nuclear energy in kazakhstan essay

It should be noted that the nuclear fast-breeder reactor BN-350 has operated in Aktau, for more than 25 years, on the base of the Mangistau nuclear energy complex.[13] There is qualified staff that for 50 years has provided the constant operation of BN-350 and is now dealing with reactor decommission.[13] There are specialists from the institute of nuclear physics in place, and new staff could be educated while the plant is built.[13] Thus, Kazakhstan is ready for NPP's construction and operation.

© Ernar Sagatov. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author.

[1] " Kazakhstan ," CIA World Factbook 2010.

[2] " Power Resources of Kazakhstan ," KazAtomExpo, 2010 (in Russian).

[3] T. Kassenova, " Kazakhstan's Nuclear Ambitions ," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 28 Apr 08.

[4] " The Nuclear Fuel Cycle ," World Nuclear Association, August 2010.

[5] " In Situ Leaching (ISL) Mining of Uranium ," World Nuclear Association, June 2009.

[6] M.Dzhakishev, " Uranium Production of Kazakhstan as Potential Source for Covering the World Uranium Shortage ," Nuclear World Association Annual Symposium, 2004.

[7] C. Garrett and Z. Aidymbekova, " Uranium Mining in Kazakhstan and Pervasive State Participation ," Macleod Dixon LLP, 2008.

[8] " Uranium and Nuclear Power in Kazakhstan ," World Nuclear Association, 29 Oct 10.

[9] " Conversion ," KazatomProm, 10 Dec 10 (in Russian).

[10] " Enrichment ," KazatomProm, 10 Dec 10 (in Russian).

[11] " Fuel Pellets ," KazatomProm, 10 Dec 10 (in Russian).

[12] M. Á. P. Martin, " Geo-Economics in Central Asia and the 'Great Game' of Natural Resources: Water, Oil, Gas, Uranium and Transportation Corridors ," Real Institute Elcano, April 2010.

[13] " VBER-300 ," KazatomProm, 10 Dec 10 (in Russian).

(Updated 2016)

This report provides information on the status and development of nuclear power programmes in Kazakhstan, including factors related to the effective planning, decision making and implementation of the nuclear power programme that together lead to safe and economical operations of nuclear power plants.

The CNPP summarizes organizational and industrial aspects of nuclear power programmes and provides information about the relevant legislative, regulatory and international framework in Kazakhstan.

1. COUNTRY ENERGY OVERVIEW

1.1. energy information, 1.1.1. energy policy.

Kazakhstan is a net energy exporter, with large reserves of uranium, oil and coal. Fossil-fired power plants are the basis of the electric energy. The energy policy aims to achieve energy independence through electric power production with maximum use of cheap, low-grade coal. Introduction of nuclear power is included as a necessary option for energy security.

There are six gas pipelines that connect Kazakhstan to other central Asian republics and Russia, but the gas producing regions in the western part of Kazakhstan are not connected to the populous southeast and industrial north parts of the country. Kazakhstan has a major need for more gas pipelines. Kazakhstan is rich in natural resources, but its power sector needs considerable rehabilitation and upgrading to improve the efficiency of energy production and use. The TRACECA Program (Transport System Europe-Caucasus-Asia) is developing an East-West corridor from Central Asia, through the Caucasus, across the Black Sea to Europe.

Kazakhstan is in the process of transition toward a free market, privatization in energy, and encouraging foreign investment to exploit the oil and gas resources of the country. In 1997, the government of Kazakhstan issued a decree on privatization and restructuring in the energy sector. Through this decree, all companies in the energy sector have gone through an incorporation process and are legally prepared for future privatization and restructuring. The Ministry of Oil and Gas and Ministry of Industry and New Technologies of the Republic of Kazakhstan are the main government entity responsible for implementing the policy.

The energy policy of Kazakhstan aims to achieve energy independence through electric power production with maximum use of its cheap, low-grade coal. Table 2.1 shows the dynamical increase of the production of coal, oil and natural gas in the last few years.

Table 2.1. DOMESTIC COAL, OIL AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION

1.1.2. Estimated Available Energy

Kazakhstan, the second largest of the former Soviet republics in territory, possesses enormous fossil fuel reserves (see Table 1) as well as plentiful supplies of other minerals and metals. It also is a large agricultural – livestock and grain – producer. Kazakhstan’s industrial sector rests on the extraction and processing of these natural resources and also on a growing machine-building sector specializing in construction equipment, tractors, agricultural machinery, and some defence items.

Table 1. ESTIMATED ENERGY RESERVES

* Solid, Liquid: Million tons; Gas: Billion m 3 ; Uranium: Metric tons; Hydro, Renewable: TW

Power plants fuelled with coal and crude oil are the basis of Kazakhstan’s electrical energy. Coal is the country’s largest industry, with planned further development if corresponding investments are secured. Coal reserves are estimated at 64 billion tons. Annual hard coal production is about 111.8 million tons; brown coal production is estimated at 4.6 million metric tons. Kazakhstan also has a well-developed oil and gas industry. More than 1,600 oil and gas fields have been located in Tengiz and Karachaganak, containing more than 2.9 billion tons of conditional fuel. Natural gas production was estimated at 5,416 million m 3 in 1993. Kazakhstan has begun building a major oil pipeline, 1,200 km from the west to the east. Construction of three new oil refineries is planned. Every year, about 25 million tons of liquid hydrocarbons and 7 billion m 3 of natural gas are extracted. About 20% of the world’s uranium reserves are in Kazakhstan.

1.1.3. Energy Statistics

Information not available.

Table 2. ENERGY STATISTICS (EJ)

* Latest available data

** Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption in country.

*** Solid fuels include coal, lignite

**** - hydro, atomic in 1990 year, and other

Source: The Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Statistics

1.2. The Electricity System

1.2.1. electricity system and decision making process.

To ensure sustainable and balanced growth of the economy through the effective development of the power industry, the need to implement the following tasks:

Modernization, reconstruction of existing generating capacity and construction of new generating capacity.

Construction, modernization and reconstruction of power facilities.

The development of the coal industry.

Improving the structure of the electricity market:

Entering the market power;

the development of the spot market through legislative recognition norms sale-purchase certain volumes of electricity in spot trading.

Involvement in the balance of renewable energy sources.

1.2.2. Structure of Electric Power Sector

The total length of electric lines of all voltages is more than 460,000 km. The first section of the international Siberia-Kazakhstan-Ural transmission line (1,900 km) is operational. This line is expanded to the south to connect north and south Kazakhstan and the power grids in Central and Middle Asian countries. Electricity production is given in Table 3.

The biggest producers of electricity in Kazakhstan are - the "Euro-Asian Power Corporation" (in 1998 14% of total power production), the Joint-stock Company "GRES-2" Pavlodar Region (8.9%), the "Kazakhmis Corporation" (8.5%), the Closed Joint-stock Company "Almaty Power Consolidated" (7.8%), the Open Joint-stock Company "Ispat-Karmet" (6.8%), LLP, "Karaganda Power" (4.4%) and the Joint-stock Company "Aluminium of Kazakhstan" (3.9%).

1.2.3. Main Indicators

Table 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

* – Preliminary data

Table 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

Source: The Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan on statistic

2. NUCLEAR POWER SITUATION

2.1. historical development and current organizational structure, 2.1.1. overview.

The nuclear scientific-industrial complex in Kazakhstan was established as a unified part of the atomic industry and science in the former Soviet Union.

Kazakhstan's uranium industry consists of uranium prospecting firms, a number of natural mines using mining and underground leaching techniques, and a metallurgical plant producing fuel pellets for NPP fuel assemblies. The power plant at Aktau (MAEC) was shut down in June 1999. It consisted of natural gas units and a nuclear unit. The latter unit is a BN-350 sodium cooled fast neutron reactor.

On the territory of the former Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site three research reactors are engaged in testing and development of nuclear space engines and safe nuclear power plants (NPP). The fourth research reactor is located at the RSE Institute of Nuclear Physics, near Almaty.

The following enterprises are involved in the nuclear industry:

RSE "Institute of Nuclear Physics," situated in Almaty;

NNC, situated in Kurchatov, has the following branches:

"Institute of Atomic Energy"

"Institute of Radiation Safety and Ecology";

2.1.2. Current Organizational Structure

2.2. Nuclear Power Plants: Overview

2.2.1. status and performance of nuclear power plants.

Table 5. STATUS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

2.2.2. Plant Upgrading, Plant Life Management and License Renewals

BN-350 reactor facility - fast neutron sodium-cooled reactor - is located near Aktau city in the part of the eastern Caspian Sea shore belonging to the Republic of Kazakhstan. It was designed and built for electricity generation and seawater desalination for the Aktau region.

The BN-350 reactor was commissioned in 1973 and operated for its design life of 20 years.

In 1993, on the basis of estimation of actual reactor condition, qualified personnel availability and taking into consideration significant progress in fulfillment of measures by safety enhancement, a lifetime extension until 2003 was granted. Thereafter it operated on the basis of annual licenses of the regulatory body - The Kazakhstan Atomic Energy Committee (KAEC) and positive conclusion of its safety level from General Designer (VNIPIET, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation), Chief Designer (OKBM, Nizhni Novgorod, Russian Federation) and research Manager (FEI, Obninsk, Russian Federation) of reactor facility.

Due to financial and technical problems it was concluded that the further use of the reactor is not safe. In April 1999, the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan adopted the Decree on the Decommission of BN-350 reactor.

As the decision on the reactor decommissioning was adopted before the end of scheduled operation (2003), the plan to decommission the BN-350 reactor had not yet been developed. To determine the activities required for ensuring reactor safety and preparation for decommissioning, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan had developed and approved a "Plan of priority measures on BN-350 reactor decommissioning". This plan has the status of managerial and ruling document and defines the activity on provision of safety for the BN-350 and preparation of decommissioning while the "Project of BN-350 Decommissioning" is being approved. By now, the following activities have been fulfilled:

All spent nuclear fuel had been transferred from the interim spent fuel storage facility at the BN-350 site to the long-term spent fuel storage facility at Baikal-1 site.

Drainage of primary radioactive sodium has been carried out and is in storage vessels. Secondary nonradioactive sodium is drained and utilized.

Technical design of the Liquid Radioactive Waste Processing Facility has been developed.

Technical task for the Solid Radioactive Waste Processing Facility design has been developed.

The main works on Combined Engineering and Radiation Survey (KIRO) of systems and components of primary and secondary cooling circuits, as well as of other reactor plant engineering systems and external communications have been completed.

Scheduled decommissioning phases

Management of fuel removal

2.3. Future Development of Nuclear Power Sector

According to Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan NPP will be constructed after Government Resolution

No data available data for sections 2.3.1-2.3.5

Table 6. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

2.4. Organizations Involved in Construction of NPPs

Not applicable

2.5. Organizations Involved in Operation of NPPs

The BN-350 reactor is owned by National Atomic Company "KAZATOMPROM" and operated by LLP "MAEC-Kazatomprom". The reactor was shut down according the decree of the Kazakhstan Government on April 22, 1999. The decision was taken to place it into SAFSTOR state for 50 years with subsequent final dismantling. Now the works on putting of the reactor into SAFSTOR are carrying out. The fuel is unloaded and packaged into canisters and now they are in a temporary store in the reactor cooling ponds. TUKs with spent fuel are transferred from BN-350 site long-term spent fuel storage facility at Baikal-1 site.

About 200 people are working at the power plant. There are 4 shifts. The task of these shifts is maintenance of the reactor in nuclear, radiation and fire safety.

2.6. Organizations Involved in Decommissioning of NPPs

In the decommissioning of nuclear power plants involved different organizations. Some of them are:

LTD "KATEP"

RSE "Institute of Nuclear Physics

National Atomic Company "KAZATOMPROM

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY CENTER OF NUCLEAR SAFETY TECHNOLOGY

2.7. Fuel Cycle Including Waste Managemen

Kazakhstan has more than 50 uranium deposits in six provinces: the Kokshetau province in the north and the Pribalkhashsky province in the south have endogenetic type uranium deposits; Iliskaya, Chu-Sarysu, Syr-Dariya, and Prikaspiy provinces have endogenic type deposits. Deposits in Chu-Sayusu and Syr-Dariya provinces are located in sand penetrating sediments and are useful for in-situ leaching processes.

Waste from uranium mining and milling constitutes more than 90% of all radioactive waste in Kazakhstan. Therefore, implementation of the Republic's Concept on the radioactive waste management is the main task.

The Ulba Metallurgical Plant (UMZ) started production of UO 2 fuel pellets in 1976. Physical and chemical technologies are used at all stages of production, from treatment of UF6 material, to conversion into UO 2 , production of UO 2 pellets, and sintering of the pellets. Quality control is maintained during all process stages. The design capacity of the plant is 2,000 tons of pellets per year. Fuel assemblies from UMZ are used at nuclear power plants in Russia, Ukraine, and other countries. The U 235 content is 1.6-5 %. UMZ also produces rare earth metal products and super conducting materials.

The International Atomic Energy Agency Low Enrichment Uranium Bank will be sited in Kazakhstan (JSC “UMZ”).

2.8. Research and Development

2.8.1. r&d organizations.

RSE «Institute of Nuclear Physics»

RSE «National Nuclear Centre»

2.8.2. Development of Advanced Nuclear Power Technologies

Kazakhstan has three research reactors at the National Nuclear Centre and one research reactor at Institute Nuclear Physics where the following research is carried out:

radiation material science; study of the interaction between construction materials and coolants; investigation of fission produced emission from fuel rods, its precipitation and filtration under different conditions;

safety of nuclear power plants; fuel assemblies and rod tests at transition and break-down modes of operation; simulation of reactor core fragment melting and interaction of melted material with coolant;

development and implementation of nuclear physics methods and technologies; production of isotopes for different applications, for example, thallium-201 chloride for early diagnostics of heart decease.

The work on creation and development of Kazakhstan nuclear power composed one of the principal sections in the Republican Target Scientific-and-Technical Program elaborated in 1992 - 1993 and defined goals, tasks and directions of the National Nuclear Center and its institutions.

Kazakhstan Governmental Resolution #925 dated August 20, 2002 adopts the development concept for uranium industry and nuclear power engineering of the Republic of Kazakhstan for the years 2002-2030. The tasks put by in the concept aim at transformation of Kazakhstan power engineering into a high-tech, science intensive, dynamically developing branch that would become a solid basis of forced and sustainable development of the national economics and the nation's prosperity improvement. Now, a national program of RK nuclear industry and power engineering development is under elaboration.

The Program covers the period 2000 to 2030 and defines a strategy of the first stage in creating and developing the national nuclear power.

One of the first steps in carrying out this program was to conduct a feasibility study for construction of nuclear power plants. The NNC RK specialists performed a great work to conduct feasibility studies for building nuclear power plants in certain regions (South Kazakhstan NPP), to validate investments in construction of low-power atomic plants in Leninogorsk and Kurchatov, to develop feasibility proposals on use of nuclear power sources in order to solve problems of Almaty heat-and-power supply.

A successful development of the nuclear power is impossible without solving problems of its safe operation. To create reactors of enhanced safety and systems for localizing design and out-of-design accidents there is a need for detailed analysis of processes related to core melting, fuel, material and nuclear reactor structure behavior in transient and accident modes. One of the directions to validate nuclear power safety is experimental simulation of processes accompanying specific phases in evolution of NPP severe accidents that involve reactor core melting.

At present final phases of severe accidents are least examined when core materials melt (corium) falls on a lower head of the reactor power vessel. The work in this direction on the Semipalatinsk experimental base was started in 1983 and is still continued.

The uniqueness of NNC RK experimental base, results and experience gained through studying the behavior of nuclear reactor fuel, material and structure in simulating transient and accident operation modes cause interest of specialists from different countries.

The most important studies in recent years are those on two projects: experimental studies to validate light-water reactor safety ( COTELS project ) and experimental studies to validate safety of fast reactors ( EAGLE project ).

2.8.3. International Co-operation and Initiatives

Kazakhstan national projects under the program of technical cooperation with

IAEA for 2012-2014

European Regional projects of IAEA for 2014-2015 in which Kazakhstan is taking part

2.9. Human Resources Development

When Kazakhstan officially decides to start a NPP, it will be necessary to have a constant flow of highly qualified human resources on all topics related to nuclear power, but since the country has not taken any decision yet, preparing of these human resources is not an immediate priority

2.10. Stakeholder Involvement

The KAEC is the institution in charge of interacting with stakeholders concerned in the country’s current situation in the nuclear field. One of its roles is to supervision on nuclear energy uses spread Public Information and Promotion office by means of presentations, seminars, visits to nuclear and radiological facilities, and through its website.

3. NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS

3.1. safety authority and the licensing process, 3.1.1. regulatory authority(s).

Atomic Energy Committee of the Ministry of Industry and New Technologies of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the regulatory authority.

3.1.2. Licensing Process

The licensing stages for nuclear installations can be briefly represented as follows:

Application for the License;

Analysis of application materials;

Inspection at the nuclear installation;

Conclusion on application materials examination;

Conclusion on nuclear installation inspection;

General conclusion on obtaining license; License.

3.2. National Laws and Regulations in Nuclear Power

Main national laws

Law on use of atomic energy;

Law on radiation safety of population;

Law on licensing;

Ecology Code

Main Regulations in nuclear power

Provision on licensing rules and qualifying requirements claimed to licensable kinds of activities in the sphere of atomic energy use

Regulation on the Atomic Energy Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Technical rules “Nuclear and radiation safety of research nuclear facilities”, adopted by the Government Provision

Technical rules “Nuclear and radiation safety of NPP”, adopted by the Government Provision

Technical rules “Nuclear and radiation safety”, adopted by the Government Provision

All regulating documents have been compiled into a "List of main technical documents of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of atomic energy use”.

APPENDIX 1: INTERNATIONAL, MULTILATERAL AND BILATERAL AGREEMENTS

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS

BILATERAL AGREEMENTS

The Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan on the Peaceful use of Atomic Energy.

The Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan on Transportation of fission materials.

Agreement of KAEA and GAN of the Russian Federation on co-operation in the field of nuclear safety.

Agreement of KAEA and NRC of the USA on technical information exchange and co-operation in the field of nuclear safety.

The Agreement for Co-operation between the United States of America and the Republic of Kazakhstan concerning Peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

The Agreement for co-operation between European Atomic Energy Community and the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of nuclear safety.

The Agreement for co-operation between European Atomic Energy Community and the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of guided nuclear fusion.

The Agreement for cooperation between the Republic of Korea and the Republic of Kazakhstan concerning Peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

APPENDIX 2: MAIN ORGANIZATIONS, INSTITUTIONS AND COMPANIES INVOLVED IN NUCLEAR POWER RELATED ACTIVITIES

Report coordinator:

Murat Tulegenov

Institution: Department of development of nuclear and energy projects of the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan

Contacts: [email protected] ; [email protected]

Focal persons: Igor Panov, Tuyakbayev Kanat ;

Institution: Institution: Department of development of nuclear and energy projects of the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan; Committee of Atomic and Energy Supervision and Control of the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Contacts: [email protected] ; [email protected]

• Work & Careers
• Life & Arts

Kazakhstan: encouraging civilian nuclear energy, with security in mind

To read this article for free, register now.

Once registered, you can: • Read free articles • Get our Editor's Digest and other newsletters • Follow topics and set up personalised events • Access Alphaville: our popular markets and finance blog

Explore more offers.

Then $75 per month. Complete digital access to quality FT journalism. Cancel anytime during your trial.

FT Digital Edition

Today's FT newspaper for easy reading on any device. This does not include ft.com or FT App access.

• Global news & analysis
• Expert opinion

Standard Digital

Essential digital access to quality FT journalism on any device. Pay a year upfront and save 20%.

• FT App on Android & iOS
• FT Edit app
• FirstFT: the day's biggest stories
• 20+ curated newsletters
• Follow topics & set alerts with myFT
• FT Videos & Podcasts

Terms & Conditions apply

Explore our full range of subscriptions.

Why the ft.

See why over a million readers pay to read the Financial Times.

• Programs and Projects
• Work with us
• Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion at NTI
• Annual Reports and Financials

Fact Sheet Jan 16, 2024

Nuclear Disarmament Kazakhstan

Part of nuclear disarmament resource collection, want to dive deeper.

Visit the Education Center

Arsenal and Missile Types

NPT Non-Nuclear Weapon State, Formerly Possessed Nuclear Weapons

Arsenal Size

• Kazakhstan possesses no nuclear weapons.
• Kazakhstan formerly had 1,410 Soviet strategic nuclear warheads placed on its territory and an undisclosed number of tactical nuclear weapons .
• One of the Soviet Union’s two major nuclear test sites was located at Semipalatinsk, where at least 460 nuclear tests took place.

Estimated Destructive Force

Commitments and policies, progress in disarmament.

• Kazakhstan transferred all of its Soviet-era nuclear weapons to the Russian Federation by April 1995.
• As part of the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program the United States assisted Kazakhstan in removing 1,322 lbs of HEU from the Ulba Metallurgical Plant in Ust-Kamenogorsk. The United States paid Kazakhstan $25 million for the HEU transfer.
• An IAEA -controlled LEU nuclear fuel bank has been constructed at the Ulba Metallurgical Plant and became operational in October 2019.
• The Semipalatinsk nuclear test site was officially closed in 1991.
• From 1995 to 2001, as part of the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program, the United States assisted Kazakhstan sealing 13 bore holes and 181 tunnels at the test site.
• From 2012 to 2019 the National Nuclear Security Agency (NNSA) and the Netherlands completed two major radiological security programs in Kazakhstan. These projects secured more than thirteen thousand radioactive sources from Kazakhstan’s National Nuclear Center and the Mangystau Atomic Energy Complex.
• Kazakhstan initiated a UN General Assembly resolution calling for an International Day Against Nuclear Tests, inaugurated in 2010, in support of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) .
• In September 2020 Kazakhstan and the United States downblended the last supply of HEU in the country. 2.9 kg of unirradiated HEU was converted to LEU. They also committed to converting the research reactor at Kazakhstan’s National Nuclear Center from and HEU fueled reactor to an LEU fueled reactor by 2021.
• Security risks, increasingly scrutinized after 9/11, revealed the possibility of scavengers accessing plutonium in the sealed bore holes and tunnels at the site. Between 2001 and 2012 scavengers came within yards of the unguarded fissile material , although there is no indication that any plutonium was removed. October 2012 marked the ceremonial end of the 17-year operation to secure the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site.

Nuclear Weapon Related Policy

• Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)
• Ratified the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (PTBT)
• Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
• START I (the first Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty)
• Ratified the Lisbon Protocol to START I
• Ratified the Central Asia Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone
• Signed the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW)
• Kazakhstan is the only Soviet successor state to have signed the TPNW
• Kazakhstan is a party to the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CTSO)
• Kazakhstan permits the testing of Russian ICBMs and ballistic missile defense technology at the Kapustin Yar testing range. One-quarter of that range is located in Kazakhstan.
• Kazakhstan signed an agreement with a South Korean energy company, Korea Hydro and Nuclear Power, to begin the introduction of nuclear power to Kazakhstan in 2022.

Kazakhstan is the only former Soviet Central Asian nation to ratify the Convention on Nuclear Safety (CNS).

Explore the Collection

Overview of the nuclear disarmament resource collection, nuclear disarmament belarus, nuclear disarmament belgium, nuclear disarmament china, nuclear disarmament france, nuclear disarmament germany, nuclear disarmament india, nuclear disarmament israel, nuclear disarmament italy.

Your are currently on

Nuclear Disarmament NATO

Nuclear disarmament north korea, nuclear disarmament netherlands, nuclear disarmament russia, nuclear disarmament south africa, nuclear disarmament turkey, nuclear disarmament ukraine, nuclear disarmament united kingdom, nuclear disarmament united states, stay informed.

s">Sign up for our newsletter to get the latest on nuclear and biological threats.

• Arms Control and Disarmament

Fact Sheet May 14, 2024

Information and analysis of nuclear weapons disarmament proposals and progress in the United States.

Fact Sheet Mar 15, 2024

Information and analysis of nuclear weapons disarmament proposals and progress in Belarus

Fact Sheet Mar 8, 2024

Information and analysis of nuclear weapons disarmament proposals and progress in Russia

• Joseph Cirincione, Jon B. Wolfsthal, Miriam Rajkumar, Deadly Arsenals: Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Threats, (Washington, DC, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2005).
• “The Soviet Union’s Nuclear Testing Programme,” Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), www.ctbto.org.
• Tom Collina, “The Lisbon Protocol at a Glance,” Arms Control Association, July 2008, www.armscontrol.org.
• IAEA Director General Yukiya Amano, “Statement to Conference for a Nuclear-Weapons-Free World,” Astana, 12 October 2011, www.iaea.org.;
• “Semipalatinsk Revisited: Old Nuclear Test Site Sets New Course,” International Atomic Energy Agency, 31 August 2006, www.iaea.org.
• “STS Nuclear Infrastructure Elimination and Conversion,” National Nuclear Center of the Republic of Kazakhstan, https://old.nnc.kz.
• “IAEA LEU Bank Becomes Operational with Delivery of Low Enriched Uranium,” 17 October 2019, www.iaea.org.
• “Inventory of International Nonproliferation Organizations and Regimes: Kazakhstan,” James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, updated 18 November 2011, www.nonproliferation.org.
• NWFZ Clearinghouse, James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, www.nonproliferation.org.
• “NNSA and the Netherlands Help Kazakhstan Improve Radioactive Source Management,” Energy.gov, Accessed 1 February 2021, www.energy.gov/nnsa/.
• “Kazakhstan Statement at the 2015 NPT Review Conference,” Statement by the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan, 2015 NPT Review Conference, 27 April 2015, www.reachingcriticalwill.org.
• “International Day Against Nuclear Tests,” United Nations, accessed 13 July 2015, www.un.org.
• “Kazakhstan and U.S. Cooperate to Eliminate Highly Enriched Uranium in Kazakhstan,” Energy.gov, Accessed 1 February 2021, www.energy.gov/nnsa.
• Eben Harrell and David E. Hoffman, “Plutonium Mountain: Inside the 17-Year Mission to Secure a Legacy of Soviet Nuclear Testing,” Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at Harvard University, 15 August 2013, www.belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu.
• Kühn, Ulrich, and Ulrich Kühn, “Kazakhstan – Once More a Testing Ground?” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Accessed 1 February 2021, https://carnegieendowment.org.
• “Kazakh, Korean companies to cooperate in nuclear power projects,” World Nuclear News, June 29, 2022, www.world-nuclear-news.org.

My Resources

Send saved resources to:

A message from Curtiss-Wright

A Clean Energy Powerhouse: The Digital I&C Systems Modernizing Nuclear

The case for nuclear energy in Kazakhstan

As the world shifts toward clean and sustainable energy, Kazakhstan stands on the cusp of a significant move into nuclear energy. Kazakh president Kassym-Jomart Tokayev has suggested a national referendum to gauge the country’s position on building a nuclear power plant, setting the stage for an in-depth discussion about the nation’s energy trajectory.

Related Articles

General Atomics R&D team recognized for contributions to NIF’s fusion ignition

The National Ignition Facility (NIF) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory has achieved fusion ignition at least five times, each time by directing its 192 high-powered lasers on a capsule...

The JT-60SA project

JT-60SA (Japan Torus-60 Super Advanced) is the world’s largest superconducting tokamak device. Its goal is the earlier realization of fusion energy (see Fig. 1). Fusion is the energy that...

U.K., Japan step up progress toward fusion power demonstrations

Japan’s recent moves to boost fusion power in the nation’s energy plan and accelerate the timeline for a prototype fusion power plant come in response to increased global attention on...

IAEA’s Grossi highlights the growing promise of nuclear energy

The peaceful uses of nuclear science and technology today hold more promise to heal the world since Austrian Swedish physicist Lise Meitner and her colleagues discovered nuclear fission in...

FIA publishes “snapshot in time” fusion industry report

Following new federal funding and programs announced in June to support a “bold decadal vision” for fusion energy in the United States, and the enactment of the Fusion Energy Act in July,...

Fusion is real, and it’s now

We have seen many advancements in the fusion field in the past handful of years. In 2021, the National Academies released a report titled Bringing Fusion to the U.S. Grid.a In March 2022, the...

“Whole-of-government” approach suggested for U.S. nuclear to compete with China

The recent article “How Innovative Is China in Nuclear Power?” published by the Information Technology and Innovation Foundation (ITIF) describes how China has become the world’s leading...

ITER leaders propose a decade of work before D-D operations in 2035

At the 34th ITER Council Meeting, held June 19–20, ITER director general Pietro Barabaschi reported on ITER’s progress and presented an updated baseline proposal that would “prioritize...

Australian undergrads take on tokamak project

A recent article on Australia’s ABC News website highlighted the work of undergraduate physics and engineering students at the University of New South Wales (UNSW) to design, build, and...

New fusion energy strategies and partnerships announced at White House event

Just one week after the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy hosted a summit on domestic nuclear deployment, they filled a room again on June 6 for a livestreamed event cohosted...

Our Privacy and Cookies Policy

We use cookies to provide the best experience for you. To find out more check our cookies and privacy policy

Kazakhstan's nuclear energy referendum to be held this year

27 June 2024

President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev has said that a referendum on plans for a nuclear power plant in Kazakhstan will be held this autumn.

In a speech to media representatives in the country, the president said that "a stable source of energy is necessary for the development of the economy". He said there was "a comprehensive discussion" taking place about the proposed nuclear power plant with "different opinions" and he said the country's mass media "should also actively participate in this process".

He added: "There is a great opportunity to develop nuclear energy in the country. It should be used correctly, effectively. The people will make the final decision on this issue. The referendum will be held this autumn and the government will determine the exact date."

The potential reintroduction of nuclear power is aimed at reducing the country's reliance on fossil fuels, diversifying its energy mix and reducing CO2 emissions. Kazakhstan Nuclear Power Plant (KNPP), which has been designated as the owner/operator of the future plant, began preparing a feasibility study in 2018 to justify the need for nuclear power, the choice of the location for plant construction and to review the plant's projected power output.

Although a positive result in the referendum will be needed for the project to go ahead, some details of the proposed plan have already been emerging, with the World Nuclear Spotlight event in April in the country hearing that a site at Ulken, on the shores of Lake Balkhash, had been identified as the most suitable location, with  Kurchatov as a backup region . The proposed first nuclear power plant would be a large reactor but there are also options for using small modular reactors to replace retiring coal plants in the years to come. The government's target is for nuclear to produce a 5% share of the national generation mix by 2035.

The background

Kazakhstan has 12% of the world's uranium resources and in 2022 it produced 43% of the world's uranium. It has three operating research reactors and a  Russian-designed BN-350 sodium-cooled fast reactor operated near Aktau for 26 years, until 1999.

In November 2023, an International Atomic Energy Agency team conducted a five-day Site and External Events Design (SEED) mission to review the country's site selection process. In January 2023, the Ministry of Energy said that four foreign potential suppliers of nuclear technology were being considered - EDF of France, China National Nuclear Corporation, Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power and Rosatom of Russia.

Researched and written by World Nuclear News

Related topics

Sweden, usa agree to nuclear cooperation, smrs feature in indian budget, financing model proposed for new swedish reactors, australia should wait for smr market to mature, report says, belgian nuclear extension  plans to face eu state aid investigation, iaea updates smr guidance for newcomer countries, italy 'could get 22% of  electricity from nuclear by 2050', decision on second nuclear plant on to-do list for belarus's new energy minister, south korea plans smr industrial complex.

WNN is a public information service of World Nuclear Association

Related Stories

Kazakhstan shines spotlight on nuclear-powered future IAEA assesses Kazakh plant site selection process

Related Information

Related links.

Serving the nuclear industry since 1956

Kazakhstan looks at possible nuclear power plant sites

Kazakhstan is considering the village of Ulken in the Alma-Ata region and the city of Kurchatov in the East Kazakhstan for the possible construction of its first large nuclear power plant.

• Share on Linkedin
• Share on Facebook

The village of Ulken and the city of Kurchatov region, Minister of Energy Magzum Mirzagaliyev announced at a briefing on 28 December. “We have now calculated a balance of production and consumption of electricity until 2035. We clearly see the need to build a nuclear power plant in order to provide our population and our economy with electricity. It takes up to 10 years on average," he said.

“Ulken looks more interesting from the point of view of infrastructure availability, because there is a north-south power transmission line there. In addition, the village is closer to our main consumers – this is the southern region,” he added, while stressing that the final decision on the site has not yet been made.

In 2019, Russian President Vladimir Putin, at a meeting with Kazakh President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, proposed expanding cooperation in the energy sector by building a nuclear power plant in Kazakhstan using Russian technologies. In September 2021 Tokayev ordered a  study into the possibility of developing safe nuclear energy in the republic within a year. Speaking at the Forum of Interregional Cooperation between Kazakhstan and Russia in September, Putin said Russia could build a NPP and provide other support to Kazakhstan. In November, Tokayev said that Kazakhstan would have to take a decision to build a nuclear power plant on its territory, in face of emerging signs of an energy shortage.   

Recently the Chairman of the Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of Kazakhstan, manager of the international financial centre Astana, Kairat Kelimbetov noted that one of the directions of Kazakhstan’s economic development is decarbonisation. “This is a transition to a new state from the energy model, in which we have coal-fired power engineering accounting for 70%. We have made various long-term commitments: Kazakhstan must become carbon neutral by 2060. We were in Glasgow, and by 2030 we must reduce our carbon dioxide emissions by 15%,” he said.

In order to implement these plans, the country needs to attract investments in solar and wind energy, he said, but added that this will not completely replace coal. “Gas is needed somewhere, and here we are cooperating with Gazprom, but, most likely, Kazakhstan will have to build a nuclear power plant. We are already in talks, with Rosatom and others.”  

In December, NuScale Power and Kazakhstan Nuclear Power Plants Limited Liability Partnership (KNPP) announced that they had signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to explore the deployment of NuScale VOYGR small modular reactor (SMR) power plants in Kazakhstan.

The first suggestion to build a new nuclear power plant was expressed in 1997 by the Minister of Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan Vladimir Shkolnik. Then he meant the construction of a new nuclear power plant to replace the decommissioned power unit of the Mangistau nuclear power plant (MAEK). Since then, there have been several negotiations that have led nowhere.

Sign up for our weekly news round-up!

Give your business an edge with our leading industry insights.

Partner Content

Tyne usa inc, meggitt sensing systems, fomas group, more relevant.

European Commission issues positive view on Cernavoda 3&4

Japan’s sendai 1 resumes operation, rolls-royce to replace computers at comanche peak, quake-proof ap1000 under development, sign up to the newsletter: in brief, your corporate email address, i would also like to subscribe to:.

I consent to Verdict Media Limited collecting my details provided via this form in accordance with Privacy Policy

Thank you for subscribing

View all newsletters from across the Progressive Media network.

• China Daily PDF
• China Daily E-paper
• Asia-Pacific
• Middle East
• China-Europe
• China-Japan
• China-Africa

What will the construction of a nuclear power plant bring to Kazakhstan? Expert opinion from France

In Kazakhstan, amidst global trends towards the transition to clean energy sources, the topic of constructing a nuclear power plant (NPP) is becoming increasingly relevant. With the growing demand for reliable and stable energy capacities, the government is considering the possibility of creating its own NPP, which would not only strengthen Kazakhstan's energy security but also position the country as a leader in the nuclear industry in Central Asia. The construction of an NPP opens new horizons for attracting advanced technologies, international cooperation, and investments, which will ultimately contribute to the sustainable economic development of the country.

However, along with the prospects, this project raises many questions regarding safety, ecology, and public support. These aspects are discussed in an interview with Edgar Siberger, a business development expert in the nuclear industry from the international company Assystem, France. In a conversation with DKnews.kz Executive Editor Arman Korzhumbayev, Siberger shares his views on the challenges and opportunities awaiting Kazakhstan on the path to building its first nuclear power plant.

How do you think Kazakhstan's strategic position in Central Asia influences decision-making in the field of nuclear energy, especially in relation to neighboring countries?

Kazakhstan, as the largest country in Central Asia, plays a key role in the region, especially in terms of energy. Its strategic location and vast resources, including the largest uranium reserves in the world, make Kazakhstan an important player in nuclear energy. Decision-making in this area is largely dependent on neighboring countries and international partners. Kazakhstan actively cooperates with Russia, China, and other countries in the field of nuclear energy, which opens up opportunities for creating effective regional energy systems. Such cooperation also helps Kazakhstan strengthen its energy independence and ensure stability in the region.

What mechanisms do you consider effective in managing international cooperation on nuclear and energy projects, and how can they be applied to Kazakhstan's NPP construction plans?

On the international stage, the key mechanisms for successful cooperation are transparency, trust, and clear legal frameworks. It is important to establish sustainable and long-term relationships with partners, based on mutual interests. For Kazakhstan, this means active participation in international organizations such as the IAEA and the development of bilateral agreements with leading nuclear powers. Applying these mechanisms to NPP construction projects in Kazakhstan will not only attract advanced technologies but also ensure compliance with high safety standards, which is crucial for the successful implementation of such projects.

From your perspective, what new opportunities in the nuclear industry could Kazakhstan capitalize on as it moves forward with its NPP plans?

Kazakhstan has unique opportunities not only as a uranium supplier but also as a producer of nuclear energy. With the growing interest in clean energy sources, Kazakhstan can become a leader in the development of small modular reactors (SMRs), which offer more flexible and economically advantageous solutions for energy supply. Additionally, Kazakhstan should consider participating in international projects for the development and implementation of nuclear waste recycling technologies, which could significantly increase the added value in the country's nuclear industry.

Based on your professional experience, what measures could the Kazakh government implement to attract foreign investments and expertise and ensure the success of the project?

To attract foreign investments and expertise, Kazakhstan needs to focus on creating favorable conditions for investors. This includes developing and implementing clear and predictable legal frameworks, ensuring long-term stability in the investment environment, and guaranteeing transparency in the contracting process. Additionally, it is important to establish partnerships with leading global companies in the nuclear industry, which can bring in the necessary knowledge and technologies. Kazakhstan should also consider providing tax incentives and other financial stimuli to attract strategic investors.

How important is public support for the success of nuclear projects? What mechanisms does the French nuclear regulator usually use to ensure support for its energy strategy and effective communication with the general public?

Public support plays a crucial role in the success of any nuclear project. In France, where nuclear energy is the main source of electricity, regulators place great emphasis on communication with the public. The main mechanisms include transparent information about safety, environmental aspects, and the benefits of nuclear energy. Public hearings, meetings with local communities, and educational programs are regularly held. It is important to ensure that people have the opportunity to ask questions and receive answers, which builds trust and reduces concerns. Kazakhstan should pay attention to these practices and adapt them to its conditions to ensure broad support for its nuclear initiatives.

Thank you very much, Edgar, for an interesting conversation and valuable insights!

Thank you for the opportunity to discuss such important issues! I am confident that Kazakhstan has all the chances to become a leader in the nuclear industry in Central Asia.

• Our Staff and Board
• Our Commitment to DEI
• 50 Years of Accomplishments
• Special Projects
• Internships
• Archived Issues
• Submissions & Letters
• Focus Editorials
• Book Reviews
• Books of Note
• Advertise With Us
• Permissions & Re-Print Requests
• Fact Sheets
• Issue Briefs
• Multimedia Resources
• Policy White Papers
• Research & Reports
• Arms Control NOW
• Take Action for a Safer World
• Inside the Arms Control Association
• Nuclear Disarmament Monitor
• P4+1 and Iran Nuclear Deal Alert
• Emerging Technology
• North Korea Denuclearization Digest
• ACA In The News
• Experts Available
• Published Op-eds
• Events & Remarks
• Become a Member
• Make a Gift
• More Ways to Give
• Subscribe to ACT
• Get the Latest
• Create new account
• Reset your password

Arms Control and Proliferation Profile: India

India possesses an estimated arsenal of 164 plutonium-based nuclear warheads developed outside of the NPT, as it is not a signatory to the treaty. It is actively seeking to expand its nuclear capabilities to form a more mature nuclear triad, including the current development of ICBM and SLBM capabilities. India’s warheads are believed to be stored in a disassembled state, greatly increasing the time required to deploy nuclear weapons, though it remains to be seen whether its nuclear posture and policy will shift with the development of new delivery systems. Though Washington has pushed for increased inclusion of India in nonproliferation regimes in recent years, India still does not allow for international inspections at all of its nuclear facilities and maintains fissile material that could be developed into nuclear weapons. China and other countries blocked India’s bid to become a member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) in January 2017.

Major Multilateral Arms Control Agreements and Treaties

Export Control Regimes, Nonproliferation Initiatives, and Safeguards

Nuclear Weapons Programs, Policies, and Practices

• The Nuclear Arsenal, an Overview

Delivery Systems

Fissile Material

Proliferation Record

Nuclear Doctrine

Biological Weapons

Chemical Weapons

Other Arms Control and Nonproliferation Activities

Bilateral Talks with Pakistan

Nuclear Security Summits

Conference on Disarmament (CD)

Nuclear Cooperation Agreements

Civilian Nuclear Trade with India & the 123 Agreement

Back to Top

The Nuclear Arsenal, An Overview

India developed nuclear weapons outside of the nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT). As of March 2023, India is estimated to have an arsenal of about 164 nuclear warheads for deployment in a nascent nuclear triad. India’s warheads have plutonium cores and are believed to be stored separately from their delivery systems.

India is currently expanding its fleet of ground-launched ballistic missiles capable of delivering nuclear weapons, modernizing its nuclear-capable fleet of aircraft, and working to put its submarine-based deterrent into operation. India has conducted nuclear tests on three occasions, though it claimed the first one was a “peaceful” nuclear explosion. One test involved two simultaneous explosions while another involved three synchronized blasts.

Land-Based Ballistic Missiles

· The Indian Armed Services deploys nuclear-capable short, medium, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles under the control of its Strategic Forces Command (SFC). The Agni Missile series is the mainstay of its ground-launched nuclear forces, with four types of mobile land-based Agni missiles currently deployed.

· Many of India’s ballistic missiles have been developed as part of its ambitious Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP), managed by the Indian Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO).

· In recent years, Delhi has focused on developing solid-fueled ballistic missiles such as the Agni-P, the Agni-IV, and the Agni-V international ballistic missile (ICBM). These new missiles can be stored in a sealed, climate-controlled tube, which can significantly reduce the time required for preparation and launch.

For more information on India’s ballistic missiles, see the Worldwide Ballistic Missile Inventories factsheet.

Sea-based Missiles/Dual-Capable Fighter Aircraft

· India’s Mirage 2000H, a French plane (also utilized by French nuclear forces until 2018), is known to be nuclear-capable and can deliver gravity-based nuclear bombs.

· It is likely that India’s Jaguar IS fighter-bombers were been modified to deliver nuclear payloads, with two of the four squadrons suspected of having a secondary nuclear mission . However, the Jaguars are now slated for retirement over the next 15 years.

· In June 2016, India’s Sukhoi-30 MKI fighter jet (a Russian aircraft) completed its first flight equipped with the nuclear-capable BrahMos, and 40 of these aircraft are expected to be modified to carry this missile.

· India has been upgrading its aging air force with newer aircraft capable of taking over the air-based nuclear strike role. In September 2016, India signed an agreement with France for the delivery of 36 Rafale fighters (down from its original plan to purchase 126 planes)—after delays due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the full shipment of aircraft was completed in 2022. The Rafale serves a nuclear mission for the French Air Force and can take over that role for the Indian armed forces in the future.

Cruise Missiles

· The BrahMos is a nuclear-capable land-attack cruise missile jointly developed between Russia and India. Its developers list a flight range of 290 km, however, most sources place its range at 300-500 km depending on which variant or launch platform is used. India reportedly conducted a test launch of an extended-range version of the BrahMos in March 2017 that will be able to travel approximately 600 km. It can carry a single nuclear or conventional payload. BrahMos variants can be launched from land-based, ship-based, submarine-based, and air-launched systems, and have been in service since 2005. In 2022, a BrahMos missile was accidentally fired into Pakistan.

· The Brahmos-II, a hypersonic version of the supersonic BrahMos, is currently under development as a joint venture with Russia. Due to Russia’s signatory status in the MTCR (limiting its ability to help other countries develop missiles with ranges over 300 km), the original striking-range of the BrahMos-II was planned at 290 km. However, now that India was inducted into MTCR in June 2016, BrahMos missiles are anticipated to have an extended range of 600 km. A technology demonstrator was test-fired in 2020, with flight trials planned for after 2025.

· The Nirbhay is an indigenous, nuclear-capable land-attack cruise missile currently under development by India. It has an estimated range of 800-1,000 km and can carry a single conventional or nuclear payload, although doubt surrounds its nuclear capability. The Indian Ministry of Defense has moved to acquire 300 Nirbhay missiles for all three armed forces branches, and with the most recent testing in 2021 only a partial success, three more tests are slated before the missile enters service.

• All of India’s nuclear weapons are plutonium-based.
• According to material posted by the International Panel on Fissile Materials in 2023, India has approximately 0.7 ± .15 metric tons of plutonium available for nuclear weapons— enough to produce over 100 additional warheads—and up to another 8.5 ± 4.9 metric tons of reactor-grade plutonium in spent fuel, which could be reprocessed for weapons use.
• Much of its weapons-grade plutonium has been produced at its CIRUS reactor (shut down in 2010), and the Dhruva heavy-water reactor.
• In 2005, India planned to build 6 fast-breeder reactors which would dramatically increase the speed at which India produces plutonium for its nuclear energy program. Two prototypes were expected to be fully functional by October 2017, however, India has experienced a number of setbacks, with the Department of Atomic Energy now hopeful that the fast breeder reactor at Kalpakkam would be completed by 2024.
• India agreed in 2006 to allow 14 of its 22 nuclear reactors to be monitored by the IAEA. The IAEA has since signed agreements to safeguard 20 of India’s reactors, most recently in December 2019.

Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU)

• India produces non-weapons grade HEU to fuel the reactor cores for its nuclear submarine program. It is believed to be enriched to 30–45 percent uranium-235.
• According to material posted by the International Panel on Fissile Materials in 2023, India’s HEU stockpile is approximately 4.5 ± 2 tons enriched to about 30% uranium-235. India enriches uranium at the RMP facility, which is being expanded .
• India is currently constructing an enrichment facility for civilian and military purposes at Challakere, Karnataka, deemed the “ nuclear city ” due to the presence of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO), and Indian Institute of Science (IISc) there.
• Under the U.S. “Atoms for Peace” initiative, India was a recipient of training and technological transfers intended for peaceful purposes but leveraged for its nuclear weapons program. India’s first nuclear test was of a device derived partially from Canadian and U.S. exports designated for peaceful purposes. That test spurred the United States and several other countries to create the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) to more severely restrict global nuclear trade.
• The U.S. helped secure a waiver for India on export restrictions of nuclear materials in 2008, causing some to allege that U.S. strategic interests lead Washington to turn a blind eye to proliferation concerns in India.
• India’s modernization programs and general militarization have resulted in active commercial arms deals and exchanges of military technology with other countries. This has not been limited to the purchase of French and Russian fighter jets and is further exemplified by the joint Russian-Indian development of the BrahMos cruise missile.
• India is not a signatory to the nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT).

Indian nuclear planning has been largely based on an unofficial document released in 1999 by the National Security Advisory Board known as the draft nuclear doctrine . This document calls for India’s nuclear forces to be deployed on a triad of delivery vehicles of “aircraft, mobile land-based missiles and sea-based assets,” designed for “punitive retaliation.” Indian officials say the size of their nuclear stockpile is based on maintaining a “credible minimum deterrent” and that its abilities must enable an “adequate retaliatory capability should deterrence fail.” Although India reiterated in January 2003 that it would not use nuclear weapons against states that do not possess such arms and declared that nuclear weapons would only be used to retaliate against a nuclear attack, the government reserved the right to use nuclear weapons in response to biological or chemical weapons attacks.

However, given the offensive restructuring of India’s nuclear forces, recent debate has centered on whether India may be considering a “preemptive nuclear counterforce” doctrine. India’s nuclear warheads are believed to be stored in a disassembled state, with the fissile core kept separate from the warhead package. This practice greatly increases the time required to deploy the weapons. However, it remains to be seen how this command-and-control practice will adapt to India’s new submarine nuclear forces and other technologies that enable higher readiness and flexibility.

• India ratified the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) in 1974 and there is no evidence that suggests it has an offensive biological weapons program.
• The Indian biotechnology private sector is highly sophisticated and the government conducts biodefense research through the DRDO.
• India ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in 1996 and supports the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). India hosted the OPCW 12th Regional Meeting of National Authorities in Asia in 2014.
• In 1992 India signed the India-Pakistan Agreement on Chemical Weapons for the “complete prohibition of chemical weapons.” Upon signing, both India and Pakistan declared that they did not possess chemical weapons—India lied. However, in 1999 and 2000, Pakistan accused India of launching chemical weapons into Pakistan, an accusation India has denied.
• In 1997, India declared 1,044 metric tons of sulfur mustard stockpiles. India completed the destruction of its stockpile on schedule in 2009, becoming the third country to completely destroy its chemical weapons.
• India-Pakistan non-Attack Agreement, entered into force in January 1991.
• In 1992 India signed the India-Pakistan Agreement on Chemical Weapons for the “complete prohibition of chemical weapons.”
• After their tit-for-tat nuclear tests in 1998, Pakistan and India volunteered to abstain from nuclear testing.
• Established a hotline to reduce the risk of accidental nuclear war and agreed to exchange advance notifications of ballistic missile flight tests.
• In 2007, the fifth round of talks regarding the review of nuclear and ballistic missile-related confidence-building measures took place as part of the Composite Dialogue Process.
• Talks have stalled since 2019 over tensions in Kashmir, though the U.S. has supported Pakistani efforts to resume dialogue.

In April 2010, India attended the first Nuclear Security Summit (NSS) in Washington, DC where participants included 47 countries, 38 of which were represented at the head of state or head of government level, and the heads of the United Nations, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the European Union. At the summit, the participants unanimously adopted the goal of securing all vulnerable nuclear material in the next four years. India has also attended the 2012 NSS in Seoul, the 2014 NSS in The Hague, and the 2016 NSS held again in Washington, DC where attendees developed action plans for five global organizations to continue the work of the summits.

Established in 1979 as a multilateral disarmament negotiating forum by the international community, India has been a regular and active participant in the CD. India favors negotiation of a fissile material cutoff treaty that is “effectively verifiable,” which is a condition opposed by the United States. At the CD (and elsewhere), India has consistently called for general nuclear disarmament by all states.

India has nuclear cooperation agreements with a number of states: the U.S., the U.K., Russia, France, Namibia, South Korea, Mongolia, Canada, Argentina, Kazakhstan, and Japan .

In 2014, India and Australia signed a civil nuclear agreement enabling the sale of Australian uranium to support India’s growing nuclear energy needs.

The United States signed a controversial agreement with India to repeal most U.S. and multilateral civilian nuclear trade restrictions on India. In 2006, Congress amended its own domestic legislation to allow nuclear trade with India to proceed. The two governments later concluded a “ 123 Agreement ” (the U.S.–India Civil Nuclear Agreement), which was approved by Congress and signed into law in October 2008 after India received a waiver from the NSG that September. However, current NSG guidelines include the prohibition of exports to countries that do not open all nuclear facilities to international inspections, such as India and Pakistan. The United States has pushed for India to become a member of the NSG, but in January 2017, China and other countries blocked India's membership bid on the grounds that India has not yet signed the NPT.

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Analysis of the spatiotemporal variability of hydrological drought regimes in the lowland rivers of kazakhstan.

1. Introduction

• By type of drought: meteorological (atmospheric), soil (agroclimatic), and hydrological
• By duration of drought: short (duration up to 30 days) and long (more than 30 days)
• Air temperature: high up to 30 °C and very high above 30 °C;
• Soil temperature: high up to 40 °C and very high above 40 °C;
• Water temperature: high up to 28 °C and very high above 28 °C.
• Hydrogeological: type of water supply of a river or lake, conditions of water occurrence, groundwater supply regime, conditions of underground water supply, and type of hydraulic connection with the river;
• Morphometric: depth of erosion incision of the channel and catchment area;
• Meteorological: air temperature, soil temperature, water evaporation, evaporation from soil, and transpiration by vegetation;
• Anthropogenic water withdrawal for irrigation, water withdrawal by industry, water withdrawal for municipal and domestic needs, and water withdrawal for agricultural needs.
• Water resource deficits (hydrological droughts can significantly reduce water reserves, leading to serious economic and social consequences);
• Under conditions of a changing climate, hydrological anomalies, including droughts, are becoming more pronounced;
• Threat to agriculture (hydrological droughts can lead to reduced crop yields, with negative impacts on food security and human well-being);
• Droughts can cause soil degradation and changes in ecological systems, which directly affect the sustainability of regions;
• Assessment and analysis of hydrological drought characteristics are necessary for effective water resources management and the development of drought prevention and mitigation measures.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. description of the study area, 2.1.1. zhaiyk–caspian water management basin, 2.1.2. tobyl–torgai water management basin, 2.1.3. yesil water management basin, 2.1.4. nura–sarysu water management basin, 2.2. research materials.

• Seventeen hydrological posts in the Zhaiyk–Caspian WMB;
• Twelve hydrological posts in the Tobyl–Torgai WMB;
• Seven hydrological stations in the Yesil WMB;
• Nine hydrological posts in the Nura–Sarysu WMB.
• Eighteen meteorological stations in the Zhaiyk–Caspian WMB;
• Eleven meteorological stations in the Tobyl–Torgai WMB;
• Seven meteorological stations in the Yesil WMB;
• Ten meteorological stations in the Nura–Sarysu WMB.

2.3. Research Methods

• A gamma distribution function with the following form is constructed from the precipitation sums data:
• The cumulative probability function of a standard normally distributed random variable is constructed on the basis of the distribution density;
• Using the obtained normal distribution, the sums of precipitation are reduced to the form of SPI. A classification of drought conditions is shown in Table 3 .
• Soil moisture changes respond to precipitation anomalies on a short-term scale;
• Groundwater and river flow conditions reflect long-term precipitation anomalies.
• One–two months for meteorological drought;
• One–six months for agricultural drought;
• Six–twenty-four months and more for hydrological drought.
• Zhaiyk–Caspian water management basin

4. Discussion

4.1. zhaiyk–caspian water management basin, 4.2. tobyl–torgai water management basin, 4.3. yesil water management basin, 4.4. nura–sarysu water management basin, 5. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Upravlenie OON po Snizheniyu Riska Bedstvii (2021). GAR 2021—Spetsial’nyi Doklad o Zasukhe: Rezyume Dlya Direktivnykh Organov. Zheneva. Available online: https://www.undrr.org/media/72527/download?startDownload=true (accessed on 1 August 2024).
• Gringof, I.G. Zasukhi i opustynivanie—Ekologicheskie problemy sovremennosti. Tr. VNIISKhM 2000 , 33 , 14–40. [ Google Scholar ]
• Zolotokrylin, A.N. Klimaticheskoe Opustynivanie (Climatic Desertification) ; Krenke, A.N., Ed.; Nauka: Moscow, Russia, 2003; 245p. (In Russian) [ Google Scholar ]
• Loginov, V.F.; Neushkin, A.I.; Rocheva, E.V. Zasukhi, Ikh Vozmozhnye Prichiny i Predposylki Predskazaniya (Drought: Possible Reasons for Their Occurrenceand Prerequisite for Their Prediction) ; Obninsk, Russia, 1976; 71p. (In Russian) [ Google Scholar ]
• Grebenshchikov, V.; Kol’venko, V.; Gavrilenko, L.; Grebenshchikova, N.; Tyshkevich, T. Osobennosti poyavleniya gidrologicheskikh zasukh v nizhnem techenii reki Dnestr. In Proceedings of the International Conference “Hydropower Impact on River Ecosystem Functioning”, Tiraspol, Moldova, 8–9 October 2019; Eco-TIRAS International Association of River Keepers: Tiraspol, Moldova, 2019; pp. 65–69, ISBN 978-9975-56-690-2. (In Russian). [ Google Scholar ]
• American Meteorological Society. Meteorological drought—Policy statement. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. 1997 , 78 , 847–849. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hisdal, H.; Tallaksen, L.M.; Gauster, T.; Bloomfield, J.P.; Parry, S.; Prudhomme, C.; Wanders, N. Chapter 5—Hydrological drought characteristics. In Hydrological Drought , 2nd ed.; Processes and Estimation Methods for Streamflow and Groundwater; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2024; pp. 157–231. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Semenova, S.M. (Ed.) Metody Otsenki Posledstvii Izmeneniya Klimata dlya Fizicheskikh i Biologicheskikh Sistem: Monografiya ; Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of the Russian Federation (Rosgidromet): Moscow, Russia, 2012; 508p. [ Google Scholar ]
• Vladimirov, A.M. Klassifikatsiya Gidrologicheskikh zasukh. Uchenye zapiski (Classification of Hydrological Droughts. Scientific Notes), In Russian. RGGMU No. 23. Nauchno-Teoreticheskii Zhurnal—SPb.: RGGMU. In Klassifikatsiya Gidrologicheskikh zasukh. Uchenye zapiski (Classification of Hydrological Droughts. Scientific Notes) ; RGGMU No. 23. Nauchno-Teoreticheskii Zhurnal; SPb.: RGGMU: Saint Petersburg, Russia, 2012; pp. 5–12. Available online: https://www.rshu.ru/university/notes/archive/issue23/uz23-5-12.pdf (accessed on 1 July 2024). (In Russian)
• Wong, G.; van Lanen, H.; Torfs, P. Probabilistic analysis of hydrological drought characteristics using meteorological drought. Hydrol. Sci. J. 2013 , 58 , 253–270. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Vladimirov, A.M. Faktory Formirovaniya Ekstremal’nogo Stoka v Malovodnyi Sezon ; SPb. Uchenye Zapiski RGGMU. No. 7; Uchenye zapiski RGGMU: Saint Petersburg, Russia, 2008; pp. 13–22. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gibbs, W.J.; Maher, J.V. Rainfall Deciles as Drought Indicators, Melbourne, Commonwealth of Australia ; Bureau of Meteorology Bulletin No.48; Bureau of Meteorology: Melbourne, Australia, 1967. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kingston, D.G.; Ionita, M.; Stahl, K.; Van Dijk, A. Chapter 2—Hydroclimatology, Hydrological Drought , 2nd ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2024; pp. 21–47. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ahmad, L.; Arain, N.; Akber, A.; Qayoom, S.; Bhat, O.A.; Kumar, R. Drought Concepts, Characterization, and Indicators. Integr. Drought Manag. 2024 , 1 , 43–62. [ Google Scholar ]
• Soylu Pekpostalci, D.; Tur, R.; Danandeh Mehr, A.; Vazifekhah Ghaffari, M.A.; Dąbrowska, D.; Nourani, V. Drought Monitoring and Forecasting across Turkey: A Contemporary Review. Sustainability 2023 , 15 , 6080. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• McKee, T.B.; Doesken, N.J.; Kleist, J. The relationship of drought frequency and duration to time scales. In Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Applied Climatology, Anaheim, CA, USA, 17–22 January 1993; pp. 179–184. [ Google Scholar ]
• Edwards, D.C.; McKee, T.B. Characteristics of 20th Century Drought in the United States at Multiple Time Scales ; Climatology Report No. 97-2; Colorado State University: Fort Collins, CO, USA, 1997; 155p. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mehr, A.D.; Sorman, A.U.; Kahya, E.; Afshar, M.H. Climate change impacts on meteorological drought using SPI and SPEI: Case study of Ankara, Turkey. Hydrol. Sci. J. 2020 , 65 , 254–268. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Vicente-Serrano, S.M.; Begueria, S.; Lopez-Moreno, J.I. A multi-scalar drought index sensitive to global warming: The Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index. J. Clim. 2010 , 23 , 1696–1718. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wu, H.; Hayes, M.J.; Weiss, A.; Hu, Q. An evaluation of the Standardized Precipitation Index, the China-Z Index and the statistical Z-score. Int. J. Climatol. 2001 , 21 , 745–758. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hersbach, H.; Bell, B.; Berrisford, P.; Hirahara, S.; Horányi, A.; Muñoz-Sabater, J.; Thépaut, J.N. The ERA5 global reanalysis. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 2020 , 146 , 199–204. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bordi, I.; Fraedrich, K.; Sutera, A. Observed drought and wetness trends in Europe: An update. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss. 2009 , 6 , 3891–3915. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, Q.; Yang, Y.; Liang, L.; Jun, H.; Yan, D.; Wang, X.; Li, C.; Sun, T. Thresholds for triggering the propagation of meteorological drought to hydrological drought in water-limited regions of China. Sci. Total. Environ. 2023 , 876 , 162771. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Selyaninov, G.T. O sel’skokhozyaistvennoi otsenke klimata. Tr. Po Sel’skokhozyaistvennoi Meteorol. 1928 , 20 , 165–177. [ Google Scholar ]
• Strashnaya, A.I.; Bogomolova, N.A. O kataloge sil’nykh pochvennykh zasukh pod rannimi yarovymi zernovymi kul’turami v Chernozemnoi zone Rossii. Tr. Gidromettsentra Ross. 2005 , 340 , 35–47. [ Google Scholar ]
• Zoidze, E.K.; Khomyakova, G.V. Modelirovanie Formirovaniya Vlagoobespechennosti Territorii Evropeiskoi Rossii v Sovremennykh Usloviyakh i Osnovy Otsenki Agroklimaticheskoi Bezopasnosti ; Meteorologiya i gidrologiya: Moscow, Russia, 2006. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ionova, E.V.; Likhovidova, V.A.; Lobunskaya, I.A. Zasukha i gidrotermicheskii koeffitsient uvlazhneniya kak odin iz kriteriev otsenki stepeni ee intensivnosti (obzor literatury). Zernovoe Khozyaistvo Ross. 2019 , 18–22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Palmer, W.C. Meteorological Droughts ; U.S. Department of Commerce Weather Bureau Research Paper 45; U.S. Weather Bureau: Washington, DC, USA, 1965; 58p. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kim, T.-W.; Valdés, J.B.; Aparicio, J. Frequency and Spatial Characteristics of Droughts in the Conchos River Basin, Mexico. Water Int. 2002 , 27 , 420–430. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mika, J.; Horvth, S.; Makra, L.; Dunkel, Z. The Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) as an indicator of soil moisture. Phys. Chem. Earth 2005 , 30 , 223–230. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhai, J.; Su, B.; Krysanova, V.; Vetter, T.; Gao, C.; Jiang, T. Spatial variation and trends in PDSI and SPI indices and their relation to streamflow in 10 large regions of China. J. Clim. 2010 , 23 , 649–663. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Alley, W.M. The Palmer Drought Severity Index: Limitations and assumptions. J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol. 1984 , 23 , 1100–1109. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nalbantis, I.; Tsakiris, G. Assessment of hydrological drought revisited. Water Resour. Manag. 2008 , 23 , 881–897. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dobrovol’skii, S.G. Zasukhi mira i ikh evolyutsiya vo vremeni: Sel’skokhozyaistvennyi, meteorologicheskii i gidrologicheskii aspekty. Vodn. Resur. 2015 , 42 , 119. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kholoptsev, A.V.; Naurozbayeva, Z.K. Estimates of the Periodicity of Atmospheric Blockings Over Kazakhstan in the Spring–Summer Time According to Era 5 Reanalysis Data. In Physical and Mathematical Modeling of Earth and Environment Processes—2022 ; Karev, V.I., Ed.; Springer Proceedings in Earth and Environmental Sciences; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2023. [ Google Scholar ]
• Alimkulov, S.; Makhmudova, L.; Tursunova, A.; Talipova, E.; Birimbayeva, L. Kopzhyldyq gidrometeorologiyalyq malimetteri negizinde Zhajyq-Kaspiy su sharuashylyq alabyndagy gidrologiyalyq qurgaqshylyqty bagalau. Gidrometeorol. Zhane Ekol. 2024 , 112 , 26–38. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Galperin, R.I. Materialy po gidrografii Kazahstana ; Part 1–3; al’-Farabi KazNU: Almaty, Kazakhstan, 1997; 90p. [ Google Scholar ]
• Galperin, R.I.; Davletgaliev, S.K.; Moldakhmetov, M.M.; Chigrinets, A.G.; Makhmudova, L.K.; Avezova, A. Water resources of Kazakhstan: Assessment, forecast, management. In River Runoff Resources of Kazakhstan ; Book 1; Institute of Geography and Water Security: Almaty, Kazakhstan, 2012; Volume VII, 684p, ISBN 978-601-7150-32-7. [ Google Scholar ]
• National Drought Mitigation Center. SPI Generator [Software]. University of Nebraska–Lincoln. 2018. Available online: https://drought.unl.edu/Monitoring/SPI/SPIProgram.aspx (accessed on 1 August 2024).
• Tigkas, D.; Vangelis, H.; Tsakiris, G. DrinC: A software for drought analysis based on drought indices. Earth Sci. Inform. 2015 , 8 , 697–709. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Code of Rules CR 33-101-2003. In Definition of the Main Calculated Hydrological Characteristics ; Gosstroy of Russia: Moscow, Russia, 2004.
• Tursunova, A.; Medeu, A.; Alimkulov, S.; Saparova, A.; Baspakova, G. Water resources of Kazakhstan in conditions of uncertainty. J. Water Land Dev. 2022 , 138–149. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Makhmudova, L.; Moldakhmetov, M.; Mussina, A.; Kanatuly, A. Perennial fluctuations of river runoff of the Yesil river basin. Period. Eng. Nat. Sci. 2021 , 9 , 149–165. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yevjevich, V. An Objective Approach to Definition and Investigations of Continental Hydrological Droughts ; Hydrology Papers; Colorado State University: Fort Collins, CO, USA, 1967; Volume 23. [ Google Scholar ]
• Zelenhasic, E.; Salvai, A. A method of streamflow drought analysis. Water Resour. Res. 1987 , 23 , 156–168. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tate, E.L.; Freeman, S.N. The modeling approaches for seasonal streamflow droughts in southern Africa: The use of censored data. Hydrol. Sci. J. 2000 , 45 , 27–42. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Clausen, B.; Pearson, C.P. Regional frequency analysis of annual maximum streamflow draught. J. Hydrol. 1995 , 173 , 111–130. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tallaksen, L.M.; Madsen, H.; Clausen, B. On the definition and modelling of streamflow drought duration and deficit volume. Hydrol. Sci. J. 1997 , 42 , 15–33. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• World Meteorological Organization (WMO); Global Water Partnership (GWP). Handbook of Drought Indicators and Indices ; Integrated Drought Management Tools and Guidelines Series 2; Svoboda, M., Fuchs, B.A., Eds.; Integrated Drought Management Programme (IDMP): Geneva, Switzerland, 2016. [ Google Scholar ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Birimbayeva, L.; Makhmudova, L.; Alimkulov, S.; Tursunova, A.; Mussina, A.; Tigkas, D.; Beksultanova, Z.; Rodrigo-Clavero, M.-E.; Rodrigo-Ilarri, J. Analysis of the Spatiotemporal Variability of Hydrological Drought Regimes in the Lowland Rivers of Kazakhstan. Water 2024 , 16 , 2316. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162316

Birimbayeva L, Makhmudova L, Alimkulov S, Tursunova A, Mussina A, Tigkas D, Beksultanova Z, Rodrigo-Clavero M-E, Rodrigo-Ilarri J. Analysis of the Spatiotemporal Variability of Hydrological Drought Regimes in the Lowland Rivers of Kazakhstan. Water . 2024; 16(16):2316. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162316

Birimbayeva, Lyazzat, Lyazzat Makhmudova, Sayat Alimkulov, Aysulu Tursunova, Ainur Mussina, Dimitris Tigkas, Zhansaya Beksultanova, María-Elena Rodrigo-Clavero, and Javier Rodrigo-Ilarri. 2024. "Analysis of the Spatiotemporal Variability of Hydrological Drought Regimes in the Lowland Rivers of Kazakhstan" Water 16, no. 16: 2316. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162316

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

Ukraine war latest: Ukraine blows hole in another Russian bridge; Kursk offensive puts 'new constraints' on Putin's war plans

Ukraine has attacked a second Russian bridge in the Kursk region in a week as it continues its offensive across the border. Analysts say the incursion has put pressure on Russian forces across the frontline and forced Vladimir Putin to decide how to defend the border long-term.

Sunday 18 August 2024 20:20, UK

• Ukraine blows hole in second Russian bridge
• Kursk offensive puts new pressures on entire Russian frontline, analysts say
• Safety 'deteriorating' at Ukrainian nuclear power plant
• Ukrainian drone sparks fire at Russian oil depot
• Russia launches third ballistic missile attack on Ukrainian capital this month
• 'We could lose': Russian state TV commentators gloomy over Kursk
• Sean Bell: Humiliated Putin will respond ruthlessly to Ukrainian masterstroke
• Michael Clarke : Pokrovsk in real trouble as Russian troops advance
• Listen to the Daily above and tap here to follow wherever you get your podcasts

Ukraine is "still inflicting losses" on Russia, President Volodymyr Zelenskyy has said in his nightly address.

He claimed Ukraine's operation in Russia's Kursk region is damaging "the Russian army, state, their defence industy and their economy".

Mr Zelenskyy posted a video showing a growing cloud from a bridge explosion, with one of its sections destroyed.

He also thanked his soldiers stationed over the Russian border and asked his Ukraine's allies to speed up the delivery of promised military aid.

"Regarding deliveries from our partners - need acceleration, we ask very much. War has no holidays," he warned.

Yesterday, the German government was forced to deny rumours it is planning to halve its military aid to Ukraine in 2025.

A crater was left in the Kyiv region in the aftermath of a Russian missile attack.

Images show locals looking on at the destruction left by the strike, in a seemingly rural area.

Parts of the missile remained scattered across the ground.

This comes after Russia launched its third ballistic missile attack on Kyiv this morning (see 07:35 post).

Preliminary data showed all missiles were destroyed on their approach to the city, the military administration of the Ukrainian capital said. 

Two people have been killed in a Ukrainian shelling of Donetsk, according to the Russian-installed mayor.

A man and a woman were said to have been killed on Sunday, local mayor Alexei Kulemzin said.

Sky News has not been able to independently verify his claim.

It would continue Kyiv's push into Russian territory and their newfound aggression in the face of Russia's invasion.

This comes after, earlier in the day, Russian forces were said to have taken control of the village of Svyrydonivka, in the same region, according to TASS state news agency.

Chechnya President Ramzan Kadyrov has invited Elon Musk to Russia after being filmed behind the wheel of one of Tesla's Cybertrucks mounted with a machine gun.

Kadyrov, sanctioned by the US after being linked to numerous human rights violations, said he "literally fell in love" with the car and would donate it to Russian forces fighting in the invasion of Ukraine.

The president, who rules over Chechnya, a republic within the Russian Federation, claimed he received the truck from Musk, although this was not independently confirmed.

Messages left with Tesla by AP seeking comment were not immediately returned.

"It's not for nothing that they call this a cyberbeast. I'm sure that this beast will bring plenty of benefits to our troops."

Inviting Musk to Chechnya, Kadyrov said: "I don't think the Russian foreign ministry would mind such a trip.

"And, of course, we're waiting for your new developments that will help us finish our special military operation." 

Russian officials often refer to its invasion as a "special military operation".

More than 3,000 people were evacuated in 24 hours between Friday and Saturday from areas in Russia's Kursk region, according to local authorities.

Russia says the Ukrainian incursion has led to the evacuation of more than 120,000 civilians in total.

More than 10,000 Kursk residents were staying at temporary accommodation centres across the country, the Russian Emergency Ministry said.

Kyiv's offensive came as a shock to Yan Furtsev, an activist and member of the local opposition party Yabloko.

"No one expected that this kind of conflict was even possible in the Kursk region. 

"That is why there is such confusion and panic, because citizens are arriving [from frontline areas] and they're scared, very scared."

Russia has denied any talks were taking place with Kyiv about halting strikes on energy targets before Ukraine's Kursk offensive.

The Washington Post reported yesterday the incursion derailed indirect talks on civilian infrastructure facilities, with delegations set to be sent to Qatar.

The agreement would have amounted to a partial ceasefire, the Post said.

But Russian foreign ministry spokesperson Maria Zakharova refuted the report: "No one broke anything off because there was nothing to break off.

"There have been no direct or indirect negotiations between Russia and the Kyiv regime on the safety of civilian critical infrastructure facilities." 

Ukraine's government did not immediately respond to a Reuters request for comment. 

Ukraine has dismissed Belarusian border tension claims as false.

President Aleksandr Lukashenko was just trying to "appease" Russia when he said he was sending a third of the Belarusian army to the Ukrainian border, said Andrii Demchenko, spokesperson for the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine.

"We have not seen an increase in the equipment or manpower of Belarusian units near our border," he said.

"The situation on the border with the Republic of Belarus remains unchanged. 

"As you can see, Lukashenko's rhetoric is consistent, exacerbating the situation at regular intervals to appease the terrorist country."

We can now bring you video of the Ukrainian strike on the second bridge in Kursk this week.

A plume of smoke can be seen erupting from the construction in footage  published by the Ukrainian air force.

The attacks on bridges crossing the river Seym, one in Zvannoe and the other in Glushkovo, are thought to be attempts to hamper Russian attempts to resupply its troops in the region.

We've had more details from Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko on his movement of troops to the Ukrainian border.

Minsk has deployed nearly a third of its armed forces along the entire border, the Belta state news agency reported.

The exact number of soldiers was not specified, but Belarus' professional army consists of 48,000 and around 12,000 state border troops, according to the 2022 International Institute for Strategic Studies' Military Balance.

The president claimed Ukraine had stationed more than 120,000 troops at its border with Belarus.

"Seeing their aggressive policy, we have introduced there and placed in certain points - in case of war, they would be defence - our military along the entire border," Belta cited Mr Lukashenko as saying in an interview with Russian state television.

Yesterday, Kyiv said it had seen no signs of a Belarusian troop build-up at the border.

Belarusian defence minister Viktor Khrenin said on Friday there was a high probability of an armed provocation from Ukraine and that the situation at their shared border "remains tense". 

Western leaders have left "handcuffs" on Ukrainians using their donated weapons because they fear playing to Vladimir Putin's agenda,  military analyst Sean Bell  says.

While the UK gave Ukraine free reign over its donated Storm Shadow missiles, so long as they hit military targets, the British government wants consensus with the US before they are used inside Russia - and "the US is rather cautious still".

Bell explains the argument made in the West - especially the US - is that they do not want to lend any credence to Putin's claims that Russia is fighting NATO or the West, rather than Ukraine.

" The risk is it plays to that agenda and Putin starts saying 'I'm actually in a war against the West' and therefore starts to respond accordingly."

Bell said: "But these handcuffs on the Ukrainians led to President Zelenskyy last night, in his nightly address, praising the West, particularly singling out the UK, for providing great weapons but also urging that the limitations are freed."

Be the first to get Breaking News

Install the Sky News app for free

• LIVE DISCOURSE
• BLOG / OPINION
• SUBMIT PRESS RELEASE
• Advertisement
• Knowledge Partnership
• Media Partnership
• Energy & Extractives

Dr. Kgosientsho Ramokgopa Withdraws 2,500MW Nuclear Procurement Determination

The minister acknowledged that the omission came to light only after court papers were filed, prompting the withdrawal of the gazette to allow for public consultation..

• South Africa

Minister of Energy and Electricity, Dr. Kgosientsho Ramokgopa, has announced the withdrawal of the Ministerial Determination for the procurement of 2,500MW of nuclear energy. The decision was made to ensure that the process includes public participation, which had been overlooked, leading to legal challenges. Speaking at a media briefing in Pretoria, the Minister emphasized the importance of transparency and public confidence in the procurement process.

The determination, previously supported by the National Energy Regulator of South Africa (Nersa), faced criticism for not including public comments, which led to legal pressure. The Minister acknowledged that the omission came to light only after court papers were filed, prompting the withdrawal of the gazette to allow for public consultation.

Although this decision will delay the nuclear procurement process by an estimated three to six months, Dr. Ramokgopa stressed the need to protect the integrity and transparency of the process. He assured the public that the government remains committed to including nuclear energy in South Africa's future energy mix, as outlined in the Integrated Resource Plan 2019.

Despite the setback, the Minister reiterated that nuclear energy remains a crucial part of the country's energy security strategy, and the procurement process will proceed once public input has been adequately considered and Nersa's concurrence is obtained.

• READ MORE ON:
• Dr. Kgosientsho Ramokgopa
• nuclear energy

Director General of Indian Coast Guard Rakesh Pal dies in Chennai following ...

Burger King Corporation Loses 13-Year Legal Battle to Pune Eatery

Historic 2027 Test to Commemorate 150 Years of Australia-England Cricket at ...

PPP, PTI Criticize Punjab's Short-term Power Relief Plan

Latest news, explosion in tel aviv: potential militant attack investigated, doctors strike in capital over kolkata incident enters seventh day, champai soren's bitter departure: ex-jharkhand cm considers new paths amid controversy, hamas criticizes new gaza ceasefire proposal as too pro-israel.

OPINION / BLOG / INTERVIEW

The unexpected link between women's earnings and rising fertility in sub-saharan africa, navigating the health maze: essential tips for a safe international journey, financial growth: the key to breaking the cycle of fragile states, building the future of education: how off-site construction is revolutionizing school infrastructure, connect us on.

• ADVERTISEMENT
• KNOWLEDGE PARTNERSHIP
• MEDIA PARTNERSHIP
• Agro-Forestry
• Art & Culture
• Economy & Business
• Law & Governance
• Science & Environment
• Social & Gender
• Urban Development
• East and South East Asia
• Europe and Central Asia
• Central Africa
• East Africa
• Southern Africa
• West Africa
• Middle East and North Africa
• North America
• Latin America and Caribbean

OTHER LINKS

• Write for us
• Submit Press Release
• Opinion / Blog / Analysis
• Business News
• Entertainment News
• Technology News
• Law-order News
• Lifestyle News
• National News
• International News

OTHER PRODUCTS

Email: [email protected] Phone: +91-720-6444012, +91-7027739813, 14, 15

© Copyright 2024

Press centre

Nuclear technology and applications.

• Climate change
• Environment
• Food and agriculture
• Nuclear science

Nuclear safety and security

• Human and organizational factors
• Governmental, legal and regulatory framework
• Nuclear installation safety
• Radiation protection
• Security of nuclear and other radioactive material
• Radioactive waste and spent fuel management
• Emergency preparedness and response

Safeguards and verification

• Basics of IAEA Safeguards
• Safeguards implementation
• Safeguards legal framework
• Assistance for States
• Member States Support Programmes

Technical Cooperation Programme

• How it works
• How to participate

Coordinated research activities

• Legislative assistance

Key programmes

• Atoms4NetZero
• International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO)
• Together for More Women in Nuclear
• NUTEC Plastics
• Peaceful Uses Initiative
• Rays of Hope
• The SMR Platform and Nuclear Harmonization and Standardization Initiative (NHSI)
• Zoonotic Disease Integrated Action (ZODIAC)

Review missions and advisory services

• Catalogue of review missions and advisory services
• Peer review and advisory services calendar

Laboratory services

• Analytical reference materials
• Dosimetry calibration
• Dosimetry auditing
• Inter-laboratory comparisons
• Global Nuclear Safety and Security Network (GNSSN)

Education and training

• Training courses
• Online learning

Scientific and technical publications

• Full catalogue
• Safety Standards
• Nuclear Security Series
• Nuclear Energy Series
• Human Health Series
• Conference Proceedings
• Newsletters
• Nuclear Fusion Journal

General interest material

• IAEA Bulletin
• Nuclear Explained
• Photos (Flickr)
• Photo essays
• Briefs and factsheets
• IAEA Virtual Tours

Official documents

• Information circulars

NUCLEUS information resources

• International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
• Power Reactor Information System (PRIS)
• Advanced Reactors Information System (ARIS)
• Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information System (iNFCIS)
• Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste Information System (SRIS)
• Nuclear Data Services (NDS)
• Research Reactor Database (RRDB)

Other resources

• Library – Nuclear Information Services
• Impact stories
• Press releases
• Media advisories
• Director General statements
• Photo library
• Press contacts
• Press enquiries
• General Conference
• Board of Governors
• Scientific and technical events
• Scientific Forum
• Medium-Term Strategy
• Partnerships
• Gender at the IAEA
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
• Multilingual content
• List of Member States

Management team

• Director General
• Deputy Directors General

Organizational structure

• Offices Reporting to the Director General
• Technical Cooperation
• Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear Safety and Security
• Nuclear Sciences and Applications
• Working at the IAEA
• Types of Employment

Procurement

• Procurement overview

Search form

You are here, what is nuclear energy the science of nuclear power.

If you would like to learn more about the IAEA’s work, sign up for our weekly updates containing our most important news, multimedia and more.

• Arabic (monthly)
• Chinese (monthly)
• English (weekly)
• French (monthly)
• Russian (monthly)
• Spanish (monthly)

Nuclear energy is a form of energy released from the nucleus, the core of atoms, made up of protons and neutrons. This source of energy can be produced in two ways: fission – when nuclei of atoms split into several parts – or fusion – when nuclei fuse together.

The nuclear energy harnessed around the world today to produce electricity is through nuclear fission, while technology to generate electricity from fusion is at the R&D phase. This article will explore nuclear fission. To learn more about nuclear fusion, click here .

What is nuclear fission?

Nuclear fission is a reaction where the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei, while releasing energy.

For instance, when hit by a neutron, the nucleus of an atom of uranium-235 splits into two smaller nuclei, for example a barium nucleus and a krypton nucleus and two or three neutrons. These extra neutrons will hit other surrounding uranium-235 atoms, which will also split and generate additional neutrons in a multiplying effect, thus generating a chain reaction in a fraction of a second.

Each time the reaction occurs, there is a release of energy in the form of heat and radiation . The heat can be converted into electricity in a nuclear power plant, similarly to how heat from fossil fuels such as coal, gas and oil is used to generate electricity.

Nuclear fission (Graphic: A. Vargas/IAEA)

How does a nuclear power plant work?

Inside nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors and their equipment contain and control the chain reactions, most commonly fuelled by uranium-235, to produce heat through fission. The heat warms the reactor’s cooling agent, typically water, to produce steam. The steam is then channelled to spin turbines, activating an electric generator to create low-carbon electricity.

Find more details about the different types of nuclear power reactors on this page .

Pressurized water reactors are the most used in the world. (Graphic: A. Vargas/IAEA)

Mining, enrichment and disposal of uranium

Uranium is a metal that can be found in rocks all over the world. Uranium has several naturally occurring isotopes , which are forms of an element differing in mass and physical properties but with the same chemical properties. Uranium has two primordial isotopes: uranium-238 and uranium-235. Uranium-238 makes up the majority of the uranium in the world but cannot produce a fission chain reaction, while uranium-235 can be used to produce energy by fission but constitutes less than 1 per cent of the world’s uranium.

To make natural uranium more likely to undergo fission, it is necessary to increase the amount of uranium-235 in a given sample through a process called uranium enrichment. Once the uranium is enriched, it can be used effectively as nuclear fuel in power plants for three to five years, after which it is still radioactive and has to be disposed of following stringent guidelines to protect people and the environment. Used fuel, also referred to as spent fuel, can also be recycled into other types of fuel for use as new fuel in special nuclear power plants.

What is the Nuclear Fuel Cycle?

The nuclear fuel cycle is an industrial process involving various steps to produce electricity from uranium in nuclear power reactors. The cycle starts with the mining of uranium and ends with the disposal of nuclear waste.

Nuclear waste

The operation of nuclear power plants produces waste with varying levels of radioactivity. These are managed differently depending on their level of radioactivity and purpose. See the animation below to learn more about this topic.

Radioactive Waste Management

Radioactive waste makes up a small portion of all waste. It is the by-product of millions of medical procedures each year, industrial and agricultural applications that use radiation and nuclear reactors that generate around 11 % of global electricity. This animation explains how radioactive waste is managed to protect people and the environment from radiation now and in the future.

The next generation of nuclear power plants, also called innovative advanced reactors , will generate much less nuclear waste than today’s reactors. It is expected that they could be under construction by 2030.

Nuclear power and climate change

Nuclear power is a low-carbon source of energy, because unlike coal, oil or gas power plants, nuclear power plants practically do not produce CO 2 during their operation. Nuclear reactors generate close to one-third of the world’s carbon free electricity and are crucial in meeting climate change goals.

To find out more about nuclear power and the clean energy transition, read this edition of the IAEA Bulletin .

What is the role of the IAEA?

• The IAEA establishes and promotes international standards and guidance for the safe and secure use of nuclear energy to protect people and the environment.
• The IAEA supports existing and new nuclear programmes around the world by providing technical support and knowledge management. Through the Milestones Approach , the IAEA provides technical expertise and guidance to countries that want to develop a nuclear power programme as well as to those who are decommissioning theirs.
• Through its safeguards and verification activities, the IAEA oversees that nuclear material and technologies are not diverted from peaceful use.
• Review missions and advisory services led by the IAEA provide guidance on the activities necessary during the lifetime of production of nuclear energy: from the mining of uranium to the construction, maintenance and decommissioning of nuclear power plants and the management of nuclear waste.
• The IAEA administers a reserve of low enriched uranium (LEU ) in Kazakhstan, which can be used as a last resort by countries that are in urgent need of LEU for peaceful purposes.

This article was first published on iaea.org on 2 August 2021.

Related stories

Nuclear Power Proves its Vital Role as an Adaptable, Reliable Supplier of Electricity during COVID-19

IAEA and NEA-OECD Discuss Key Nuclear Power Developments During Annual Meeting

Clean Energy Ministerial Focuses on Nuclear Future

IAEA's Grossi Calls for Nuclear Power for Net Zero Emissions as Climate ‘Clock is Ticking’

UAE and Belarus Introduced Nuclear Power Last Year. Who is Next?

IAEA and IEA Agree to Boost Cooperation on Nuclear Power for Clean Energy Transition

Related resources

• Nuclear power reactors
• Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2050
• IAEA Projections for Nuclear Power Through 2050
• Nuclear Power: The Road to a Carbon Free Future
• Nuclear explained
• Nuclear power and climate change: Decarbonization
• Department of Nuclear Energy
• Division of Nuclear Power
• Nuclear fuel cycle
• Uranium production

More on the IAEA

• Privacy Policy
• Logo Usage Guidelines

Scientific resources

• Information Circulars
• Standards and guides
• Safeguards and Additional Protocol

Stay in touch

• Trends Summit

White Papers

• Continuing Education
• Sustainability

Tennessee 'Opportunities Workshop' Ramps Commercial Nuclear Power Prospects for Data Centers

In the roughly two years since Chat-GPT made AI and its impact on data centers a central topic of conversation, the issue of finding enough power for data center growth and expansion has also become of central interest. That interest has made the prospect of more nuclear power a primary concern of the data center industry.

Why Nuclear Energy?

According to the  U.S. Energy Information Administration's February 2024 report, total power generation last year, from all sources, was 4,178 billion kWh. And as of 2024, the 94 nuclear reactors operating in the United States generate about 19% of the nation's total power production. 

Renewables (wind, hydro, solar, biomass, etc.) were responsible for slightly more, at 21%, but what that means is that nuclear generates just under 50% of all available clean power.

For an industry such as the data center sector that is rapidly making sustainability, decarbonization,   and energy procurement primary focuses of interest, nuclear has become a high profile topic. To wit, the modeling of power system decarbonization has implied that the U.S. will need as much as 770 GW of additional clean, firm generation capacity to reach net-zero by the year 2050. 

This aligns with the U.S. joing 28 other countries in a pledge to triple nuclear power production by 2050. As shown in the following chart, the value proposition for the decarbonization of power generation puts the potential development of nuclear power at the top of the list.

Nuclear Opportunities Workshop

In July at the East Tennessee Economic Council’s  Nuclear Opportunities Workshop in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Brian Smith, Acting Deputy Assistant Secretary for Nuclear Reactors, Office of Nuclear Energy, U.S. Department of Energy, spoke on the government’s efforts to, if not restart, then perhaps reinvigorate the development of nuclear power in the U.S. 

Many of the development programs and funding opportunities for nuclear energy predate the more recent focus on the significant power demands of the data center industry.

Smith pointed out the importance of investments in public/private development intitiatives, acknowledging that efforts initially funded in 2020 by the Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program (ARDP),  which supported cost-shared programs with industry partners, and have recently started breaking ground and becoming tangible potential assets for power generation.

The ARDP is leveraging the capabilities of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s  National Reactor Innovation Center, which works with the seventeen existing DOE national laboratories to examine the challenges and address issues that hinder progress with the development of nuclear power.

Secretary Smith commented that in his role with the DOE, he often sits down with data center companies who tell him that they're really interested in nuclear energy - but don’t really know what that means.

He stated jokingly that "much of their knowledge is based on watching the Simpsons."

More seriously, he said he finds himself often putting the current state of nuclear power into context, identifying the large-scale reactors that represent the current power generation facilities and explaining how microreactors and small modular reactors (SMRs) can fit into the future plans of these data center companies.

Where Is the Money Going?

Some of the funding for nuclear energy expansion has been for very basic things.

For example, 2023’s national security supplemental appropriations bill included $2.7 billion to increase domestic uranium enrichment, critical for the operation of nuclear power plants.

Low-enriched uranium (LEU – 3%-5% fissile U235-isotope), sourced from three different domestic sites, is used by most existing commercial nuclear reactors. This investment is absolutely critical to the future of domestic nuclear power.

High assay-low enrichment uranium (HALEU – 5%-20% U235) is being used by many of the new, advanced reactor designs, including several of the SMR and microreactor designs that have been proposed and are currently under development.

However, one of the only sources for readily available HALEU fuel, as noted in news reports earlier this year, is via purchases made from Russia, a not-too-viable solution given the current global political situation.

Money is also being spent to further drive the public/private partnership aspect of available funding.

Smith told us, “There was somebody that I really respect in this industry who said, 'Hey, you know, one thing that I see lacking at DOE: you all are real good at the R&D, everything you do with the labs, everything that you do to support demonstration -- but you all don't do commercialization all that well.” 

Addressing this industry concern, of the $900 million available in the fiscal 2024 budget for projects to actually deploy a generation 3+ SMR, $800 million requires that the primary applicant for the funding must be a utility company.

Smith added, “We want the utilities to partner up with the technology vendors, show us your best ideas, and go and actually deploy a Gen 3+ SMR.”  

He also pointed out that this notion represents a shift in thinking from the perspective of the DOE, with the active encouragement of commercial utilities connecting to many of the DOE startup-funded advanced nuclear partners.

What’s Next?

It’s clear that the data center industry is taking nuclear power seriously. Hyperscalers Amazon, Google, and Microsoft have all expressed significant interest in utilizing nuclear power.

Amazon purchased space from Talen Energy collocated with a nuclear power plant earlier this year. Microsoft and Google have teamed up with Nucor on clean energy projects. Bill Gates, through his TerraPower nuclear startup, spent $2 billion to match the $2 billion from the federal government, and we’ve covered many of the letters of intent signed with  startup Oklo to provide significant power capacity to data centers .

Many of the advanced nuclear startups are looking to have demonstration reactors running in the next two to three years, with full scale power generation available by early 2030.

What that tells us now is that there is no simple answer. It’s not only a technology issue, as all eyes will continue to be focused on the NRC and the approval process for deploying commercial nuclear power. Changes are being made, but the extended, multi-decade time frame that many commercial reactors saw in the past is unacceptable for future deployments.

From listening to speakers representing the government at the conference, this is also an issue that the DOE and NRC will be addressing -- hopefully, in time to meet the energy demands of the data center industry and the rest of the country.

Keep pace with the fast-moving world of data centers and cloud computing by connecting with Data Center Frontier on  LinkedIn , following us on  X/Twitter  and  Facebook , and signing up for our weekly newsletters using the form below.

David Chernicoff

Continue reading.

Ongoing Developments In Nuclear Power Generation Thicken Plot for Data Centers

EdgeCore Launches, Plans $2 Billion in Data Center Development

Sponsored recommendations.

3 Strategies to Future-Proof the Sustainability of Your Data Center

The Future of Data Center Energy Use: Mastering Complexity with Artificial Intelligence

HVAC Systems Can Transform How Data Centers Are Developed, Designed and Operated

Go with the Flow: Is it Time Yet for Liquid Cooling?

Voices of the industry.

Beyond the Generator: Secrets to Finding the Perfect Data Center Backup Power Enclosures

Latest in power.

DOE Catalogs Clean Energy Resources, Tools to Help U.S. Data Centers Meet Rising Electricity Demand

Comparing and Contrasting Immersion Cooling Technologies

Amid Rising Power Prices, AEP Expects 15 GW of New Data Center Capacity Growth Through 2030

2022 Data Center & Infrastructure Report

Investing in Edge Computing: It’s Still Early, Investors Say

Vapor IO’s Edge Data Centers Power a Network of Drones

Roundtable: Will 5G Accelerate the Data Center Sector?