem-solving

To solve a problem, it’s essential to understand the problem you are working with.

In Gestalt psychology, it is believed that a problem consists of components that are related and interact with one another.

To solve the problem, you need to reorganize these components to be able to discover a new solution. This creative reorganization of the components of a problem is called productive thinking .

Gestalt psychologists recommend using productive thinking to reach inside into different issues.

4. Education

In education, Gestalt Psychology is applied to perception and problem-solving. The application of Gestalt psychology to education implies that teachers should encourage students to solve a problem by discovering the different elements of the problem and how they are related.

5. Gestalt Therapy

Therapy based on Gestalt Psychology is a humanistic approach in which people are considered to be powerful and independent beings. It looks at the functioning of the human mind from a holistic point of view, with each person having his or her own thoughts, experiences, and reality.

The development of Gestalt therapy started in the 1940s with author Fritz Perls.

He argued that each person has his or her own reality, which is determined by our perception and that it’s our own responsibility to change our perception. This way of thinking is also central in Gestalt Therapy, whereby personal growth and identity building are the focus points.

Gestalt Psychology and the Gestalt Institute of Cleveland

The Gestalt Institute of Cleveland attracts people from around the world.

At the institute, workshops and training programs are organized based on Gestalt principles and methodologies. The design of the workshops and training programs focuses on transformation from the individual level to organizational levels.

Gestalt Psychology in daily life

Gestalt Psychology can also be applied to our daily life. As mentioned in this article, Gestalt Psychology can be used for problem-solving and encourage more creativity.

Now it’s your turn

What do you think? Do you recognize the explanation about Gestalt Psychology? Do you recognize the principles in the way you perceive things? Do you recognize this type of psychology in the way people around you perceive the world? Is there a way in which you could apply this knowledge to your work or studies? Are there situations in which you don’t perceive objects or events as a whole? Do you have any tips or additional comments?

Share your experience and knowledge in the comments box below.

More information

• Behrens, R. R. (1998). Art, design and gestalt theory. Leonardo, 31(4), 299-303.
• Köhler, W. (1967). Gestalt psychology. Psychologische Forschung. 31(1), XVIII-XXX.
• Köhler, W. (2015). The task of Gestalt psychology. Princeton University Press.
• Wertheimer, M. (1968). A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology. Psyccritiques, 13(8).

How to cite this article: Van Velden, E. (2020). Gestalt Psychology . Retrieved [insert date] from Toolshero: https://www.toolshero.com/psychology/gestalt-psychology/

Published on: 07/10/2020 | Last update: 12/28/2023

Add a link to this page on your website: <a href=”https://www.toolshero.com/psychology/gestalt-psychology/”>Toolshero: Gestalt Psychology</a>

Did you find this article interesting?

Your rating is more than welcome or share this article via Social media!

Average rating 4.2 / 5. Vote count: 13

No votes so far! Be the first to rate this post.

We are sorry that this post was not useful for you!

Let us improve this post!

Tell us how we can improve this post?

Erika van Velden

Erika van Velden is working as a Content Writer at toolshero. She has a study background in International Studies and Anthropology with a focus on Intercultural Communication and Management. This knowledge helps her to anticipate her readers' questions and to write understandable content.

Related ARTICLES

Martin Seligman biography, quotes and books

17 Principles of Success by Napoleon Hill

Human Relations Theory by Elton Mayo

Kurt Lewin biography, change theory and books

Victor Vroom biography, theory and books

Edward Thorndike biography, quotes and books

Also interesting.

Ikigai explained including the meaning

Clifton Strengths Test method

Chunking explained including the definition

Leave a reply cancel reply.

You must be logged in to post a comment.

BOOST YOUR SKILLS

Toolshero supports people worldwide ( 10+ million visitors from 100+ countries ) to empower themselves through an easily accessible and high-quality learning platform for personal and professional development.

By making access to scientific knowledge simple and affordable, self-development becomes attainable for everyone, including you! Join our learning platform and boost your skills with Toolshero.

POPULAR TOPICS

• Change Management
• Marketing Theories
• Problem Solving Theories
• Psychology Theories

ABOUT TOOLSHERO

• Free Toolshero e-book
• Memberships & Pricing

InstructionalDesign.org

Home » Learning Theories » Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)

Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)

Along with Kohler and Koffka, Max Wertheimer was one of the principal proponents of Gestalt theory which emphasized higher-order cognitive processes in the midst of behaviorism. The focus of Gestalt theory was the idea of “grouping”, i.e., characteristics of stimuli cause us to structure or interpret a visual field or problem in a certain way (Wertheimer, 1922). The primary factors that determine grouping were: (1) proximity – elements tend to be grouped together according to their nearness, (2) similarity – items similar in some respect tend to be grouped together, (3) closure – items are grouped together if they tend to complete some entity, and (4) simplicity – items will be organized into simple figures according to symmetry, regularity, and smoothness. These factors were called the laws of organization and were explained in the context of perception and problem-solving.

Wertheimer was especially concerned with problem-solving. Werthiemer (1959) provides a Gestalt interpretation of problem-solving episodes of famous scientists (e.g., Galileo, Einstein) as well as children presented with mathematical problems. The essence of successful problem-solving behavior according to Wertheimer is being able to see the overall structure of the problem: “A certain region in the field becomes crucial, is focused; but it does not become isolated. A new, deeper structural view of the situation develops, involving changes in functional meaning, the grouping, etc. of the items. Directed by what is required by the structure of a situation for a crucial region, one is led to a reasonable prediction, which like the other parts of the structure, calls for verification, direct or indirect. Two directions are involved: getting a whole consistent picture, and seeing what the structure of the whole requires for the parts.” (p 212).

Application

Gestalt theory applies to all aspects of human learning, although it applies most directly to perception and problem-solving. The work of  Gibson  was strongly influenced by Gestalt theory.

The classic example of Gestalt principles provided by Wertheimer is children finding the area of parallelograms. As long as the parallelograms are regular figures, a standard procedure can be applied (making lines perpendicular from the corners of the base). However, if a parallelogram with a novel shape or orientation is provided, the standard procedure will not work and children are forced to solve the problem by understanding the true structure of a parallelogram (i.e., the figure can be bisected anywhere if the ends are joined).

• The learner should be encouraged to discover the underlying nature of a topic or problem (i.e., the relationship among the elements).
• Gaps, incongruities, or disturbances are an important stimulus for learning
• Instruction should be based upon the laws of organization: proximity, closure, similarity and simplicity.
• Ellis, W.D. (1938). A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
• Wertheimer, M. (1923). Laws of organization in perceptual forms. First published as Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt II, in  Psycologische Forschung ,  4 , 301-350. Translation published in Ellis, W. (1938).  A source book of Gestalt psychology  (pp. 71-88). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Wertheimer, M. (1959). Productive Thinking (Enlarged Ed.). New York:Harper & Row.

NOTE : Thanks to Gerhard Stemberger ([email protected]) for his help with this page.

• Mathematics Education
• Problem Solving

Gestalt Research on Problem-Solving and Today's Gestalt

• August 2021

• Bogazici University

Discover the world's research

• 25+ million members
• 160+ million publication pages
• 2.3+ billion citations

• PATTERN ANAL APPL

• Katherine R. Storrs

• Max Wertheimer

• Angelos Amanatiadis

• E. B. Kosmatopoulos
• Wolfgang Köhler
• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

• skip to content

Learning Theories

• Recent Changes
• Media Manager

Table of Contents

What is gestalt psychology, what is the practical meaning of gestalt psychology, keywords and most important names, bibliography, gestalt psychology.

Gestalt psychology was first introduced in 1912 by Max Wertheimer 1) , a German psychologist, when he published a paper on optical illusion called apparent motion . In the paper he analyzed the illusion occurring when a series of static images is perceived as movement, just like films. The assumption that whole is more than just sum of its parts is the basic principle of gestalt psychology.

Gestalt theory was introduced as a contrast to at the time dominant structuralism , which claimed that complex perceptions could be understood through breaking them into smaller elementary parts of experience, like splitting graphical forms into sets of dots or melody into sequence of sounds. Gestaltists attacked this theory : same melody can be recognized if transposed into another key and perception of a rectangle can be achieved through other forms than four lines. The idea of Wertheimer was that the ability to perceive objects was an ability of the nervous system , which tends to group together objects that are nearby , similar, form smooth lines , form most of the shape we can recognize . These are the four Wertheimer's laws of grouping :

• Similarity - objects with similar properties (like shape or color) are grouped together
• Proximity - objects nearby are grouped together
• Continuation - objects that define smooth lines or curves are grouped together
• Closure - if enough of the shape is presented, the whole is perceived by filling in the missing information

Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin in 1921 introduced another important gestalt aspect of organization (although he wasn't a gestaltist himself), the figure-ground perception. Rubin suggested that a group of connected objects can mentally be interpreted as an object (figure) or surface behind it (ground) and formulated conditions describing when would which of that be the case.

The final Gestalt concept is the principle of Prägnanz , which claims that when visual stimulus can be interpreted in more ways (for example a partly hidden figure), people tend to organize it as simple , regular and symmetric as much as the conditions (information retrieved by the retina in the eye) allow. Gestaltists explained this through an idea of brains electric fields which reached an minimal energy state, but this theory is today mostly rejected.

Gestaltist views on learning and problem-solving were opposed to at the time dominant pre-behaviorist and behaviorist views. Wertheimer emphasized importance of seeing the whole structure of the problem . Köhler performed experiments with animals learning through trial and error sessions. In his most famous example of insight learning in animals he gave a chimp named Sultan sticks that could be assembled together to form a longer one and placed a banana outside his cage out of his reach. Sultan, after considering the situation, suddenly jumped, assembled the sticks, and reached the banana. Discovery of correct solution to the problem was followed by insight occurrence. This presents insightful learning , which has following properties 8) :

• Transition from pre-solution to solution is sudden and complete.
• When problem solution is found, performance is smooth and without errors.
• Insightful learning results in longer retention.
• The principle learned by insight can easily be applied to other problems.

Wertheimer suggested usage of gestalt principles in education. He contrasted productive thinking from rote learning , which occurs without understanding . Humans, unlike animals, can learn not only through conditioning or trial and error but also through explanations through changing their cognitive structure to achieve cognitive structure of the explainer, yet this should not be turned into rote learning. Problem-solving presents learning with understanding using gestalt principles. This learning is remembered for a long time, and can be applied to other situations. Gestaltism therefore suggests that learners should be encouraged to discover whole nature or relationships between elements of a problem, but also to exclude implicit assumptions that might be incorrect. Since human mind functions in accordance with the mentioned principles, instructional design should be based on proximity , closure , similarity and simplicity .

Application of gestalt laws has been suggested for concept and knowledge maps design (considering colors, shapes and groupings), where it has provided positive results 9) .

Gestalt theory was mostly criticized for:

• being too descriptive instead of offering explanations and models for described phenomena,
• investigating subjective experiences like perception,
• lack of precision in descriptions and just qualitative description,
• denying the basic scientific approach of understanding a whole as a set of its parts .

Gestalt theory has inspired psychologist like Kurt Lewin or Kurt Goldstein , who introduced it in other aspects of psychology. Gestalt views also inspired later cognitivist theories .

• Gestalt , figure/ground , prägnanz , proximity , closure , similarity , simplicity
• Max Wertheimer , Wolfgang Köhler , Kurt Koffka

Rock, I. and Palmer, S. The Legacy of Gestalt Psychology. Scientific American, 263(6), p48-61. 1990.

TIP: Theories. Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer). Retrieved March 21, 2011.

Boeree, G. General Psychology - Perception and Interaction. Retrieved March 21, 2011.

Koffka, Kurt. Principles of Gestalt Psychology. Routledge, 1999.

Koffka, K. Perception: An introduction to the Gestalt-theory. Psychological Bulletin, 19, 531-585. 1922.

Wertheimer, M. Laws of Organization in Perceptual Forms. Translation published in Ellis, W. A source book of Gestalt psychology (pp. 71-88). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1938.

Wertheimer, M. A source book of Gestalt psychology. Hartcourt, Brace and Co, New York, 1938.

Weibler J, Rohn-Endres S. Learning conversation and shared network leadership: Development, Gestalt, and consequences. Journal Of Personnel Psychology,9(4),181-194. 2010.

Prodöhl C, Würtz R, von der Malsburg C. Learning the Gestalt rule of collinearity from object motion. Neural Computation, 15(8), 1865-1896. 2003.

• Show pagesource
• Old revisions
• Export to PDF
• Back to top

Health, Brain and Neuroscience

Mental, physical health and neuroscience, gestalt theory: what is it, characteristics, its laws and main applications.

What is Gestalt Theory? Discover here one of the most important trends in psychology. We will tell you about their characteristics, main authors, contributions, and applications. Also a bonus on how these contribute in a personal level.

Table of Contents

What is the Gestalt Theory?

Gestalt is a decisive trend in psychology history. It was born in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. It was Christian von Ehrenfels, an Austrian philosopher, who gave this movement its name in The Attributes of Form, his most important work. There is no perfect English translation of the term “gestalt”. But we can interpret it as “totality”,”figure”,”structure”,”configuration” or “organized unity”.

“The whole is more than the sum of its parts” is its maximum. The main authors of Gestalt proposed alternatives to the dominant psychological paradigms and made great contributions to cognitive psychology .

This particular focus was a breath of fresh air and allowed people who did not feel represented by the main currents of psychology to find an alternative.

Gestalt Theory: Characteristics

• Its main predecessors of gestalt theory are philosophers: Thinkers such as Kant, Descartes or Husserl developed the theoretic basis on which this school developed. The psychologists belonging to this current were able to take their ideas to the laboratory and obtain amazing results.
• We must treat people as a whole: We cannot explore the different dimensions that shape us in isolation. A holistic approach is needed when speaking about mental health. The complexity of the human mind cannot be reduced. Gestalt theory explores the dynamic relationships that connect the various elements of reality. Gestalt theory does not conceive separating processes such as learning from memory.
• We are active in understanding reality: We do not all perceive reality, in the same way, we have our own vision. Each one structures the information they receive according to their previous experiences. Our mental representations do not correspond completely with those that exist in reality, we construct them ourselves. We are also able to adapt our mental processes and contents as new situations arise.
• They opposed the predominant schools in their time: Gestalt theory psychologists did not agree with approaches such as behaviorism , which limits human behavior to associations between stigmas and responses. This perspective leaves mental processes aside and does not contemplate the potential of human intelligence. On the other hand, they did not adhere to psychoanalysts either, seeing people as passive agents without willpower .
• Gestalt theory’s main study area is perception: Gestalt theorist focused especially on seeking simple and natural explanations that could be adapted to our natural way of perceiving reality. Through perception , we are able to acquire knowledge of the world, interact with it and connect with others.

Our senses and mental processes interact to allow us to perform tasks as varied as removing the hand from a burning surface or notice that the person speaking to us is upset by their frowning. Gestalt theory focuses on visual perception. However, their ideas have been adapted to fields such as music.

Gestalt Theory: Main contributions

Gestalt psychologists are known for their contributions to the study of the learning process and problem-solving. However, their most relevant contribution, which was stated by Wertheimer, is the elaboration of some basic laws that govern our perception.

Gestalt Theory Laws

We can see a host of examples of these principles around us. In addition, they are fully applicable to our daily life.

1. Law of Prägnanz

Perception tends to organize the elements in the simplest possible way. Our brain prefers harmonious compositions. Mental processes are not infinite, we cannot dedicate time and resources to everything around us. Therefore, we simplify what we perceive and prefer simplicity. In this picture, we don’t need any more data to know that we are looking at a cup.

2. Figure-ground law

We have all seen Rubin’s glass at one time or another, it is the best-known example of this phenomenon. We will have realized that it is impossible to perceive the faces and the cup at the same time.

3. Law of proximity

The elements closest to each other tend to form a group as if they were one set. If you look at three piles of candy, you’ll notice three groups instead of seeing all the candy separately. In this example, we perceive the objects in each box as a single block.

4. Law of similarity

Similar figures seem to have the same shape. Their similarity may be due to the fact that they have a similar color, shape or any other characteristic that allows us to draw a parallel between them. We know that each tree has its own characteristics; not all trees have exactly the same height and color. However, from this point of view, they seem to us to be practically the same because of their similarity.

5. Common Fate law

Elements that seem to move together towards a certain orientation are perceived as a whole. If we see some children running to an ice cream stand, we will look at them as a whole. However, we can also look at them one by one if we are interested. In this case, we perceive the group in a homogeneous way.

6: Law of Closure

We tend to mentally close the contours to simplify reality. If we see a slightly curved curve that is practically closed, we will notice a circumference. It is also possible to apply this law to verbal messages.

For example, advertisers release suggestive phrases for their audience to complete. This technique requires a little effort on the part of the public to be effective. However, it maintains its interest and can achieve greater involvement.

This photograph leads us to imagine a closed line that unites all people. We see that they are separate, but our brain reduces the information.

7. Law of Good Continuity

We prefer to ignore the abrupt changes in an image we are seeing. Generally speaking, we pay more attention to the characteristics of a stimulus that allow us to perceive a smooth continuity.

One example is that if we are walking around and notice on a poster an A covered in half by a street lamp, we will continue to know that the letter is A and read the text without difficulties. In this example, we can see the continuity of the branches.

Gestalt Theory: Applications

Basic research.

The study of basic psychological processes such as attention or perception has been influenced by Gestalt theory. Their research is fundamental for other authors to apply their discoveries to practice.

For example, advances in the field of perception make it possible for us to carry out programmes to improve road signs and avoid accidents. Their ideas continue to be reviewed and modified by experts to help us better understand how we work.

Problem solving

Gestalt psychologists believed that the circumstances are composed of several components that interact with each other. If we want to solve a problem we have to reorganize its components to discover a new solution. This idea can be extrapolated to all areas of our life. What do we have to do every day to solve a problem?

Wertheimer proposed the difference between productive thinking , which consists in carrying out creative reorganizations of the elements of the problems in order to solve them, and reproductive thinking , which is limited to applying the previous knowledge in a mechanical way.

Gestalt theory insists on using productive thinking, which will help us to reach insight. This term refers to the eureka moment, which takes place when we suddenly realize what the answer to our difficulties is.

Students should be more than just data recorders and learn to look for ways to solve their difficulties on their own. Practically all the contributions of the Gestalt can be integrated into the field of education. From their insights into mental processes to their ideas about therapy, they enable students to progress both academically and personally.

Communication

People linked to the world of communication and creativity, such as artists, designers or publicists, must know Gestalt Theory very well in order to attract the attention of their audience. Knowing how we interpret images is essential for them to be able to create works that allow them to transmit their messages and establish an effective dialogue with their audience.

When we see a poster saturated with visual elements and plagued with different typographies on a billboard, we are likely to ignore it directly. These laws allow us to understand that “less is more”.

If we want to compose memorable images that come directly to our recipients, we must select what? is the most important part of our message. We have to put it as clearly as possible. All the attention must be focused on the essentials without irrelevant distractions.

Gestalt Theory: Therapy

This therapy is approached from a humanistic approach , which considers people active beings and independent. It analyzes the human mind from its most transcendental side, explores its functioning from a holistic point of view and focuses on the positive aspects of life.

Gestalt theory therapy adopts the Kantian idea that we cannot know how things are in reality, but if we experience them. Each person presents his/her own thoughts, experiences, desires and other complexities. Our variability involves that each individual is considered individually. This therapy also has similarities with Buddhism, as it focuses on developing attention and awareness.

Gestalt theory therapy began to be developed by Fritz Perls in the 1940’s. For this author, each one of us has their own truth and he focused on the creative potential of each person. Perls emphasized that perception is the key to reality and we are responsible for changing it. He composed a sentence summarizing his thoughts:

I do what I do and you do what you do. I am not in this world to meet your expectations, nor are you in this world to meet my expectations. You are you, and I am I, and if by chance we meet, it will be wonderful. If not, nothing can be done – Fritz Perls

Gestalt therapy wants us to live “here and now” without pretending to be something that we are not. The intention is for us to grow personally and have a clear identity. Therapist and patient collaborate in this process without establishing hierarchies, they are two people with a common objective.

What can Gestalt Theory give us?

We can apply everything we have read in this article to our daily life. The great advantages of Gestalt’s theory are its application to everyday fields and the simplicity of its approaches.

Your ideas help us to better understand how we process and interpret reality. For example, they explain some optical illusions or our behavior when we go down the street and group the various elements together instead of paying attention to each one.

In addition, Gestalt can help us in daily challenges as common as problem-solving, encouraging us to be more creative and organized . On the other hand, we can follow some of the indications of Gestalt therapy to promote our personal growth.

Criticism of Gestalt Theory

Their ideas are still successful, but they are not spared from critics. Some experts consider their perceptual organizational approaches to be vague and ambiguous. In addition, other professionals claim that their experiments were not scientific enough.

On the other hand, Gestalt therapy is blamed for its individualism. They propose that each person finds his or her own path in isolation rather than deepening his or her social side. This can lead to selfish behavior. However, its followers claim that we need to discover ourselves first in order to connect with others afterward.

There are different approaches to psychology and we cannot determine who is right. Even so, it is possible to combine different perspectives in order to elaborate more complete and integrative explanations.

Gestalt Theory: Fundamental Authors

These psychologists were the most important representatives of Gestalt Theory. Their ideas continue to be revised and inspire new theories today.

1. Wolfgang K ö hler

Founded this movement with Koffka and Wertheimer. His main contribution was learning by discovery and maintains that this process is active and dynamic.

He showed that chimpanzees try to solve problems by trial and error. After several failures in tasks such as reaching for food, the primates with whom he experimented seemed to reflect on the solution until they found it. In fact, they were then able to extrapolate it to similar new situations.

2. Max Wertheimer

The phenomena phi or apparent movement is its most revolutionary discovery. It consists in the perceiving movement from the succession of different fragmented images. For example, it happens when we perceive the succession of film frames as if it were a real movement.

3. Kurt Koffka

His contributions were elementary in several fields. He studied memory, learning, perception and also applied Gestalt to fields such as child psychology.

It emphasized the need to consider mental processes from a holistic point of view. He also helped Wertheimer in his research on the apparent movement by becoming involved as a subject.

4. Kurt Lewin

He was not one of the founders of Gestalt Theory. However, he was a prominent social psychologist who brought the ideas of Gestalt to this area. His study was more focused on motivation and psychosocial intervention using Gestalt.

These four psychologists were forced to emigrate to the United States after feeling threatened by Nazism.

Thank you so much for reading this article. We hope that the Gestalt Theory has been inspiring to you. If you have any questions or would like to make a contribution, please do not hesitate to comment.

This post is originally in Spanish written by Ainhoa Arranz, translated by Alejandra Salazar. 

Alejandra is a clinical and health psychologist. She is a child specialist with a diploma in evaluation and intervention in autism. She has worked in different schools with young children and private practice for over 6 years. She is interested in early childhood intervention, emotional intelligence, and attachment styles. As a brain and human behavior enthusiast, she is more than happy to answer your questions and share her experience.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

You must be logged in to post a comment.

The Conclusions of Gestalt Psychology and Its Limitations

Cite this chapter.

• Jürgen Weber 2  

199 Accesses

The gestalt (form) psychologists were the first to recognize this question as a central problem. Up to the end of the nineteenth century it was thought that a whole was constructed by adding up its perceived details, i.e. that perception proceeded from the individual to the general, the gestalt psychologists — hence the name they chose for themselves — proceeded from the opposite hypothesis: initially a geometrically simplified whole form is perceived and only then, in further acts of seeing, the details, also geometrically simplified, of course. Thus Arnheim writes in his well-known book “Art and Visual Perception” (1954), “The experimental findings demand a complete turnabout in the theory of perception. It seemed no longer possible to think of vision as proceeding from the particulars to the general. On the contrary, it became evident that over-all structural features are the primary data of perception, so that triangularity is not a late product of intellectual abstraction but a direct and more elementary experience than the recording of individual detail. The young child sees ‘doggishness’ before he is able to distinguish one dog from another.”

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Institut für Elementares Formen, TU Braunschweig, Bevenroderstrasse 80, D-38108, Braunschweig, Germany

Prof. em. Jürgen Weber

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2002 Springer-Verlag Wien

About this chapter

Weber, J. (2002). The Conclusions of Gestalt Psychology and Its Limitations. In: The Judgement of the Eye. Springer, Vienna. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-6112-8_4

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-6112-8_4

Publisher Name : Springer, Vienna

Print ISBN : 978-3-211-83768-9

Online ISBN : 978-3-7091-6112-8

eBook Packages : Springer Book Archive

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research