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A criticism of the paradigm of rational choice in uncertain conditions through the lens of behavioral economics

We are all choice architects: using behavioral economics to improve smoking cessation in primary care, introduction to the minitrack on behavioral economics in the digital economy: digital nudging and interface design, behavioral economics in military personnel research and policy.

AbstractBehavioral economics is a burgeoning field of research that is being used to increase the effectiveness of military policies, programs, and operations. This chapter provides an overview of the origins of behavioral economics, key concepts, how behavioral economics research translates into applied behavioral change, and the rise of behavioral economics teams in government around the world. The chapter outlines how behavioral economics is being used within the military, with specific examples from Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) personnel research to illustrate how this field is being applied to military behavioral sciences.

TWO CULTURES : SOCIAL IDEAS AND SOCIAL PRACTICES IN THE PROJECT “POTENTIALS – NEW FORM OF SOCIAL CAPITAL IN TOWN COMMUNITY PRZASNYSZ”

The article consists of two parts. In the first part, the author returns to the classic text by C.P. Snow entitled Two Cultures 1959, and justifies its obsolescence by claiming that in recent decades, the natural sciences have become closer to the traditional humanities and have undergone a kind of 'philosophizing', while knowledge accumulated in the humanities and social sciences is increasingly organized by seeking answers to questions of a practical nature. The author's comment boils down to a statement that this is a very unfortunate course of events because, among other things, before we start answering questions about how to achieve these or other goals, it is good to know that it is worthwhile to achieve them. In short, it is not out of the question that the gradual elimination of classical questions about meanings and values from the humanities and social sciences contributes to highly ambivalent assessments of 'modernity'. In the second part, the author does not ask about the rationale behind the objection to various discriminatory practices, but he does ask how - within the framework of the "Potentials..." project - these mechanisms were tried to be dealt with, using the key elements of the so-called "behavioral economics", and he describes the experiences connected with it.

Nudging Behavioral Economics into Nephrology Care Delivery Research

Nonconcave utility maximization with portfolio bounds.

The problems of nonconcave utility maximization appear in many areas of finance and economics, such as in behavioral economics, incentive schemes, aspiration utility, and goal-reaching problems. Existing literature solves these problems using the concavification principle. We provide a framework for solving nonconcave utility maximization problems, where the concavification principle may not hold, and the utility functions can be discontinuous. We find that adding portfolio bounds can offer distinct economic insights and implications consistent with existing empirical findings. Theoretically, by introducing a new definition of viscosity solution, we show that a monotone, stable, and consistent finite difference scheme converges to the value functions of the nonconcave utility maximization problems. This paper was accepted by Agostino Capponi, finance.

Means Paternalism and the Problem of Indeterminacy

Abstract Many contemporary defenders of paternalist interventions favor a version of paternalism focused on how people often choose the wrong means given their own ends. This idea is typically justified by empirical results in psychology and behavioral economics. To the extent that paternalist interventions can then target the promotion of goals that can be said to be our own, such interventions are prima facie less problematic. One version of this argument starts from the idea that it is meaningful to ascribe to us preferences that we would have if were fully rational, informed and in control over our actions. It is argued here, however, that the very body of empirical results that means paternalists typically rely on also undermines this idea as a robust enough notion. A more modest approach to paternalist interventions, on which such policies are understood as enmeshed with welfare-state policies promoting certain primary goods, is then proposed instead.

Forbidden Zones for the Expectations of Data: New Mathematical Methods and Models for Behavioral Economics

A forbidden zone theorem, hypothesis, and applied mathematical method and model are introduced in the present article. The method and model are based on the forbidden zones and hypothesis. The article is initiated by the well-known generic problems concerned with the mathematical description of the behavior of a man. The essence of the problems consists in biases of preferences and decisions of a man in comparison with predictions of the probability theory. The model is uniformly and successfully applied for different domains. The ultimate goal of the research is to solve some generic problems of behavioral economics, decision theories, and the social sciences.

Interdisciplinary influences in behavioral economics: a bibliometric analysis of cross-disciplinary citations

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Behavioral Economics

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What is a Behavioral Economics Dissertation?

A Behavioral Economics Dissertation is a research paper that looks at how people make decisions. It blends economics with psychology to understand why people act the way they do when it comes to money, work, and life choices.

This type of dissertation digs deep into human behavior and seeks to answer questions like why we sometimes make irrational decisions or why we might save money in one situation and spend it in another. The goal is to uncover the reasons behind these actions and offer insights that could help improve economic policies or business strategies.

Why are Behavioral Economics Dissertation Topics Important?

Behavioral Economics is a growing field, and understanding it is key for anyone studying economics, psychology, or business. Choosing a good topic for your dissertation is important because it will guide your research and help you contribute to this exciting area of study.

A well-chosen topic can make your dissertation stand out and even lead to new discoveries. It can also show your ability to think critically and conduct in-depth research. Behavioral Economics topics are crucial because they can influence everything from public policy to marketing strategies. By exploring these topics, you can help others understand how to make better choices, both on a personal and societal level.

Writing Tips for Behavioral Economics Dissertation

Choose a Relevant Topic : Start with a topic that interests you and is relevant to current issues in Behavioral Economics. This will keep you motivated and engaged.
Do Thorough Research : Before you start writing, spend time researching your topic. Read books, academic journals, and articles to get a good understanding of the subject.
Create a Clear Outline : Organize your ideas by creating an outline. This will help you structure your dissertation and ensure you cover all important points.
Use Simple Language : Write in a way that is easy to understand. Avoid jargon and complicated words. Your goal is to communicate your ideas clearly.
Support Your Arguments : Use data and evidence to back up your points. This will make your dissertation stronger and more convincing.
Edit and Proofread : Always revise your work. Check for grammar mistakes and ensure your ideas flow well from one section to the next.

Check out our related posts for economics dissertation topics , Psychology dissertation topics , and accounting dissertation topics .

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Best Behavioral economics dissertation topics for college students

Behavioral economics dissertation topics focus on the individuals that work within the economies of the world. It is impossible to go on without the involvement of individuals. Therefore, behavioral economics thesis topics have strong connections with the field of psychology as well.

The field of behavioral economics studies and describes economic decision-making . According to its theories, actual human behavior is less rational, stable, and selfish than traditional normative theory suggests.

Behavioral economics subjects are a typical area of study here is the list of topics in Behavioral economics dissertation topics have been enlisted below:

How Cognitive Biases Affect Financial Decision-Making
The Role of Social Norms in Economic Behavior
Behavioral Economics in Online Shopping: A Study of Consumer Choices
Nudging in Public Policy: Effective or Overrated?
The Impact of Behavioral Economics on Marketing Strategies
Risk Perception and Decision-Making Under Uncertainty
The Psychology of Saving: Why Do Some People Save More Than Others?
The Effect of Anchoring on Investment Choices
Behavioral Economics and Environmental Conservation: How to Encourage Green Choices
Understanding Procrastination Through Behavioral Economics
The Influence of Peer Pressure on Economic Decisions
How Behavioral Economics Explains the Gender Pay Gap
The Role of Emotions in Economic Decision-Making
The Effect of Loss Aversion on Consumer Behavior
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Health Outcomes
The Impact of Framing on Consumer Choices
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Reducing Poverty
Why People Donate: A Behavioral Economics Perspective
The Effect of Financial Education on Economic Behavior
Behavioral Economics and the Stock Market: Predicting Bubbles
How Social Media Influences Consumer Behavior
The Psychology of Debt: Why People Borrow
Behavioral Economics and Retirement Planning
The Impact of Defaults on Decision-Making
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Public Transportation
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Education Policy
Why Do People Gamble? A Behavioral Economics Approach
How Behavioral Economics Can Reduce Food Waste
The Effect of Incentives on Work Performance
Understanding Charitable Giving Through Behavioral Economics
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Tax Compliance
How Behavioral Economics Explains Impulse Buying
The Impact of Behavioral Economics on Housing Markets
Behavioral Economics and Corporate Social Responsibility
The Effect of Mental Accounting on Spending Habits
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Financial Literacy
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Sports Betting
The Influence of Behavioral Economics on Healthcare Choices
How Behavioral Economics Can Help Reduce Crime
The Effect of Present Bias on Long-Term Planning
Studying the relationship between psychology and economics in the form of behavioral economics.
The role played by behavioral economics in understanding the domain of inflation targeting: a systematic analysis.
Correlational analysis of behavioral economics, feminist economics, and gender economics: a descriptive analysis.
Behavioral economics: an interdisciplinary approach in essence?
Historical analysis of behavioral economics: connecting the past with the present and the future.
Comparative analysis of rational and irrational approaches towards behavioral economics of death.
Regulatory policy and behavioral economics: understanding the changing relationship.
Correlational analysis of behavioral economics, sports, and positive youth development: focus on X country.
Behavioral economics and poverty: a descriptive analysis.
Behavioral economics and education focus on potential opportunities and challenges.
Development of money management strategies for substance abusers: a behavioral economics perspective.
Analyzing behavioral economics data: a review of empirical evidence.
Is childhood vaccination really required? A behavioral economics perspective.
Increasing savings of the employees: focus on using a behavioral economics perspective in the organizations.
Structural behavioral economics: a review of empirical evidence.
Studying the relationship between finance and behavioral economics: focus on subjective probability.
Correlational analysis of behavioral economics, public policy, rational inefficiencies, and power: focus on X country.
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Studying the relationship between behavioral economics and the insurance industry: focus on potential challenges and opportunities.
Behavioral economics and the law: focus on X country.
Studying the relationship between tax policy and behavioral economics of X country: a descriptive approach.
Effects of behavioral economics on improving the performance of community childcare centers in X country.
Effects of behavioral economics on the end-of-life care domain: focus on the promotion of advanced directives.
Ethics in behavioral economics: a review of empirical evidence.
Investigating the relationship between behavioral economics and the psychology of incentives: a quantitative study.
The role played by decision-making in the field of behavioral economics: a systematic analysis.
How are the fields of health economics and behavioral economics connected? An inquiry.
Data-driven marketing and behavioral economics: a descriptive study.
Studying the relationship between economic incentive and provider behavior: a quantitative analysis.
Environmental policy and behavioral economics: focus on x country.
Applying the principles of behavioral economics to the understanding of privacy: a review of empirical evidence.
Investigating the effects of behavioral economics on consumer contracts.
Correlational analysis of behavioral economics, environmental protection, and climate change policy: a qualitative study.
Correlational analysis of behavioral economics, psychology of firm behavior, and psychology of consumer behavior.
Studying the relationship between retirement savings crisis and behavioral economics: a quantitative analysis.
Behavioral economics and macroeconomic models: a correlational analysis.
Behavioral Economics and Climate Change: Encouraging Sustainable Behavior
The Impact of Social Proof on Consumer Choices
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Voting Behavior
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Preventing Fraud
The Psychology of Pricing: How Consumers Perceive Value
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Workplace Productivity
The Effect of Overconfidence on Investment Decisions
Behavioral Economics and Addiction: Understanding the Cycle
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Insurance Markets
How Behavioral Economics Explains the Popularity of Subscription Services
The Impact of Behavioral Economics on Tourism Choices
Behavioral Economics and Urban Planning : Designing Better Cities
The Effect of Delayed Gratification on Economic Success
How Behavioral Economics Can Reduce Traffic Congestion
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Promoting Healthy Eating
The Influence of Behavioral Economics on Advertising Strategies
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Recycling Rates
The Effect of Behavioral Economics on Workplace Safety
Behavioral Economics and the Sharing Economy: A New Perspective
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Online Privacy Choices
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Customer Satisfaction
The Impact of Behavioral Economics on Fashion Trends
Behavioral Economics and Financial Technology: The Future of Banking
The Effect of Choice Overload on Consumer Decisions
How Behavioral Economics Explains the Success of Loyalty Programs
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Reducing Stress
The Influence of Behavioral Economics on Parenting Decisions
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Credit Scoring Models
The Effect of Behavioral Economics on Gift-Giving Behavior
Behavioral Economics and the Gig Economy: Understanding Worker Motivation
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Crisis Management
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Mental Health Treatment
The Impact of Behavioral Economics on Corporate Governance
Behavioral Economics and Entrepreneurship: Understanding Risk-Taking
The Effect of Behavioral Economics on E-commerce Growth
How Behavioral Economics Explains the Popularity of Social Media
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Conflict Resolution
Behavioral Economics and International Trade: A New Approach
The Influence of Behavioral Economics on Family Financial Planning
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Online Education
The Effect of Behavioral Economics on Public Speaking
Behavioral Economics and Cultural Differences: Understanding Global Markets
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Disaster Preparedness
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Employee Retention
The Impact of Behavioral Economics on Real Estate Investment
Behavioral Economics and Philanthropy: Understanding Donor Behavior
The Effect of Behavioral Economics on Personal Finance Management
How Behavioral Economics Explains the Popularity of Streaming Services
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Reducing Energy Consumption
Behavioral Economics and Social Justice: A New Perspective
The Influence of Behavioral Economics on Political Campaigns
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Job Satisfaction
The Effect of Behavioral Economics on Brand Loyalty
Behavioral Economics and Risk Management: A New Approach
The Role of Behavioral Economics in Emergency Planning
How Behavioral Economics Can Improve Customer Retention
The Impact of Behavioral Economics on Small Business Growth
Behavioral Economics and the Arts: Understanding Consumer Choices
The Effect of Behavioral Economics on Negotiation Strategies

These are the best Behavioral economics dissertation topics if you are still looking for some different Behavioral economics dissertation topics fill out the form below and get our topics mini proposal service for Behavioral economics dissertation topics according to your requirements .

Behavioral Economics is a fascinating field that blends economics and psychology to explain why people make the choices they do. Choosing the right dissertation topic in this area is crucial as it will guide your research and help you make a meaningful contribution. With the right approach, you can write a dissertation that is both insightful and impactful. Use the tips above to help you write a strong paper, and consider the list of topics to find one that inspires you. Behavioral Economics is all about understanding people, and your dissertation could help others make better decisions in their lives.

1. What makes a good Behavioral Economics Dissertation Topic?

A good topic should be relevant, interesting, and specific enough to allow for in-depth research. It should also address current issues in the field.

2. How do I choose a topic for my Behavioral Economics Dissertation?

Start by thinking about what interests you most in Behavioral Economics. Then, do some research to see what topics are being discussed in academic journals and articles.

3. Can I use real-world examples in my dissertation?

Yes! Using real-world examples can help make your dissertation more relatable and engaging.

4. How long should my Behavioral Economics Dissertation be?

The length will depend on your school’s requirements, but most dissertations are between 10,000 and 20,000 words. Make sure to check with your advisor for specific guidelines.

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Economics Thesis Topics

600 Economics Thesis Topics and Ideas

Economics is a diverse and evolving field that addresses some of the most pressing global issues, from market fluctuations and inflation to labor dynamics and sustainable development. For students writing a thesis in economics, selecting the right topic is essential for making an original contribution to this ever-changing landscape. To help students find the perfect research focus, we have compiled a comprehensive list of 600 economics thesis topics, divided into 20 categories. These categories span traditional fields such as macroeconomics and international trade, as well as emerging areas like environmental economics and circular economies. Whether your interest lies in policy analysis, behavioral insights, or global economic trends, this list will provide the foundation for your thesis.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, 1. agricultural economics thesis topics.

The impact of climate change on agricultural productivity.
Investigating agricultural subsidies and their effect on rural economies.
The role of technology in improving food security in developing countries.
The effects of agricultural trade policies on global food prices.
Exploring the relationship between agricultural biodiversity and food security.
The economic impact of sustainable farming practices.
Investigating the role of agricultural microfinance in rural development.
The effects of land tenure systems on agricultural productivity.
Agricultural commodity markets: Price volatility and risk management.
The role of government intervention in stabilizing agricultural markets.
Exploring agricultural supply chains and their role in reducing food waste.
The impact of organic farming on economic sustainability.
Investigating agricultural trade barriers in developing countries.
The role of biotechnology in increasing agricultural productivity.
Exploring the economic impact of genetically modified crops.
Investigating the economics of agroforestry systems.
Agricultural policy reforms and their impact on smallholder farmers.
The role of irrigation systems in improving agricultural output.
The economic effects of crop insurance programs.
Investigating the role of women in agricultural development.
Exploring the effects of agricultural mechanization on labor markets.
Investigating the role of cooperative farming in rural economic growth.
The economics of food distribution and access in urban areas.
Investigating the economic impact of farm-to-table movements.
Exploring agricultural export trends in developing countries.
The role of agricultural extension services in increasing productivity.
Investigating the economic impact of drought-resistant crops.
The role of international organizations in promoting agricultural sustainability.
Exploring the future of vertical farming in urban agriculture.
Investigating the role of biofuels in agricultural economics.

2. Behavioral Economics Thesis Topics

The role of cognitive biases in consumer decision-making.
Exploring the impact of social norms on economic behavior.
The effects of framing and choice architecture on savings decisions.
Investigating the role of emotions in investment behavior.
Exploring the relationship between behavioral economics and public policy.
The impact of anchoring and loss aversion on financial markets.
The role of behavioral interventions in promoting healthy eating habits.
Investigating the effects of nudges on retirement savings.
Exploring the economic impact of mental accounting on household budgeting.
The role of fairness concerns in labor market negotiations.
Investigating behavioral factors that influence charitable giving.
The impact of default options on insurance enrollment decisions.
Exploring the role of social preferences in economic cooperation.
Investigating the behavioral determinants of risk-taking in financial markets.
The role of overconfidence in entrepreneurial decision-making.
Investigating the impact of behavioral economics on energy conservation.
The role of bounded rationality in consumer behavior.
Exploring the effects of behavioral economics in healthcare policy design.
Investigating the role of trust in economic transactions.
Exploring the impact of peer influence on financial decisions.
The role of present bias in credit card debt accumulation.
Investigating the effects of behavioral economics on tax compliance.
Exploring the role of loss aversion in real estate investment decisions.
The impact of behavioral economics on the design of pension systems.
Investigating the role of behavioral insights in promoting environmental sustainability.
The role of behavioral factors in influencing labor supply decisions.
Exploring the impact of behavioral economics on the housing market.
Investigating the effects of time inconsistency on savings behavior.
The role of behavioral economics in the design of public health campaigns.
Investigating the role of optimism bias in business decision-making.

3. Business Economics Thesis Topics

The impact of digital transformation on business models.
Investigating the role of innovation in business growth.
Exploring the economic effects of corporate social responsibility (CSR).
The role of mergers and acquisitions in market competition.
Investigating the economic impact of family-owned businesses.
The effects of globalization on small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).
Exploring the role of e-commerce in the global economy.
Investigating the economic impact of intellectual property rights.
The role of corporate governance in business performance.
Exploring the economic implications of automation in manufacturing.
Investigating the role of business analytics in improving decision-making.
The effects of technological advancements on labor productivity.
Exploring the role of business networks in fostering innovation.
Investigating the economic impact of corporate tax policies.
The role of business incubators in promoting entrepreneurship.
Exploring the effects of leadership styles on business performance.
Investigating the economic effects of business cycles on investment decisions.
The role of market research in shaping business strategies.
Exploring the impact of supply chain disruptions on global trade.
Investigating the effects of inflation on business profitability.
The role of foreign direct investment (FDI) in business expansion.
Exploring the impact of economic crises on business survival strategies.
Investigating the role of business ethics in corporate decision-making.
The effects of government regulations on business competitiveness.
Exploring the economic impact of franchising on small businesses.
Investigating the role of digital marketing in business growth.
The role of human capital in business innovation and productivity.
Exploring the economic effects of outsourcing on business efficiency.
Investigating the role of financial markets in business expansion.
Exploring the economic implications of corporate sustainability initiatives.

4. Circular Economy Thesis Topics

Investigating the economic impact of circular economy practices on business models.
Exploring the role of recycling in promoting circular economy systems.
The role of government policies in fostering a circular economy.
Investigating the relationship between circular economies and sustainable development.
Exploring the economic potential of circular supply chains.
The role of eco-design in reducing waste in a circular economy.
Investigating the impact of circular economy practices on consumer behavior.
Exploring the economic benefits of product life extension strategies.
The role of remanufacturing in a circular economy.
Investigating the role of circular economy in reducing environmental degradation.
The effects of extended producer responsibility (EPR) on waste management.
Exploring the role of closed-loop supply chains in circular economies.
Investigating the role of collaborative consumption in fostering a circular economy.
The economic benefits of resource efficiency in circular economy models.
Exploring the role of reverse logistics in achieving a circular economy.
Investigating the impact of circular economies on urban development.
The role of green technologies in advancing circular economy practices.
Exploring the economic potential of upcycling in the fashion industry.
Investigating the role of shared economy platforms in promoting circular economy practices.
The role of waste-to-energy technologies in circular economies.
Investigating the impact of circular economy policies on global trade.
Exploring the economic implications of circular economy transitions for developing countries.
The role of digital technologies in promoting circular economies.
Investigating the economic benefits of circular economies in the manufacturing sector.
Exploring the potential of circular economies in reducing carbon emissions.
The role of circular economy principles in reducing plastic waste.
Investigating the economic impact of circular economies on job creation.
The role of circular economies in promoting sustainable agriculture.
Exploring the economic challenges of transitioning to circular economy models.
Investigating the role of consumer education in promoting circular economy practices.

5. Development Economics Thesis Topics

The role of foreign aid in promoting economic development.
Investigating the relationship between education and economic development.
Exploring the impact of infrastructure investment on economic growth.
The role of health care in improving economic outcomes in developing countries.
Investigating the effects of microfinance on poverty alleviation.
The role of technology in promoting economic development in rural areas.
Exploring the relationship between gender equality and economic development.
Investigating the economic impact of remittances on developing countries.
The role of financial inclusion in promoting economic growth.
Exploring the effects of trade liberalization on economic development.
Investigating the role of government policies in promoting sustainable development.
The impact of international organizations on economic development in emerging markets.
Investigating the relationship between population growth and economic development.
The role of foreign direct investment (FDI) in promoting economic growth.
Exploring the impact of corruption on economic development.
Investigating the role of education in reducing income inequality.
The effects of rural-urban migration on economic development.
Exploring the relationship between environmental sustainability and economic development.
Investigating the impact of infrastructure development on economic performance.
The role of innovation in promoting economic development in low-income countries.
Investigating the role of international trade in economic development.
Exploring the effects of globalization on economic development.
The role of economic policies in addressing income inequality.
Investigating the impact of climate change on economic development in developing countries.
The role of agricultural development in promoting economic growth.
Exploring the economic impact of social protection programs in developing countries.
Investigating the role of entrepreneurship in promoting economic development.
The role of public-private partnerships in fostering economic growth.
Exploring the impact of international development assistance on poverty reduction.
Investigating the role of political stability in promoting economic development.

6. Development Studies Thesis Topics

Investigating the role of education in poverty alleviation in developing countries.
The impact of foreign aid on economic and social development.
Exploring the role of women’s empowerment in sustainable development.
Investigating the effects of political instability on development outcomes.
The role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in promoting development.
Investigating the impact of globalization on developing economies.
The effects of urbanization on rural development: A case study.
Exploring the role of social enterprises in promoting development.
Investigating the relationship between human rights and economic development.
The role of microfinance in promoting social and economic development.
Exploring the impact of population growth on sustainable development.
Investigating the relationship between environmental degradation and development.
The role of international organizations in promoting development in fragile states.
Exploring the impact of health policies on development outcomes.
The role of infrastructure development in promoting economic growth in low-income countries.
Investigating the role of climate adaptation in sustainable development strategies.
The impact of migration on development outcomes in home and host countries.
Exploring the role of social protection programs in poverty reduction.
Investigating the effects of agricultural development on rural economies.
The role of education in promoting gender equality and development.
Exploring the relationship between economic growth and income inequality in developing countries.
The role of clean energy initiatives in promoting sustainable development.
Investigating the impact of remittances on household welfare in developing countries.
The role of information and communication technology (ICT) in development.
Exploring the effects of environmental policies on development outcomes.
Investigating the role of entrepreneurship in promoting development in post-conflict regions.
The impact of cultural heritage on development strategies in emerging economies.
Exploring the effects of child labor on social and economic development.
The role of public health initiatives in promoting development in low-income countries.
Investigating the relationship between social capital and economic development in rural communities.

7. Econometrics Thesis Topics

Investigating the use of econometric models in forecasting economic growth.
The role of panel data analysis in understanding income inequality trends.
Exploring time-series econometrics in analyzing financial markets.
Investigating the effectiveness of econometric models in predicting inflation.
The role of econometrics in analyzing the impact of fiscal policies on economic performance.
Exploring the use of econometric techniques in labor market analysis.
Investigating the relationship between education and wage growth using econometric methods.
The impact of trade liberalization on economic growth: An econometric analysis.
Exploring the use of instrumental variables in addressing endogeneity issues in econometric models.
Investigating the role of cointegration in understanding macroeconomic trends.
The role of econometrics in analyzing the impact of monetary policies on interest rates.
Exploring the use of econometric models in assessing climate change’s economic impact.
Investigating the effects of financial shocks on economic volatility: An econometric approach.
The role of econometrics in understanding the determinants of housing prices.
Exploring the use of dummy variables in econometric models for policy evaluation.
Investigating the relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation using econometric analysis.
The impact of foreign direct investment (FDI) on economic development: An econometric perspective.
Exploring the role of econometrics in analyzing the effects of income distribution on economic growth.
Investigating the effectiveness of economic stabilization policies through econometric models.
The role of heteroscedasticity in econometric models and its implications for policy analysis.
Exploring the use of probit and logit models in labor market analysis.
Investigating the effects of international trade agreements on economic growth: An econometric approach.
The role of dynamic panel data models in understanding economic growth patterns.
Exploring the use of autoregressive models in analyzing stock market trends.
Investigating the role of econometrics in assessing the economic impact of environmental regulations.
The effectiveness of econometric forecasting models in predicting unemployment rates.
Exploring the role of unit root tests in understanding macroeconomic fluctuations.
Investigating the relationship between exchange rates and trade balances using econometric models.
The role of econometrics in assessing the impact of demographic changes on economic growth.
Exploring the use of non-parametric econometric methods in income distribution analysis.

8. Energy Economics Thesis Topics

Investigating the economic impact of transitioning to renewable energy sources.
Exploring the role of energy efficiency in promoting economic growth.
The impact of carbon pricing on reducing greenhouse gas emissions: An economic analysis.
Investigating the relationship between energy consumption and economic growth.
The role of energy subsidies in shaping energy markets and economic development.
Exploring the economic implications of energy market deregulation.
Investigating the role of energy security in promoting economic stability.
The effects of energy policy reforms on household welfare in developing countries.
Exploring the economic impact of electric vehicle adoption on the energy sector.
Investigating the role of natural gas in promoting energy diversification and economic growth.
The economic potential of offshore wind farms: A case study analysis.
Investigating the effects of fossil fuel dependence on long-term economic sustainability.
The role of international energy agreements in promoting economic cooperation.
Exploring the economic benefits of decentralized renewable energy systems.
Investigating the economic impact of oil price shocks on global markets.
The role of energy storage technologies in reducing energy costs: An economic analysis.
Exploring the relationship between energy poverty and economic development in rural areas.
Investigating the economic impact of green energy policies on small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).
The role of government incentives in promoting renewable energy investments.
Exploring the potential of hydrogen as a renewable energy source: An economic analysis.
Investigating the role of public-private partnerships in financing energy infrastructure projects.
The impact of climate change on energy demand: An economic perspective.
Exploring the effects of energy market integration on economic growth in developing countries.
Investigating the economic implications of carbon capture and storage technologies.
The role of energy market regulations in promoting energy access in underserved regions.
Exploring the potential of bioenergy for promoting economic growth in rural areas.
Investigating the effects of energy efficiency programs on reducing energy consumption.
The economic impact of nuclear energy on national energy security.
Exploring the role of energy innovation in driving economic competitiveness.
Investigating the relationship between renewable energy policies and employment creation.

9. Environmental Economics Thesis Topics

Investigating the economic impact of climate change mitigation strategies.
The role of environmental policies in promoting sustainable economic growth.
Exploring the economic benefits of biodiversity conservation.
Investigating the effects of deforestation on long-term economic development.
The economic impact of carbon trading schemes: A case study analysis.
Exploring the role of eco-friendly technologies in reducing environmental degradation.
Investigating the relationship between environmental sustainability and economic growth.
The economic impact of water scarcity on agriculture in developing countries.
Exploring the role of environmental taxes in reducing pollution and promoting green growth.
Investigating the effects of climate adaptation policies on national economies.
The role of environmental regulations in promoting corporate environmental responsibility.
Exploring the economic benefits of reducing plastic waste in coastal regions.
Investigating the relationship between green innovation and economic competitiveness.
The role of natural capital in promoting long-term economic sustainability.
Exploring the effects of environmental policies on industrial competitiveness.
Investigating the economic impact of renewable energy policies on rural development.
The role of environmental economics in shaping international trade policies.
Exploring the potential of circular economy practices in reducing environmental costs.
Investigating the economic impact of marine pollution on coastal economies.
The role of environmental education in promoting sustainable economic development.
Exploring the relationship between carbon emissions and economic growth in emerging markets.
Investigating the economic impact of renewable energy transition on developing economies.
The role of environmental protection policies in promoting economic resilience.
Exploring the effects of global environmental treaties on economic performance.
Investigating the relationship between tourism development and environmental sustainability.
The role of eco-labeling in promoting sustainable consumer behavior.
Exploring the economic potential of green infrastructure in urban development.
Investigating the effects of environmental degradation on global trade.
The economic impact of climate-induced migration on developing countries.
Exploring the role of environmental economics in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

10. Game Theory Thesis Topics

Investigating the role of game theory in understanding oligopoly market dynamics.
Exploring the application of game theory in international trade negotiations.
The role of Nash equilibrium in analyzing competitive strategies in business.
Investigating the use of game theory in climate change negotiations.
Exploring the application of cooperative game theory in resource allocation problems.
The role of game theory in understanding pricing strategies in monopolistic markets.
Investigating the use of game theory in labor market negotiations.
Exploring the application of game theory in the design of auction mechanisms.
The role of evolutionary game theory in understanding economic behaviors.
Investigating the use of game theory in analyzing voting behavior in democratic elections.
Exploring the application of game theory in supply chain management.
The role of mixed strategies in game theory and their application in economics.
Investigating the effects of game theory on strategic decision-making in business.
Exploring the application of game theory in resolving environmental conflicts.
The role of game theory in understanding bargaining power in trade negotiations.
Investigating the use of game theory in competitive pricing models.
Exploring the application of game theory in financial market regulation.
The role of game theory in designing optimal contract structures.
Investigating the effects of repeated games on cooperation and competition in business.
Exploring the application of game theory in understanding conflict resolution in international relations.
The role of game theory in analyzing supply chain disruptions.
Investigating the application of game theory in understanding technological innovation races.
Exploring the effects of signaling in game theory on market competition.
The role of game theory in understanding the dynamics of public goods provision.
Investigating the application of game theory in understanding firm entry and exit decisions.
Exploring the role of game theory in understanding financial contagion during economic crises.
Investigating the application of game theory in the design of social welfare programs.
The role of game theory in understanding network effects in digital markets.
Exploring the application of game theory in determining optimal pricing strategies in e-commerce.
Investigating the role of game theory in addressing global environmental challenges.

11. Health Economics Thesis Topics

Investigating the impact of health insurance on access to healthcare services.
Exploring the economic implications of aging populations on healthcare systems.
The role of preventive healthcare in reducing long-term medical costs.
Investigating the economic effects of healthcare privatization.
The impact of pharmaceutical pricing regulations on healthcare affordability.
Exploring the relationship between public health spending and economic growth.
Investigating the role of telemedicine in reducing healthcare costs.
The economic impact of pandemics on global healthcare systems: A case study analysis.
Exploring the role of health economics in designing universal healthcare systems.
Investigating the economic effects of obesity on national healthcare expenditures.
The role of health economics in analyzing the efficiency of public health interventions.
Exploring the economic impact of mental health on labor productivity.
Investigating the role of health literacy in reducing healthcare costs.
The effects of healthcare market competition on service quality and costs.
Investigating the relationship between healthcare access and income inequality.
The economic impact of vaccination programs in developing countries.
Exploring the effects of pharmaceutical patents on drug prices and accessibility.
Investigating the role of healthcare reforms in improving economic productivity.
The economic impact of chronic diseases on national healthcare systems.
Exploring the relationship between healthcare quality and economic development.
The effects of out-of-pocket healthcare expenses on household financial stability.
Investigating the economic implications of medical tourism for developing countries.
The role of health insurance in improving healthcare access in rural areas.
Exploring the relationship between healthcare infrastructure investment and economic growth.
Investigating the impact of healthcare workforce shortages on service delivery and economic outcomes.
The role of cost-effectiveness analysis in healthcare decision-making.
Exploring the economic impact of early childhood healthcare programs on future earnings.
Investigating the role of public-private partnerships in financing healthcare infrastructure.
The effects of healthcare disparities on economic development in low-income communities.
Exploring the role of health economics in shaping public health policies.

12. Home Economics Thesis Topics

Investigating the relationship between household income and consumption patterns.
Exploring the impact of financial literacy on household financial decision-making.
Investigating the effects of consumer credit access on household spending.
The role of home ownership in wealth accumulation and economic mobility.
Exploring the relationship between family budgeting practices and financial well-being.
Investigating the effects of inflation on household purchasing power.
The economic impact of dual-income households on family savings and investments.
Exploring the role of household debt in macroeconomic stability.
Investigating the effects of housing market fluctuations on household wealth.
The role of home economics education in improving financial literacy.
Exploring the relationship between household energy consumption and environmental sustainability.
Investigating the effects of tax policies on household savings and investments.
The economic impact of child care costs on family financial stability.
Exploring the role of home economics in promoting sustainable household practices.
Investigating the relationship between food security and household income.
The effects of consumer protection policies on household financial health.
Exploring the role of household consumption in driving economic growth.
Investigating the impact of retirement planning on household financial security.
The role of consumer behavior in shaping household spending patterns.
Investigating the relationship between household financial management and poverty reduction.
Exploring the impact of technological advancements on household consumption patterns.
The role of housing affordability in shaping family financial decisions.
Investigating the relationship between homeownership rates and economic inequality.
Exploring the effects of financial education programs on household debt management.
The economic impact of food prices on household nutrition and health.
Investigating the role of household financial resilience in times of economic crisis.
The relationship between household savings behavior and economic growth.
Exploring the effects of household consumption on environmental sustainability.
Investigating the role of household financial planning in improving economic outcomes.
The economic impact of social safety nets on household income stability.

13. Human Development Thesis Topics

Investigating the role of education in promoting human development.
The impact of healthcare access on human development outcomes.
Exploring the relationship between income inequality and human development.
Investigating the effects of gender inequality on human development indices.
The role of sustainable development policies in improving human development.
Exploring the impact of nutrition programs on human development in developing countries.
Investigating the relationship between child mortality rates and human development.
The role of international aid in promoting human development.
Exploring the relationship between environmental sustainability and human development.
Investigating the effects of social protection programs on human development outcomes.
The impact of poverty reduction strategies on human development indicators.
Exploring the role of political stability in promoting human development.
Investigating the relationship between economic growth and human development.
The role of human development in shaping economic policies.
Investigating the effects of migration on human development outcomes.
The impact of technological advancements on human development in emerging economies.
Exploring the relationship between social capital and human development.
Investigating the role of education policies in improving human development.
The effects of climate change on human development outcomes.
Exploring the role of healthcare policies in promoting human development in rural areas.
Investigating the relationship between human rights and human development.
The role of social inequality in shaping human development outcomes.
Exploring the relationship between human development and economic empowerment of women.
Investigating the role of infrastructure development in improving human development.
The impact of global trade policies on human development in low-income countries.
Exploring the role of public health initiatives in improving human development.
Investigating the relationship between access to clean water and human development.
The role of international organizations in promoting human development in conflict-affected regions.
Investigating the effects of youth employment programs on human development outcomes.
The role of global health initiatives in improving human development in developing countries.

14. Inflation Thesis Topics

Investigating the causes of hyperinflation in emerging economies.
Exploring the effects of inflation on income inequality.
Investigating the role of central banks in controlling inflation.
The impact of inflation targeting on economic stability: A case study analysis.
Exploring the relationship between inflation and unemployment in developed economies.
Investigating the effects of inflation on consumer purchasing power.
The role of monetary policy in managing inflation expectations.
Exploring the effects of inflation on investment decisions in financial markets.
Investigating the relationship between inflation and wage growth.
The impact of inflation on business profitability and pricing strategies.
Exploring the role of government policies in curbing inflation in developing countries.
Investigating the effects of inflation on household savings behavior.
The role of inflationary expectations in shaping monetary policy decisions.
Exploring the relationship between inflation and economic growth in emerging markets.
Investigating the effects of inflation on public debt sustainability.
The impact of inflation on currency valuation and international trade.
Exploring the role of inflation-linked bonds in hedging inflation risks.
Investigating the effects of inflation on capital market volatility.
The role of inflation in shaping central bank communication strategies.
Exploring the effects of cost-push inflation on manufacturing industries.
Investigating the role of global supply chain disruptions in driving inflation.
The impact of inflation on interest rates: A historical perspective.
Exploring the role of fiscal policy in managing inflationary pressures.
Investigating the effects of inflation on housing affordability and real estate markets.
The relationship between inflation and income redistribution policies.
Exploring the impact of inflation on consumer confidence and spending behavior.
Investigating the effects of inflation on exchange rates and trade balances.
The role of inflation forecasts in shaping investment strategies.
Exploring the effects of inflation on capital formation and economic growth.
Investigating the role of inflationary shocks in shaping monetary policy responses.

15. International Economics Thesis Topics

Investigating the impact of trade liberalization on economic growth in developing countries.
Exploring the role of foreign direct investment (FDI) in promoting economic development.
Investigating the relationship between exchange rates and international trade flows.
The role of international trade agreements in shaping global economic policies.
Exploring the effects of globalization on income inequality in emerging markets.
Investigating the role of international monetary policies in managing global financial crises.
The impact of international trade policies on developing economies: A case study analysis.
Exploring the role of international financial institutions in promoting global economic stability.
Investigating the effects of international trade on environmental sustainability.
The role of international labor migration in shaping global economic trends.
Exploring the relationship between international capital flows and economic growth.
Investigating the effects of trade protectionism on global economic integration.
The role of global supply chains in driving international trade patterns.
Exploring the impact of international trade on domestic labor markets.
Investigating the role of international remittances in promoting economic development.
The effects of international financial markets on global economic stability.
Exploring the relationship between international trade and economic inequality.
Investigating the role of international trade sanctions on economic performance.
The impact of international commodity prices on global trade flows.
Exploring the role of international trade in promoting innovation and technological transfer.
Investigating the effects of international trade on economic growth in low-income countries.
The role of global value chains in shaping international trade dynamics.
Exploring the impact of international trade liberalization on poverty reduction.
Investigating the effects of international capital mobility on economic performance.
The role of international trade organizations in shaping global trade policies.
Exploring the effects of international economic integration on financial markets.
Investigating the role of international trade in addressing global environmental challenges.
The impact of international trade barriers on economic growth in emerging markets.
Exploring the relationship between international investment flows and economic development.
Investigating the effects of international trade conflicts on global economic stability.

16. International Trade Thesis Topics

Investigating the impact of trade tariffs on global trade flows.
Exploring the role of free trade agreements in promoting economic growth.
The effects of protectionist trade policies on developing economies.
Investigating the relationship between trade openness and income inequality.
The role of trade sanctions in shaping international trade relations.
Investigating the role of trade policy in addressing global environmental challenges.
The effects of international trade wars on global economic stability.
Investigating the relationship between trade balances and exchange rates.
The role of global supply chains in shaping international trade patterns.
Exploring the impact of trade barriers on emerging markets.
Investigating the effects of trade liberalization on agricultural exports in developing countries.
The role of international trade organizations in promoting global trade cooperation.
Exploring the impact of trade policies on small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).
Investigating the relationship between trade agreements and labor standards.
The role of digital trade in reshaping global trade dynamics.
Exploring the effects of intellectual property rights on international trade.
Investigating the impact of trade liberalization on foreign direct investment (FDI).
The effects of currency fluctuations on international trade competitiveness.
Investigating the role of trade facilitation policies in promoting global trade efficiency.
The impact of non-tariff barriers on international trade flows.
Exploring the effects of regional trade agreements on global economic integration.
Investigating the relationship between trade liberalization and wage inequality.
The role of trade finance in supporting international trade activities.
Investigating the impact of trade policies on global commodity markets.
Exploring the effects of trade liberalization on industrialization in developing economies.
The role of e-commerce in facilitating international trade.
Investigating the relationship between international trade and climate change mitigation.
The effects of trade liberalization on domestic labor markets.
Exploring the role of trade unions in shaping international labor standards in trade agreements.

17. Labor Economics Thesis Topics

Investigating the impact of minimum wage policies on employment levels.
Exploring the relationship between labor market regulations and economic productivity.
The role of labor unions in shaping wage structures and working conditions.
Investigating the effects of immigration on domestic labor markets.
The impact of automation and technology on labor demand and job displacement.
Exploring the relationship between education and labor market outcomes.
Investigating the effects of gender wage gaps on labor market participation.
The role of government policies in reducing youth unemployment.
Exploring the effects of labor market flexibility on economic growth.
Investigating the relationship between labor market discrimination and economic inequality.
The impact of labor force participation on economic growth in emerging markets.
Exploring the role of vocational training programs in improving labor market outcomes.
Investigating the effects of labor market institutions on income inequality.
The role of social safety nets in mitigating the impact of unemployment.
Exploring the effects of workplace diversity on labor productivity.
Investigating the relationship between remote work and labor market dynamics.
The role of labor market policies in addressing long-term unemployment.
Exploring the effects of minimum wage increases on small business profitability.
Investigating the impact of labor market rigidities on economic growth.
The role of education reforms in improving labor market outcomes in developing countries.
Exploring the relationship between part-time employment and job satisfaction.
Investigating the effects of trade unions on labor market negotiations.
The role of flexible working arrangements in promoting labor market participation.
Exploring the impact of parental leave policies on labor market outcomes.
Investigating the relationship between technological advancements and wage inequality.
The role of labor migration in addressing skill shortages in developed economies.
Exploring the effects of gig economy platforms on labor market flexibility.
Investigating the relationship between aging populations and labor force participation.
The role of government interventions in promoting labor market inclusivity for disabled individuals.
Investigating the effects of global labor mobility on economic growth.

18. Macroeconomics Thesis Topics

Investigating the relationship between fiscal policy and economic growth.
The effects of monetary policy on inflation and employment levels.
Exploring the role of central banks in managing economic recessions.
Investigating the impact of public debt on long-term economic stability.
The role of quantitative easing in promoting economic recovery.
Exploring the relationship between interest rates and investment levels.
Investigating the effects of government spending on economic growth in developing countries.
The impact of exchange rate policies on international trade.
Exploring the role of macroeconomic stability in attracting foreign direct investment.
Investigating the effects of tax reforms on income distribution and economic growth.
The role of inflation targeting in promoting economic stability.
Exploring the relationship between government budget deficits and economic performance.
Investigating the impact of macroeconomic policies on housing markets.
The role of central bank independence in shaping monetary policy outcomes.
Exploring the effects of macroeconomic shocks on unemployment rates.
Investigating the relationship between trade imbalances and macroeconomic stability.
The role of financial markets in promoting macroeconomic growth.
Exploring the impact of global economic integration on macroeconomic policies.
Investigating the effects of macroeconomic stabilization programs on emerging economies.
The role of government borrowing in promoting short-term economic growth.
Exploring the effects of macroeconomic uncertainty on business investment decisions.
Investigating the impact of globalization on macroeconomic policy coordination.
The role of macroeconomic policies in addressing climate change challenges.
Exploring the relationship between income inequality and macroeconomic performance.
Investigating the effects of austerity measures on economic recovery in the European Union.
The role of macroeconomic policies in promoting sustainable economic growth.
Exploring the impact of capital controls on macroeconomic stability.
Investigating the role of fiscal stimulus in mitigating the effects of economic downturns.
The relationship between exchange rate fluctuations and macroeconomic stability in developing economies.
Exploring the role of macroeconomic forecasting in shaping government policy decisions.

19. Public Economics Thesis Topics

Investigating the impact of tax policies on income distribution and inequality.
Exploring the role of government spending on public goods in promoting economic growth.
The effects of public debt on long-term economic sustainability.
Investigating the relationship between public investment and infrastructure development.
The role of public-private partnerships in financing public infrastructure projects.
Exploring the effects of public healthcare spending on economic productivity.
Investigating the role of social welfare programs in reducing poverty.
The impact of public education spending on long-term economic growth.
Exploring the role of public policies in addressing environmental externalities.
Investigating the effects of government subsidies on market competition.
The role of public economics in shaping healthcare policies.
Exploring the relationship between public goods provision and social welfare.
Investigating the impact of government fiscal policies on economic inequality.
The role of public policies in promoting economic resilience during recessions.
Exploring the effects of public sector employment on economic growth.
Investigating the relationship between public taxation and economic efficiency.
The role of public economics in addressing housing affordability challenges.
Exploring the impact of government expenditure on public transportation infrastructure.
Investigating the relationship between public spending and inflationary pressures.
The role of public economics in addressing demographic challenges in aging populations.
Exploring the effects of public investment in renewable energy on economic growth.
Investigating the relationship between public policies and labor market outcomes.
The role of government debt in financing social welfare programs.
Exploring the effects of public policies on income redistribution.
Investigating the role of public finance in shaping education outcomes.
The impact of public sector reforms on economic efficiency and productivity.
Exploring the effects of public healthcare systems on economic inequality.
Investigating the relationship between government spending and macroeconomic stability.
The role of public economics in promoting long-term fiscal sustainability.
Exploring the impact of government intervention on market failures in public goods provision.

20. Rural Development Thesis Topics

Investigating the role of agricultural policies in promoting rural development.
Exploring the impact of rural infrastructure development on economic growth.
The effects of land tenure systems on rural economic development.
Investigating the role of microfinance in promoting rural entrepreneurship.
The impact of rural electrification on household welfare and productivity.
Exploring the relationship between rural development and poverty reduction.
Investigating the role of education in promoting rural economic growth.
The effects of rural migration on economic development and labor markets.
Exploring the impact of agricultural modernization on rural economies.
Investigating the role of government policies in promoting rural industrialization.
The impact of rural tourism on economic diversification and development.
Exploring the effects of climate change on rural agricultural production.
Investigating the role of technology adoption in promoting rural development.
The effects of public investment in rural infrastructure on poverty reduction.
Exploring the relationship between food security and rural economic development.
Investigating the impact of rural health programs on economic productivity.
The role of women in promoting rural economic development.
Exploring the effects of agricultural cooperatives on rural economic growth.
Investigating the role of rural credit systems in supporting small-scale farmers.
The impact of government subsidies on rural economic development.
Exploring the role of rural education programs in promoting sustainable development.
Investigating the effects of rural-urban migration on household welfare in rural areas.
The role of sustainable farming practices in promoting rural development.
Exploring the impact of land reform policies on rural poverty reduction.
Investigating the relationship between rural entrepreneurship and economic diversification.
The role of infrastructure development in promoting rural healthcare access.
Exploring the effects of government policies on rural housing development.
Investigating the impact of agricultural extension services on rural economic growth.
The role of public-private partnerships in promoting rural economic development.
Exploring the effects of rural renewable energy projects on economic growth and sustainability.

This comprehensive list of 600 economics thesis topics showcases the vast scope and diversity of the field. From agricultural economics to circular economies and behavioral economics to international trade, these topics reflect the dynamic challenges and opportunities in the world of economics. Whether you’re looking to explore current economic policies, recent technological advancements, or the future of global trade, these topics will guide you toward a meaningful and impactful thesis. Choose a topic that aligns with your interests and career goals to make a lasting contribution to the field of economics.

The Range of Economics Thesis Topics

Economics is a vast field that examines how individuals, businesses, governments, and nations allocate resources and respond to incentives. From understanding consumer behavior and market dynamics to crafting fiscal policies and addressing income inequality, economics plays a critical role in shaping societal outcomes. Choosing an economics thesis topic offers students the chance to delve deep into pressing issues, emerging trends, and future economic directions. In this article, we will explore a range of thesis topics across various economics fields, focusing on current issues, recent trends, and future opportunities within the discipline.

Current Issues in Economics

Economics is increasingly intertwined with real-world challenges, requiring innovative solutions to pressing global issues. Several key areas stand out as highly relevant for thesis research.

Income Inequality and Economic Growth One of the most significant issues today is income inequality, which has widened in many countries, posing risks to social stability and economic growth. Research in this area could explore the causes and consequences of income inequality, how fiscal policies such as taxation and redistribution programs can mitigate it, or its impact on consumer spending and saving behaviors. The relationship between income inequality and economic mobility is also an important topic, offering a rich field of study for students interested in development and public economics.
Inflation and Monetary Policy Global inflation rates have surged in recent years due to a variety of factors, including supply chain disruptions and fiscal responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. Understanding how inflation impacts economies, especially in developing regions, offers many research opportunities. Students can explore the effectiveness of inflation-targeting policies, the role of central banks in stabilizing inflation, or the impact of inflation on income distribution. Thesis topics could also investigate the long-term implications of quantitative easing and other unconventional monetary policies.
Trade Wars and Global Supply Chains Trade tensions, notably between major global players like the United States and China, have reshaped international trade dynamics. The ongoing trade wars, along with supply chain disruptions, have affected industries worldwide. Thesis research could explore the economic consequences of tariffs and trade barriers, the impact on global supply chains, or how trade disputes influence foreign direct investment (FDI). Students interested in international trade might also examine the economic effects of protectionist policies or the role of trade agreements in mitigating these issues.

Recent Trends in Economics

The rapid evolution of technology, societal shifts, and environmental concerns have given rise to new trends in economics that are shaping modern research.

Digital Economies and E-commerce The digital transformation of economies has revolutionized how businesses and consumers interact. E-commerce has expanded significantly, particularly during the pandemic, and research can focus on the economic impact of this shift. Students may explore topics such as the economic benefits and challenges of digital platforms, the role of cryptocurrencies in financial markets, or how digital economies are changing labor markets. With the rise of online marketplaces and remote work, the economic implications of technology adoption provide rich research areas.
Behavioral Economics and Consumer Decision-Making Behavioral economics has gained prominence by challenging traditional economic assumptions about rational decision-making. This field investigates how cognitive biases and psychological factors influence economic behavior. Research could focus on how individuals make savings, investment, or consumption decisions under uncertainty, or how “nudges” can be used to promote sustainable behaviors or healthier lifestyles. Examining how behavioral economics can inform public policy is another compelling thesis topic, particularly in areas like tax compliance or retirement planning.
Circular Economy and Sustainability With increasing awareness of environmental challenges, the circular economy model—focused on minimizing waste and reusing resources—has emerged as a key trend. Thesis topics in this area might explore the economic benefits of transitioning to a circular economy, the role of government policies in supporting green business practices, or the relationship between sustainability and economic growth. Research could also examine specific industries, such as how the circular economy is impacting the fashion, manufacturing, or energy sectors.

Future Directions in Economics

As technology and global challenges continue to evolve, future research in economics will need to address emerging issues that have the potential to transform economies and societies.

Automation, AI, and the Future of Work Automation and artificial intelligence (AI) are reshaping industries, raising important questions about the future of work. Many economists are concerned about how AI and automation will affect labor markets, particularly in terms of job displacement, wage inequality, and skills requirements. Thesis topics might explore the impact of automation on different sectors, how education systems can adapt to future labor market needs, or how governments can implement policies to support workers in transitioning to new roles. This area of research is particularly timely as automation continues to expand its reach across industries.
Climate Change and Environmental Economics The economic impact of climate change is one of the most pressing issues of our time. Future research can focus on how economies can transition to low-carbon systems, the costs of climate adaptation, or the role of economic policies in mitigating environmental degradation. Students interested in environmental economics could investigate the economic feasibility of carbon taxes, the costs and benefits of renewable energy transitions, or how environmental regulations affect industry competitiveness. With global efforts to address climate change intensifying, the intersection of economics and environmental sustainability offers fertile ground for research.
Global Health Economics and Pandemics The COVID-19 pandemic revealed the economic vulnerabilities of health systems worldwide. Future research can focus on the long-term economic impacts of pandemics, the role of healthcare infrastructure in promoting economic resilience, or how governments can design policies to improve public health outcomes while maintaining economic stability. Students could also examine how health economics intersects with labor markets, exploring topics such as the economic impact of telemedicine, the effects of healthcare spending on GDP growth, or the role of global cooperation in managing pandemics.

Economics offers a wide range of topics that are not only academically stimulating but also deeply relevant to the challenges the world faces today. From the traditional focus on fiscal and monetary policies to emerging fields like digital economies and environmental economics, the discipline provides a rich platform for research that can make a real-world impact. Choosing a thesis topic that reflects current trends, addresses pressing global issues, and anticipates future economic challenges will not only contribute to academic development but also position students to be thought leaders in their fields.

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Welcome to our latest blog post on economics research topics! Whether you are an academic seeking inspiration or a student looking for a starting point for your next assignment, you've come to the right place.

With so many areas to explore in economics, it can be difficult to know where to begin. But don't worry, we've got your back. In this post, our online paper writers have shared some of the most interesting and hot economics research paper topics. So, grab a cup of coffee and let's dive in!

What Are Economics Research Topics?

Economics is a social science that studies how people, businesses, and governments make decisions about how to use resources. It deals with issues like production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

As a student, you might be given to write a research paper on research topics in economics. These types of social science topics can cover a wide range of subjects, including:

Macroeconomics
Microeconomics
International economics
Behavioral economics, and more.

Whether you are interested in exploring current trends, global markets or history, or taxes, we collected a bunch of economics topics for a research paper to choose from. Stay with our service to spot the best idea for your upcoming project.

Characteristics of Good Economics Research Paper Topics

When it comes to selecting a research topic related to economics, it is important to decide on a subject that is not only interesting but also appropriate for your academic level. Consider these fundamental characteristics of good economics paper topics to make a wise choice:

Select a title that is both relevant and is intended to solve a current issue.
Choose a unique topic that has not been explored too much by other researchers.
Make sure you can easily access the data or sources needed to create your paper.
Consider if the topic has the potential to be of practical or social importance.
Pick an area that genuinely interests you and will keep you motivated throughout your project.

How to Choose an Economics Research Paper Topic?

Choosing between this selection of economics project ideas can be really difficult especially if you are first to this. However, with a little bit of guidance, you will see that there is nothing challenging about picking a proper topic for a research paper in economics. Take a look at these step-by-step instructions to make the right decision:

Brainstorm potential economics research topics that sound interesting to you in the first place. After all, you don’t want to work with boring aspects.
Narrow your list down and consider whether there are enough resources to back up your research.
Carry out preliminary investigation to see what you can write about. Use academic journals, newspapers, and other reputable sources to gather information.
Check if the topic complies with your instructor’s guidelines.
Based on your research and requirements alter a title to create a focused research question.

Remember to choose a topic that you are passionate about and that aligns with your academic and professional goals.

Economics Research Topics List

Economics is a vast field that encompasses a wide range of topics and issues. If you're looking for inspiration for your next research paper, consider exploring one of these top research paper topics in economics:

What is the impact of trade policies on international trade patterns?
How does income inequality affect economic growth?
What role does entrepreneurship play in economic development?
How do government regulations affect market efficiency?
What are the economic implications of climate change and environmental policy?
How do automation and artificial intelligence affect the labor market?
What are the effects of healthcare policies on the economy and society?
How does education influence economic outcomes?
What are some economic aspects of taxation and fiscal policy?
How does globalization impact domestic economies and societies?

Interesting Research Topics in Economics

Are you searching for interesting topics in economics? Look no further than these cptivting economic paper topics ideas.

How do government policies impact income mobility?
What role do financial institutions play in economic growth?
Economics of housing and homelessness.
How do immigration policies shape the labor market?
Impact of gender inequality on economic growth.
Sustainable development and renewable energy.
What are some effects of globalization on income distribution?
How do minimum wage policies impact employment and poverty?
Economics of crime and punishment.
How does corruption relate to economic growth?
Effects of social welfare policies on income inequality.
Healthcare markets and insurance systems.
How does technology influence income distribution and employment?
Education financing and student loan debt.
How do economic sanctions affect international trade and diplomacy?

Good Topics for Economic Research Papers

Economics research topics are diverse and can be approached from various angles. Below are some great economic topics to write about:

What are some effects of social media on consumer behavior and advertising?
What is the relationship between corporate social responsibility and profitability?
Sharing economy and its impact on traditional industries.
How does climate change affect the tourism industry economically?
Economics of healthcare systems and policies in developing countries.
How does population aging influence labor markets and retirement policies?
How does artificial intelligence impact business and employment?
What factors are involved in energy transition and the shift to renewable energy?
Income inequality and political polarization.
How do digital streaming services and the music industry intersect economically?
How does cultural diversity contribute to growth and innovation?
Effects of trade agreements on income distribution.
Cryptocurrency and blockchain technology.
How does globalization impact labor standards and working conditions?
Natural disasters and economic growth.

Best Economics Research Topics

Want to take your project to the next level? Don’t skip these hot economic research questions. They suit any academic level and can be supported by credible evidence.

Big data and its role in economic forecasting.
How does public debt impact economic growth?
The economics of international migration.
What is the impact of technological innovation on income inequality?
The role of infrastructure investment in fostering economic growth.
The economics of the gig economy and freelance work.
How does foreign aid affect economic development?
The economics of natural resource management and sustainability.
What is the impact of urbanization on economic growth and development?
The economics of the entertainment industry and streaming services.
How do exchange rate fluctuations influence trade and investment?
The economics of food production and distribution systems.
How do government regulations affect small businesses economically?
The study of behavioral finance and decision-making in economics.
What is the impact of monetary policy on financial markets and inflation?

Unique Economics Research Topics

Economics is a constantly evolving field that offers endless possibilities for research and analysis. That’s why choosing unique economic research ideas shouldn’t be a big deal. Below we added a list of authentic topics you most likely won’t be able to find anywhere else.

How does mobile banking contribute to financial inclusion in emerging economies?
How do natural disasters affect supply chains?
What are some effects of gender bias in venture capital funding decisions?
How does population density influence the demand for public transportation in urban areas?
Virtual currencies and their potential as an alternative to traditional currencies.
How do government subsidies influence the adoption of renewable energy?
How do industrial policies shape innovation and contribute to economic growth?
Alternative meat and its potential impact on the food industry.
What is the relationship between public transit availability and property values in urban areas?
How does corruption impact economic growth and development?
Renewable energy storage systems and their impact on grid stability.
What are some effects of automation on job displacement and income inequality?
Blockchain technology in the banking industry and financial transactions.
International trade in cultural goods and services.
How does income inequality relate to health outcomes from an economic standpoint?

Economics Research Paper Topics for Students

As a student, picking decent economic topics for research papers can be a challenging task. It's important to focus on relevant and interesting aspects. Below you will find some economic research paper topics specifically geared toward students of all levels.

Economics Research Topics for College Students

College students majoring in economics have a range of choices when it comes to research topics. Below are some inspiring economic paper topics you can use as inspiration for your project in college:

Effects of gig economy on labor markets.
Economic growth and environmental sustainability.
Impact of sharing economy on traditional industries.
Housing affordability and homelessness.
How does trade liberalization affect domestic industries and consumers?
How does public policy influence small business growth?
Food waste and its impact on sustainability.
Income inequality and access to education.
Impact of automation on the future of work.
Online advertising and consumer behavior.
How does fiscal policy influence income distribution and poverty reduction?
How does tax reform impact business investment?
Economics of international tourism and its impact on local economies.
Effects of financial regulation on consumer behavior and investor confidence.
Demographic shifts and labor force participation.

Economics Research Topics for Undergraduates

Are you an undergraduate student looking for topics related to economics? Here are some amazing ideas you can pick from:

Financial implications of space exploration and commercial space travel.
Role of urban farming in city development for sustainability.
Impact of genetic engineering and biotechnology on the agricultural sector.
Financial consequences of digital privacy.
Implications of mass surveillance on consumer spending patterns.
How do remittances influence growth in developing countries?
Fiscal consequences of cybercrime and cybersecurity breaches.
Role of microfinance in alleviating poverty.
Potential financial implications of quantum computing.
Water scarcity and its worldwide financial implications.
Monetary consequences of epidemics, pandemics, and public health crises.
Transformation of markets by virtual and augmented reality.
Effect of corporate governance on shareholder value.
Financial aspects of aging societies and pension reform.
Role of intellectual property rights in promoting innovation and growth.

Economics Research Topics for Grad Students

Graduate students in economics are expected to delve deeper into economic theories, models, and concepts. They are also required to contribute new insights to the field. We suggest that you choose these economics topics for research to earn a high grade:

How does drug legalization influence national economies?
Impact of universal basic income on poverty levels and unemployment rates.
Financial implications of political instability and conflict.
Impact of cultural heritage sites on local and national finances.
Financial repercussions of biodiversity loss and species extinction.
Role of venture capital in fostering startups and growth.
Disaster risk management and its relevance to financial resilience.
Potential fiscal impacts of deep-sea mining.
Financial consequences of single-use plastics and transition to a circular economy.
Business aspects of the digital gaming industry and eSports.
Impact of the maker movement and DIY culture on traditional manufacturing.
How can nanotechnology shape future market economies?
Impact of drone technology on supply chain operations.
Financial aspects of mental health in the workplace.
Role of public-private partnerships in fostering growth and infrastructure development.

Research Topics in Economics by Subject

Economics paper topics ideas will also depend on your area of expertise. This block will offer topics by subject, so that you can choose a theme that fits your special needs. Whether you are interested in exploring the economics of renewable energy or the effects of globalization on income distribution,you will surely spot an idea or two right below.

World Economics Research Paper Topics

The global economy is a complex and interconnected system, and there are many world economics research paper topics that can shed light on global aspects. Between them are these ideas:

Evolving landscape of international trade in the post-COVID era.
Role of Special Economic Zones in boosting global competitiveness.
Impact of machine learning and artificial intelligence on global financial markets.
How do social impact bonds contribute to global development goals?
Cybersecurity risks in global financial institutions: Are we prepared?
Influence of social entrepreneurship on worldwide poverty reduction.
Green bonds and their role in global sustainable finance.
Economic prospects of the African Continental Free Trade Area.
Role of global remittance flows in socioeconomic development.
Impact of climate change on global supply chains: What can we do?
Global consequences of a cashless society: Are we ready?
How does geopolitics affect global energy markets?
Repercussions of cryptocurrency adoption on global financial stability.
Economies of scale in global manufacturing: A new era?
Role of international development assistance in achieving Sustainable Development Goals.

>> More ideas: Politics Research Topics

Microeconomics Research Paper Topics

Microeconomics studies the behavior of individuals and firms in making decisions regarding the allocation of resources. If you need microeconomics topics for research paper, we collected great ideas below:

How do consumer ethics shape purchasing decisions?
What influences price elasticity of demand in luxury goods markets?
How does the gig economy affect individual financial stability?
What are the key economic factors determining college major choices?
How do credit scores influence personal finance management?
What impacts have peer-to-peer lending platforms had on traditional banking?
What drives consumer decisions between online and brick-and-mortar shopping?
How do economic considerations play into personal retirement planning?
What market dynamics and pricing strategies dominate the smartphone industry?
How does behavioral economics impact personal savings habits?
How significantly does brand loyalty influence consumer spending?
What strategies help businesses survive during economic downturns?
How does corporate social responsibility influence consumer choice?
What role does digital marketing play in shaping consumer behavior?
What are some economic impacts of identity theft on individuals and businesses?

Macroeconomics Research Paper Topics

Unlike microeconomics, macroeconomics explores the behavior and performance of entire economies. Below are some awesome macroeconomics research paper topics:

Exploring connections between inflation and unemployment.
Impact of quantitative easing on long-term economic growth.
How does fiscal deficit affect a country's economic stability?
The role of central banks in managing economic downturns.
Effects of government debt on interest rates and investment.
What factors contribute to business cycles and economic fluctuations?
Examination of macroeconomic factors influencing foreign direct investment.
How do monetary policies impact inflation and unemployment rates?
Role of technology advancements in macroeconomic productivity.
Impact of demographic changes on long-term economic growth.
Can green investment stimulate economic recovery?
What role do exchange rates play in a country's trade balance?
Comparative analysis of economic growth models.
Macroeconomic challenges of transitioning to a low-carbon economy.
How does income inequality affect economic growth at a macro level?

Economics Research Paper Topics on International Trade

International trade is a vital part of the global economy and has a significant impact on development, and international relations. Here are unique topics for an economic research paper focusing on international trade:

Impact of Brexit on international trade relations.
How do currency fluctuations affect international trade?
Economic consequences of trade wars: A case study of U.S.-China relations.
Role of World Trade Organization in shaping international trade norms.
How does international trade contribute to economic growth?
Evaluation of free trade agreements and their economic implications.
Role of emerging markets in shaping the future of international trade.
How do trade barriers influence domestic industries?
Fair trade vs. free trade: An economic analysis.
Global supply chain disruptions: Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic.
Effects of international trade on income distribution within countries.
Economic impact of sanctions on international trade.
How do intellectual property rights issues affect international trade?
Role of e-commerce in transforming international trade.
What are the economic consequences of offshore outsourcing on international trade?

Financial Economics Research Topics

Financial economics is a subfield of economics that focuses on financial markets, institutions, and instruments. Here are outstanding financial economic topics for a paper:

Role of FinTech in shaping the future of banking.
Analysis of risk management strategies in investment banking.
How do hedge funds contribute to financial market stability?
Impact of regulatory changes on financial market competitiveness.
How does financial literacy influence individual investment decisions?
Examination of financial derivatives and their role in financial risk management.
Role of central banks in maintaining financial stability.
Analysis of market efficiency in cryptocurrency markets.
How do financial crises affect economies in the long term?
Financial inclusion and the role of mobile banking.
Impact of corporate governance on financial performance.
Examination of the link between financial markets and economic growth.
High-frequency trading: Impact on financial market stability.
Effect of algorithmic trading on financial market efficiency.
How do interest rate changes impact financial markets.

Development Economics Research Topics

Development economics studies the economic and social development of low-income countries. With this branch in mind, we prepared a list of development economic research paper topics ideas:

Role of microfinance in economic empowerment in developing countries.
How do infrastructure projects affect economic development?
How do cultural factors shape economic progress in developing countries?
Impact of corruption on resource allocation in developing nations.
Impact of foreign aid on economic growth in recipient countries.
Evaluation of agricultural policies on rural development.
How do commodity price fluctuations affect developing economies?
Implications of population growth on resource management in emerging economies.
How does political stability influence economic growth in developing countries?
Impact of public health initiatives on economic development.
Analysis of sustainable development strategies in emerging economies.
How do migration patterns affect economic development?
How does technological adoption improve productivity in developing economies?
Role of social entrepreneurship in sustainable economic development.
How does tourism influence the economic development of low-income countries?

Behavioral Economics Research Paper Topics

Behavioral economics combines insights from psychology and economics to understand how people make financial decisions. Below you can find behavioral economics research topics:

Impact of cognitive biases on economic decision making.
Role of emotions in consumer purchasing behavior.
How does social influence shape spending habits?
What are the economic implications of procrastination?
Nudging for good: Can behavioral economics promote healthier lifestyles?
How does framing influence consumers' perception of price and value?
Role of incentives in shaping individual and collective behavior.
Examination of loss aversion in investment decisions.
Analysis of irrational behaviors in financial markets.
Behavioral economics in policy design: What works and why?
How does choice overload affect consumer decision making?
The effect of anchoring bias in pricing strategies.
Role of behavioral economics in promoting sustainable consumption.
How does scarcity mindset affect economic decisions?
Behavioral economics and personal finance: How to avoid common pitfalls?

>> Read more: Psychology Topics to Research

Environmental Economics Research Topics

Environmental economics investigates the interaction between economic systems and the natural environment. This subfield also offers multiple perspectives for exploration. Here are some examples of project topics on economics with emphasis on environment:

Examining the economic impacts of biodiversity loss.
Impact of environmental policies on manufacturing industries.
Role of renewable energy investments in economic growth.
Does a carbon tax impact economic competitiveness?
Economic analysis of water resource management.
How do natural disasters affect economic performance?
The economic value of ecosystem services.
Cost-effectiveness of different strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Role of environmental economics in climate change mitigation.
How does waste management contribute to sustainable economic growth?
The effects of air pollution on economic productivity.
What is the economic impact of deforestation?
Evaluation of economic tools for managing plastic waste.
Economics of transitioning to a circular economy.
How does sustainable agriculture contribute to economic development?

>> View more: Environmental Research Topics

Health Economics Research Topics

Health economics examines how health care practices affect the health outcomes of individuals and whole populations. Take a glance at these health economics research paper topics:

Economic impact of pandemics on healthcare systems.
Role of telemedicine in healthcare cost reduction.
How do health insurance policies influence medical spending?
Economic analysis of mental health issues and treatment access.
The cost-effectiveness of preventative healthcare measures.
Evaluating the economic burden of chronic diseases.
Economic implications of antibiotic resistance.
How does socioeconomic status influence health outcomes?
Impact of aging populations on healthcare costs.
Evaluation of the economic benefits of vaccination programs.
The effect of medical technology advancements on healthcare costs.
Role of behavioral economics in health promotion and disease prevention.
How does health literacy influence healthcare utilization and costs?
Economic analysis of substance abuse treatment.
Evaluating the economic impacts of health policy reforms.

>> Read more: Public Health Topics for Research

Extra Research Topics for Economics

Sometimes, finding the right idea can be a challenging task. However, there are numerous resources available to help you find unique angles. Also, don't be afraid to ask your professors or research paper writer team for suggestions on the selection process. But if you don’t have enough time, we gathered some supplementary economics research topics.

Economics Essay Topics

An economics essay can cover a broad range of topics, from macroeconomic issues such as international trade and monetary policy to microeconomic aspects such as consumer behavior and market structure.

Can an increase in minimum wage curb poverty?
What are the potential economic effects of Brexit?
Impact of income inequality on societal cohesion.
How does the rise of remote work influence economic structures?
Examination of the economic benefits of public libraries.
Role of the informal economy in urban development.
Economic implications of increasing life expectancy.
How does piracy impact the music and film industry economically?
Impact of subsidies on agricultural economies.
Exploration of the economic factors influencing the housing market.
Analysis of the economic costs of obesity.
Role of child labor in global supply chains.
Examination of the economic implications of internet censorship.
Impact of single-use plastics on local and global economies.
Economic effects of urban green spaces.

Economics Topics for a Short Project

If you need to complete a short assignment, you may want to consider project topics in economics that can be analyzed within a limited timeframe. Don’t worry. We’ve added some simple ideas as well:

Examining the economic impacts of online privacy breaches.
Role of advertising in shaping consumer behavior.
Analysis of the economic effects of natural disasters.
Economic implications of self-driving cars.
Role of cooperatives in the economy.
Impact of e-waste on developing economies.
The role of micro-credit in alleviating poverty.
Examining the economic impacts of space exploration.
How do online reviews influence consumer purchasing decisions?
Economics of disaster recovery: Case studies.
Examination of the economic implications of cybercrime.
Impact of nutritional labeling on consumer behavior and market outcomes.
Economic analysis of the craft beer industry.
Examining the economic effects of animal agriculture.
How do tax incentives influence corporate behavior and economic outcomes?

Economics Research Questions

Formulating a research question is a crucial step in conducting an economics research project. A good research question should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the topic under study. Here are some economics research questions to consider:

How does widespread adoption of digital currencies impact traditional banking?
To what extent do economic factors contribute to obesity rates?
What are the consequences of large-scale solar power adoption?
How do parental leave policies shape labor markets?
What impacts do large-scale data breaches have on corporations?
Does green urban planning significantly contribute to city development?
How much does mental health contribute to workplace productivity?
What effects do fair trade agreements have on farmers in low-income countries?
How valuable are clean oceans for global trade?
How does political stability of a country influence foreign investments?
What are the consequences of patent wars in the tech industry?
How does the rise of freelancing shape labor laws?
What economic implications does the rise of eSports have?
How does nutrition education impact economic health?
What are some benefits and drawbacks of commercial space tourism?

Economics Research Topics for Exams

If you're preparing for an exam, it's important to have a good understanding of the concepts and theories that you'll be tested on. To help you prepare, we offer these economics research topics for exams to study:

Implications of autonomous vehicles on transportation.
Role of trade unions in contemporary job markets.
Analysis of gender disparities in retirement savings.
Influence of corporate social responsibility on brand reputation.
How do plant-based diets influence the global meat industry.
Evaluating efficiency of ride-sharing platforms.
Role of drones in shaping future commercial landscapes.
How public health initiatives influence workplace productivity.
Exploring the potential economic impact of asteroid mining.
How does fashion industry affect global economy and environmental sustainability?
Impact of video-on-demand services on traditional film industries.
Role of social entrepreneurship in poverty alleviation.
Role of energy-efficient appliances in electricity markets.
Influence of shifting demographics on global trends.
How does celebrity endorsement influence consumer buying behavior?

Economics Research Paper Topics for Experts

For those who are already experts in the field of economics, finding 100% original economics research topics can be an uphill struggle. But not with ideas attached below:

How does quantum computing pose an economic challenge to cybersecurity firms?
How do gene editing technologies affect agricultural markets?
In what ways does space commercialization affect global economies?
How does increased lifespan influence retirement and pension systems?
Financial viability of carbon capture and storage.
Influence of ethical consumerism on global supply chains.
How have nanotechnologies impacted manufacturing sectors?
Impact of rising sea levels on coastal economies.
Role of predictive analytics in preventing financial fraud.
Examining the economic consequences of major oil spills.
How does deep face technology pose an economic challenge to film industries?
Economic impacts of large-scale reforestation.
Implications of extensive antibiotic resistance.
Impacts of geopolitical tensions on global oil prices.
Universal basic income as a solution for automation-induced job loss.

Bottom Line on Economics Papers Topics

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11 ways nudge theory works in the real world

A girl looks at water from the Nile flowing from a pump in the Manshiyet Nasser shantytown in eastern Cairo May 18, 2010. Four east African countries signed a new deal creating a permanent commission to manage the River Nile's waters on Friday, putting them on a collision course with Egypt and Sudan. Stretching more than 6,600 km from Lake Victoria to the Mediterranean, the Nile is a vital water and energy source for the nine countries through which it flows. REUTERS/Amr Abdallah Dalsh (EGYPT - Tags: SOCIETY) - R

Behavioural economics led to an approach that made it easier to disinfect water. Image: REUTERS/Amr Abdallah Dalsh

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Richard H. Thaler is a world-renowned behavioral economist and professor of finance and psychology. Recently, he was interviewed by The Economist . The discussion covers some of the fundamental studies in the field, like “ save more tomorrow ” which encourages people to save more by signing up to increase their savings rate every year and auto-enrollment for pensions that have drastically increased employee participation in pension funds. Thaler also suggests, in the interview, that behavioral economics has the ability to influence human behavior for both good and bad. He argues that much of what behavioral economics does is remove barriers. The goal is not to change people but to make life easier, but that idea can be skewed by organizations or individuals looking to capitalize on the biases of people. Whenever he is asked to sign a copy of his book Nudge , he writes “nudge for good” which is a plea, he says, to improve the lives of people and avoid insidious behavior. The list of ways companies nudge behavior is endless, and I would love to hear more examples from you all in the comments section. In the meantime here are a few- I’ll let you judge which ones “nudge for good”:

Waterborne diseases such as cholera cause widespread illness, especially among children, in developing countries without nation-wide water and sanitation networks. In Kenya, chlorine tablets are distributed by NGOs and other organizations, and people generally understand that the tablets disinfect their water, protecting them from disease. Nevertheless, usage rates are often low. Cost is not the barrier here, convenience is because routinely purifying water requires energy and attention. Michael Kremer of Harvard University and his colleagues found , through a series of randomized controlled trials conducted in Kenya, that providing chlorine as a concentrated liquid at prominently displayed dispensers at local water sources dramatically increase the rate of disinfection. The dispensers provided a visual reminder when and water was collected and made it easy to add the right does. Along with promotion by community members, this approach increased chlorine use by 53%. Thus, making it easier to disinfect water increased the rates at which tablets are used.
Research in the technology sector shows that most people never change the default options on their devices, demonstrating the degree to which people tend to go with the default. These default options include items such as auto-saving documents, the browser that will pop-up when accessing the internet, which app is enabled for GPS, and so-on. These default options are critical to a company’s bottom line because they determine which company’s software will be used by the vast majority of users who do not adjust the default options. According to the New York Times , “Google made a big bet early in its history: In 2002, it reached a deal with AOL, guaranteeing a payment of $50 million to come from advertising revenue if AOL made Google its automatic first-choice search engine — the one shown to users by default. Today, Google pays an estimated $100 million a year to Mozilla, coming from shared ad revenue, to be the default search engine on Mozilla’s popular Firefox Web browser in the United States and other countries. Google has many such arrangements with Web sites.”
Every year, consumers in industrialized countries waste almost as much food as the entire net food production of sub-Saharan Africa (222 million vs. 230 million tons). According to a report by UNEP and the World Resources Institute, about one-third of all food produced worldwide, worth about US$1 trillion, is lost or wasted in through food production and consumption systems. This means that about 1 in 4 calories intended for consumption is never actually eaten. Vancouver , Canada is now collecting food scraps from all homes and duplexes on a weekly basis as part of a plan to double organic waste collection this year. Food waste accounts for 40% of household garbage, said Vancouver Mayor Gregor Robertson. The city will also spend $5.4 million — $16 per household — to build a new facility to compost an estimated 50 tons of organic waste a year. Around 26,000 tons of food scraps and yard waste — enough to fill 10 Olympic swimming pools — went through the current composting station in South Vancouver in 2011, and the city is expecting to collect twice that amount this year.
Mumbai, and indeed the rest of the Indian state of Maharashtra is currently struggling water scarcity due to a prolonged drought. In response to the water shortage, restaurants in Mumbai have adopted half-filled water glasses during meals and paper napkins that replace water to wash hands after meals. The Hotel & Restaurant Association (Western India), a body for over 10,000 restaurants across Maharashtra, issued a circular on April 15 urging all eateries to serve half a glass of water to patrons, and replenish it only on request. Similar efforts have been undertaken in California , which is also experiencing a severe and prolonged drought. There, servers in bars, restaurants and cafeterias are not allowed to bring out water with menus and silverware unless customers ask. Some restaurants already have signs saying they don't automatically serve water because of the drought. The rule is meant to raise conservation awareness as well as save water.
When we’re “given” something by default, it becomes more valued than it would have been otherwise—and we are more unwilling to part with it. McKinsey found that changing the script at an Italian telecom’s call center helped them to retain more customers after they had raised their rates. Originally, the script for canceled plans offered callers 100 free calls if they kept their plan. The company reworded it to say “We have already credited your account with 100 calls—how could you use those?” Customers did not want to give up free talk time they thought they already owned so they decided to stay and accept the rate increase.

Others include:

Restaurants that only give you a plastic straw if you ask for one in an effort to reduce waste- in particular plastic waste in the oceans .
Airlines let you drink directly from the can, unless you ask for a plastic cup.
Businesses have set their printers to print and copy double-sided as the default to cut paper consumption .
Hotels don’t change your sheets and towels , unless you specifically request it.
Electronic billing unless paper bills are requested.
Energy/power-saving modes for electronics can dramatically reduce energy consumption when used properly.

Educating people is the key to moving towards more and better nudges. If restaurants are not going serve water or straws except on request, then they need to explain why. If employees are auto-enrolled in pension plans, they still need information on whether the default rate is sufficient for their retirement needs. Nudges need to be communicated to avoid the attack that they are “paternalistic” and to develop greater awareness among consumers about the impact of their choices.

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O perant C onditioning

J e r staddon, d t cerutti.

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Issue date 2003.

Operant behavior is behavior “controlled” by its consequences. In practice, operant conditioning is the study of reversible behavior maintained by reinforcement schedules. We review empirical studies and theoretical approaches to two large classes of operant behavior: interval timing and choice. We discuss cognitive versus behavioral approaches to timing, the “gap” experiment and its implications, proportional timing and Weber's law, temporal dynamics and linear waiting, and the problem of simple chain-interval schedules. We review the long history of research on operant choice: the matching law, its extensions and problems, concurrent chain schedules, and self-control. We point out how linear waiting may be involved in timing, choice, and reinforcement schedules generally. There are prospects for a unified approach to all these areas.

Keywords: interval timing, choice, concurrent schedules, matching law, self-control

INTRODUCTION

The term operant conditioning 1 was coined by B. F. Skinner in 1937 in the context of reflex physiology, to differentiate what he was interested in—behavior that affects the environment—from the reflex-related subject matter of the Pavlovians. The term was novel, but its referent was not entirely new. Operant behavior , though defined by Skinner as behavior “controlled by its consequences” is in practice little different from what had previously been termed “instrumental learning” and what most people would call habit. Any well-trained “operant” is in effect a habit. What was truly new was Skinner's method of automated training with intermittent reinforcement and the subject matter of reinforcement schedules to which it led. Skinner and his colleagues and students discovered in the ensuing decades a completely unsuspected range of powerful and orderly schedule effects that provided new tools for understanding learning processes and new phenomena to challenge theory.

A reinforcement schedule is any procedure that delivers a reinforcer to an organism according to some well-defined rule. The usual reinforcer is food for a hungry rat or pigeon; the usual schedule is one that delivers the reinforcer for a switch closure caused by a peck or lever press. Reinforcement schedules have also been used with human subjects, and the results are broadly similar to the results with animals. However, for ethical and practical reasons, relatively weak reinforcers must be used—and the range of behavioral strategies people can adopt is of course greater than in the case of animals. This review is restricted to work with animals.

Two types of reinforcement schedule have excited the most interest. Most popular are time-based schedules such as fixed and variable interval, in which the reinforcer is delivered after a fixed or variable time period after a time marker (usually the preceding reinforcer). Ratio schedules require a fixed or variable number of responses before a reinforcer is delivered.

Trial-by-trial versions of all these free-operant procedures exist. For example, a version of the fixed-interval schedule specifically adapted to the study of interval timing is the peak-interval procedure, which adds to the fixed interval an intertrial interval (ITI) preceding each trial and a percentage of extra-long “empty” trials in which no food is given.

For theoretical reasons, Skinner believed that operant behavior ought to involve a response that can easily be repeated, such as pressing a lever, for rats, or pecking an illuminated disk (key) for pigeons. The rate of such behavior was thought to be important as a measure of response strength ( Skinner 1938 , 1966 , 1986 ; Killeen & Hall 2001 ). The current status of this assumption is one of the topics of this review. True or not, the emphasis on response rate has resulted in a dearth of experimental work by operant conditioners on nonrecurrent behavior such as movement in space.

Operant conditioning differs from other kinds of learning research in one important respect. The focus has been almost exclusively on what is called reversible behavior, that is, behavior in which the steady-state pattern under a given schedule is stable, meaning that in a sequence of conditions, XAXBXC…, where each condition is maintained for enough days that the pattern of behavior is locally stable, behavior under schedule X shows a pattern after one or two repetitions of X that is always the same. For example, the first time an animal is exposed to a fixed-interval schedule, after several daily sessions most animals show a “scalloped” pattern of responding (call it pattern A): a pause after each food delivery—also called wait time or latency —followed by responding at an accelerated rate until the next food delivery. However, some animals show negligible wait time and a steady rate (pattern B). If all are now trained on some other procedure—a variable-interval schedule, for example—and then after several sessions are returned to the fixed-interval schedule, almost all the animals will revert to pattern A. Thus, pattern A is the stable pattern. Pattern B, which may persist under unchanging conditions but does not recur after one or more intervening conditions, is sometimes termed metastable ( Staddon 1965 ). The vast majority of published studies in operant conditioning are on behavior that is stable in this sense.

Although the theoretical issue is not a difficult one, there has been some confusion about what the idea of stability (reversibility) in behavior means. It should be obvious that the animal that shows pattern A after the second exposure to procedure X is not the same animal as when it showed pattern A on the first exposure. Its experimental history is different after the second exposure than after the first. If the animal has any kind of memory, therefore, its internal state 2 following the second exposure is likely to be different than after the first exposure, even though the observed behavior is the same. The behavior is reversible; the organism's internal state in general is not. The problems involved in studying nonreversible phenomena in individual organisms have been spelled out elsewhere (e.g., Staddon 2001a , Ch. 1); this review is mainly concerned with the reversible aspects of behavior.

Once the microscope was invented, microorganisms became a new field of investigation. Once automated operant conditioning was invented, reinforcement schedules became an independent subject of inquiry. In addition to being of great interest in their own right, schedules have also been used to study topics defined in more abstract ways such as timing and choice. These two areas constitute the majority of experimental papers in operant conditioning with animal subjects during the past two decades. Great progress has been made in understanding free-operant choice behavior and interval timing. Yet several theories of choice still compete for consensus, and much the same is true of interval timing. In this review we attempt to summarize the current state of knowledge in these two areas, to suggest how common principles may apply in both, and to show how these principles may also apply to reinforcement schedule behavior considered as a topic in its own right.

INTERVAL TIMING

Interval timing is defined in several ways. The simplest is to define it as covariation between a dependent measure such as wait time and an independent measure such as interreinforcement interval (on fixed interval) or trial time-to-reinforcement (on the peak procedure). When interreinforcement interval is doubled, then after a learning period wait time also approximately doubles ( proportional timing ). This is an example of what is sometimes called a time production procedure: The organism produces an approximation to the to-be-timed interval. There are also explicit time discrimination procedures in which on each trial the subject is exposed to a stimulus and is then required to respond differentially depending on its absolute ( Church & Deluty 1977 , Stubbs 1968 ) or even relative ( Fetterman et al. 1989 ) duration. For example, in temporal bisection , the subject (e.g., a rat) experiences either a 10-s or a 2-s stimulus, L or S . After the stimulus goes off, the subject is confronted with two choices. If the stimulus was L , a press on the left lever yields food; if S , a right press gives food; errors produce a brief time-out. Once the animal has learned, stimuli of intermediate duration are presented in lieu of S and L on test trials. The question is, how will the subject distribute its responses? In particular, at what intermediate duration will it be indifferent between the two choices? [Answer: typically in the vicinity of the geometric mean, i.e., √( L.S ) − 4.47 for 2 and 10.]

Wait time is a latency; hence (it might be objected) it may vary on time-production procedures like fixed interval because of factors other than timing—such as degree of hunger (food deprivation). Using a time-discrimination procedure avoids this problem. It can also be mitigated by using the peak procedure and looking at performance during “empty” trials. “Filled” trials terminate with food reinforcement after (say) T s. “Empty” trials, typically 3 T s long, contain no food and end with the onset of the ITI. During empty trials the animal therefore learns to wait, then respond, then stop (more or less) until the end of the trial ( Catania 1970 ). The mean of the distribution of response rates averaged over empty trials ( peak time ) is then perhaps a better measure of timing than wait time because motivational variables are assumed to affect only the height and spread of the response-rate distribution, not its mean. This assumption is only partially true ( Grace & Nevin 2000 , MacEwen & Killeen 1991 , Plowright et al. 2000 ).

There is still some debate about the actual pattern of behavior on the peak procedure in each individual trial. Is it just wait, respond at a constant rate, then wait again? Or is there some residual responding after the “stop” [yes, usually (e.g., Church et al. 1991 )]? Is the response rate between start and stop really constant or are there two or more identifiable rates ( Cheng & Westwood 1993 , Meck et al. 1984 )? Nevertheless, the method is still widely used, particularly by researchers in the cognitive/psychophysical tradition. The idea behind this approach is that interval timing is akin to sensory processes such as the perception of sound intensity (loudness) or luminance (brightness). As there is an ear for hearing and an eye for seeing, so (it is assumed) there must be a (real, physiological) clock for timing. Treisman (1963) proposed the idea of an internal pacemaker-driven clock in the context of human psychophysics. Gibbon (1977) further developed the approach and applied it to animal interval-timing experiments.

WEBER'S LAW, PROPORTIONAL TIMING AND TIMESCALE INVARIANCE

The major similarity between acknowledged sensory processes, such as brightness perception, and interval timing is Weber's law . Peak time on the peak procedure is not only proportional to time-to-food ( T ), its coefficient of variation (standard deviation divided by mean) is approximately constant, a result similar to Weber's law obeyed by most sensory dimensions. This property has been called scalar timing ( Gibbon 1977 ). Most recently, Gallistel & Gibbon (2000) have proposed a grand principle of timescale invariance , the idea that the frequency distribution of any given temporal measure (the idea is assumed to apply generally, though in fact most experimental tests have used peak time) scales with the to-be-timed-interval. Thus, given the normalized peak-time distribution for T =60 s, say; if the x -axis is divided by 2, it will match the distribution for T = 30 s. In other words, the frequency distribution for the temporal dependent variable, normalized on both axes, is asserted to be invariant.

Timescale invariance is in effect a combination of Weber's law and proportional timing. Like those principles, it is only approximately true. There are three kinds of evidence that limit its generality. The simplest is the steady-state pattern of responding (key-pecking or lever-pressing) observed on fixed-interval reinforcement schedules. This pattern should be the same at all fixed-interval values, but it is not. Gallistel & Gibbon wrote, “When responding on such a schedule, animals pause after each reinforcement and then resume responding after some interval has elapsed. It was generally supposed that the animals' rate of responding accelerated throughout the remainder of the interval leading up to reinforcement. In fact, however, conditioned responding in this paradigm … is a two-state variable (slow, sporadic pecking vs. rapid, steady pecking), with one transition per interreinforcement interval ( Schneider 1969 )” (p. 293).

This conclusion over-generalizes Schneider's result. Reacting to reports of “break-and-run” fixed-interval performance under some conditions, Schneider sought to characterize this feature more objectively than the simple inspection of cumulative records. He found a way to identify the point of maximum acceleration in the fixed-interval “scallop” by using an iterative technique analogous to attaching an elastic band to the beginning of an interval and the end point of the cumulative record, then pushing a pin, representing the break point, against the middle of the band until the two resulting straight-line segments best fit the cumulative record (there are other ways to achieve the same result that do not fix the end points of the two line-segments). The postreinforcement time ( x -coordinate) of the pin then gives the break point for that interval. Schneider showed that the break point is an orderly dependent measure: Break point is roughly 0.67 of interval duration, with standard deviation proportional to the mean (the Weber-law or scalar property).

This finding is by no means the same as the idea that the fixed-interval scallop is “a two-state variable” ( Hanson & Killeen 1981 ). Schneider showed that a two-state model is an adequate approximation; he did not show that it is the best or truest approximation. A three- or four-line approximation (i.e., two or more pins) might well have fit significantly better than the two-line version. To show that the process is two-state, Schneider would have had to show that adding additional segments produced negligibly better fit to the data.

The frequent assertion that the fixed-interval scallop is always an artifact of averaging flies in the face of raw cumulative-record data“the many nonaveraged individual fixed-interval cumulative records in Ferster & Skinner (1957 , e.g., pp. 159, 160, 162), which show clear curvature, particularly at longer fixed-interval values (> ∼2 min). The issue for timescale invariance, therefore, is whether the shape, or relative frequency of different-shaped records, is the same at different absolute intervals.

The evidence is that there is more, and more frequent, curvature at longer intervals. Schneider's data show this effect. In Schneider's Figure 3, for example, the time to shift from low to high rate is clearly longer at longer intervals than shorter ones. On fixed-interval schedules, apparently, absolute duration does affect the pattern of responding. (A possible reason for this dependence of the scallop on fixed-interval value is described in Staddon 2001a , p. 317. The basic idea is that greater curvature at longer fixed-interval values follows from two things: a linear increase in response probability across the interval, combined with a nonlinear, negatively accelerated, relation between overall response rate and reinforcement rate.) If there is a reliable difference in the shape, or distribution of shapes, of cumulative records at long and short fixed-interval values, the timescale-invariance principle is violated.

A second dataset that does not agree with timescale invariance is an extensive set of studies on the peak procedure by Zeiler & Powell (1994 ; see also Hanson & Killeen 1981) , who looked explicitly at the effect of interval duration on various measures of interval timing. They conclude, “Quantitative properties of temporal control depended on whether the aspect of behavior considered was initial pause duration, the point of maximum acceleration in responding [break point], the point of maximum deceleration, the point at which responding stopped, or several different statistical derivations of a point of maximum responding … . Existing theory does not explain why Weber's law [the scalar property] so rarely fit the results …” (p. 1; see also Lowe et al. 1979 , Wearden 1985 for other exceptions to proportionality between temporal measures of behavior and interval duration). Like Schneider (1969) and Hanson & Killeen (1981) , Zeiler & Powell found that the break point measure was proportional to interval duration, with scalar variance (constant coefficient of variation), and thus consistent with timescale invariance, but no other measure fit the rule.

Moreover, the fit of the breakpoint measure is problematic because it is not a direct measure of behavior but is itself the result of a statistical fitting procedure. It is possible, therefore, that the fit of breakpoint to timescale invariance owes as much to the statistical method used to arrive at it as to the intrinsic properties of temporal control. Even if this caveat turns out to be false, the fact that every other measure studied by Zeiler & Powell failed to conform to timescale invariance surely rules it out as a general principle of interval timing.

The third and most direct test of the timescale invariance idea is an extensive series of time-discrimination experiments carried out by Dreyfus et al. (1988) and Stubbs et al. (1994) . The usual procedure in these experiments was for pigeons to peck a center response key to produce a red light of one duration that is followed immediately by a green light of another duration. When the green center-key light goes off, two yellow side-keys light up. The animals are reinforced with food for pecking the left side-key if the red light was longer, the right side-key if the green light was longer.

The experimental question is, how does discrimination accuracy depend on relative and absolute duration of the two stimuli? Timescale invariance predicts that accuracy depends only on the ratio of red and green durations: For example, accuracy should be the same following the sequence red:10, green:20 as the sequence red:30, green:60, but it is not. Pigeons are better able to discriminate between the two short durations than the two long ones, even though their ratio is the same. Dreyfus et al. and Stubbs et al. present a plethora of quantitative data of the same sort, all showing that time discrimination depends on absolute as well as relative duration.

Timescale invariance is empirically indistinguishable from Weber's law as it applies to time, combined with the idea of proportional timing: The mean of a temporal dependent variable is proportional to the temporal independent variable. But Weber's law and proportional timing are dissociable—it is possible to have proportional timing without conforming to Weber's law and vice versa (cf. Hanson & Killeen 1981 , Zeiler & Powell 1994 ), and in any case both are only approximately true. Timescale invariance therefore does not qualify as a principle in its own right.

Cognitive and Behavioral Approaches to Timing

The cognitive approach to timing dates from the late 1970s. It emphasizes the psychophysical properties of the timing process and the use of temporal dependent variables as measures of (for example) drug effects and the effects of physiological interventions. It de-emphasizes proximal environmental causes. Yet when timing (then called temporal control; see Zeiler 1977 for an early review) was first discovered by operant conditioners (Pavlov had studied essentially the same phenomenon— delay conditioning —many years earlier), the focus was on the time marker , the stimulus that triggered the temporally correlated behavior. (That is one virtue of the term control : It emphasizes the fact that interval timing behavior is usually not free-running. It must be cued by some aspect of the environment.) On so-called spaced-responding schedules, for example, the response is the time marker: The subject must learn to space its responses more than T s apart to get food. On fixed-interval schedules the time marker is reinforcer delivery; on the peak procedure it is the stimulus events associated with trial onset. This dependence on a time marker is especially obvious on time-production procedures, but on time-discrimination procedures the subject's choice behavior must also be under the control of stimuli associated with the onset and offset of the sample duration.

Not all stimuli are equally effective as time markers. For example, an early study by Staddon & Innis (1966a ; see also 1969) showed that if, on alternate fixed intervals, 50% of reinforcers (F) are omitted and replaced by a neutral stimulus (N) of the same duration, wait time following N is much shorter than after F (the reinforcement-omission effect ). Moreover, this difference persists indefinitely. Despite the fact that F and N have the same temporal relationship to the reinforcer, F is much more effective as a time marker than N. No exactly comparable experiment has been done using the peak procedure, partly because the time marker there involves ITI offset/trial onset rather than the reinforcer delivery, so that there is no simple manipulation equivalent to reinforcement omission.

These effects do not depend on the type of behavior controlled by the time marker. On fixed-interval schedules the time marker is in effect inhibitory: Responding is suppressed during the wait time and then occurs at an accelerating rate. Other experiments ( Staddon 1970 , 1972 ), however, showed that given the appropriate schedule, the time marker can control a burst of responding (rather than a wait) of a duration proportional to the schedule parameters ( temporal go–no-go schedules) and later experiments have shown that the place of responding can be controlled by time since trial onset in the so-called tri-peak procedure ( Matell & Meck 1999 ).

A theoretical review ( Staddon 1974 ) concluded, “Temporal control by a given time marker depends on the properties of recall and attention, that is, on the same variables that affect attention to compound stimuli and recall in memory experiments such as delayed matching-to-sample.” By far the most important variable seems to be “the value of the time-marker stimulus—Stimuli of high value … are more salient …” (p. 389), although the full range of properties that determine time-marker effectiveness is yet to be explored.

Reinforcement omission experiments are transfer tests , that is, tests to identify the effective stimulus. They pinpoint the stimulus property controlling interval timing—the effective time marker—by selectively eliminating candidate properties. For example, in a definitive experiment, Kello (1972) showed that on fixed interval the wait time is longest following standard reinforcer delivery (food hopper activated with food, hopper light on, house light off, etc.). Omission of any of those elements caused the wait time to decrease, a result consistent with the hypothesis that reinforcer delivery acquires inhibitory temporal control over the wait time. The only thing that makes this situation different from the usual generalization experiment is that the effects of reinforcement omission are relatively permanent. In the usual generalization experiment, delivery of the reinforcer according to the same schedule in the presence of both the training stimulus and the test stimuli would soon lead all to be responded to in the same way. Not so with temporal control: As we just saw, even though N and F events have the same temporal relationship to the next food delivery, animals never learn to respond similarly after both. The only exception is when the fixed-interval is relatively short, on the order of 20 s or less ( Starr & Staddon 1974 ). Under these conditions pigeons are able to use a brief neutral stimulus as a time marker on fixed interval.

The Gap Experiment

The closest equivalent to fixed-interval reinforcement–omission using the peak procedure is the so-called gap experiment ( Roberts 1981 ). In the standard gap paradigm the sequence of stimuli in a training trial (no gap stimulus) consists of three successive stimuli: the intertrial interval stimulus (ITI), the fixed-duration trial stimulus (S), and food reinforcement (F), which ends each training trial. The sequence is thus ITI, S, F, ITI. Training trials are typically interspersed with empty probe trials that last longer than reinforced trials but end with an ITI only and no reinforcement. The stimulus sequence on such trials is ITI, S, ITI, but the S is two or three times longer than on training trials. After performance has stabilized, gap trials are introduced into some or all of the probe trials. On gap trials the ITI stimulus reappears for a while in the middle of the trial stimulus. The sequence on gap trials is therefore ITI, S, ITI, S, ITI. Gap trials do not end in reinforcement.

What is the effective time marker (i.e., the stimulus that exerts temporal control) in such an experiment? ITI offset/trial onset is the best temporal predictor of reinforcement: Its time to food is shorter and less variable than any other experimental event. Most but not all ITIs follow reinforcement, and the ITI itself is often variable in duration and relatively long. So reinforcer delivery is a poor temporal predictor. The time marker therefore has something to do with the transition between ITI and trial onset, between ITI and S. Gap trials also involve presentation of the ITI stimulus, albeit with a different duration and within-trial location than the usual ITI, but the similarities to a regular trial are obvious. The gap experiment is therefore a sort of generalization (of temporal control) experiment. Buhusi & Meck (2000) presented gap stimuli more or less similar to the ITI stimulus during probe trials and found results resembling generalization decrement, in agreement with this analysis.

However, the gap procedure was not originally thought of as a generalization test, nor is it particularly well designed for that purpose. The gap procedure arose directly from the cognitive idea that interval timing behavior is driven by an internal clock ( Church 1978 ). From this point of view it is perfectly natural to inquire about the conditions under which the clock can be started or stopped. If the to-be-timed interval is interrupted—a gap—will the clock restart when the trial stimulus returns (reset)? Will it continue running during the gap and afterwards? Or will it stop and then restart (stop)?

“Reset” corresponds to the maximum rightward shift (from trial onset) of the response-rate peak from its usual position t s after trial onset to t + G E , where G E is the offset time (end) of the gap stimulus. Conversely, no effect (clock keeps running) leaves the peak unchanged at t , and “stop and restart” is an intermediate result, a peak shift to G E − G B + t , where G B is the time of onset (beginning) of the gap stimulus.

Both gap duration and placement within a trial have been varied. The results that have been obtained so far are rather complex (cf. Buhusi & Meck 2000 , Cabeza de Vaca et al. 1994 , Matell & Meck 1999 ). In general, the longer the gap and the later it appears in the trial, the greater the rightward peak shift. All these effects can be interpreted in clock terms, but the clock view provides no real explanation for them, because it does not specify which one will occur under a given set of conditions. The results of gap experiments can be understood in a qualitative way in terms of the similarity of the gap presentation to events associated with trial onset; the more similar, the closer the effect will be to reset, i.e., the onset of a new trial. Another resemblance between gap results and the results of reinforcement-omission experiments is that the effects of the gap are also permanent: Behavior on later trials usually does not differ from behavior on the first few ( Roberts 1981 ). These effects have been successfully simulated quantitatively by a neural network timing model ( Hopson 1999 , 2002 ) that includes the assumption that the effects of time-marker presentation decay with time ( Cabeza de Vaca et al. 1994 ).

The original temporal control studies were strictly empirical but tacitly accepted something like the psychophysical view of timing. Time was assumed to be a sensory modality like any other, so the experimental task was simply to explore the different kinds of effect, excitatory, inhibitory, discriminatory, that could come under temporal control. The psychophysical view was formalized by Gibbon (1977) in the context of animal studies, and this led to a static information-processing model, scalar expectancy theory (SET: Gibbon & Church 1984 , Meck 1983 , Roberts 1983 ), which comprised a pacemaker-driven clock, working and reference memories, a comparator, and various thresholds. A later dynamic version added memory for individual trials (see Gallistel 1990 for a review). This approach led to a long series of experimental studies exploring the clocklike properties of interval timing (see Gallistel & Gibbon 2000 , Staddon & Higa 1999 for reviews), but none of these studies attempted to test the assumptions of the SET approach in a direct way.

SET was for many years the dominant theoretical approach to interval timing. In recent years, however, its limitations, of parsimony and predictive range, have become apparent and there are now a number of competitors such as the behavioral theory of timing ( Killeen & Fetterman 1988 , MacEwen & Killeen 1991 , Machado 1997 ), spectral timing theory ( Grossberg & Schmajuk 1989 ), neural network models ( Church & Broadbent 1990 , Hopson 1999 , Dragoi et al. 2002 ), and the habituation-based multiple time scale theory (MTS: Staddon & Higa 1999 , Staddon et al. 2002 ). There is as yet no consensus on the best theory.

Temporal Dynamics: Linear Waiting

A separate series of experiments in the temporal-control tradition, beginning in the late 1980s, studied the real-time dynamics of interval timing (e.g., Higa et al. 1991 , Lejeune et al. 1997 , Wynne & Staddon 1988 ; see Staddon 2001a for a review). These experiments have led to a simple empirical principle that may have wide application. Most of these experiments used the simplest possible timing schedule, a response-initiated delay (RID) schedule 3 . In this schedule the animal (e.g., a pigeon) can respond at any time, t , after food. The response changes the key color and food is delivered after a further T s. Time t is under the control of the animal; time T is determined by the experimenter. These experiments have shown that wait time on these and similar schedules (such as fixed interval) is strongly determined by the duration of the previous interfood interval (IFI). For example, wait time will track a cyclic sequence of IFIs, intercalated at a random point in a sequence of fixed ( t + T =constant) intervals, with a lag of one interval; a single short IFI is followed by a short wait time in the next interval (the effect of a single long interval is smaller), and so on (see Staddon et al. 2002 for a review and other examples of temporal tracking). To a first approximation, these results are consistent with a linear relation between wait time in IFI N + 1 and the duration of IFI N :

where I is the IFI, a is a constant less than one, and b is usually negligible. This relation has been termed linear waiting ( Wynne & Staddon 1988 ). The principle is an approximation: an expanded model, incorporating the multiple time scale theory, allows the principle to account for the slower effects of increases as opposed to decreases in IFI (see Staddon et al. 2002 ).

Most importantly for this discussion, the linear waiting principle appears to be obligatory. That is, organisms seem to follow the linear waiting rule even if they delay or even prevent reinforcer delivery by doing so. The simplest example is the RID schedule itself. Wynne & Staddon (1988) showed that it makes no difference whether the experimenter holds delay time T constant or the sum of t + T constant ( t + T = K ): Equation 1 holds in both cases, even though the optimal (reinforcement-rate-maximizing) strategy in the first case is for the animal to set t equal to zero, whereas in the second case reinforcement rate is maximized so long as t < K . Using a version of RID in which T in interval N + 1 depended on the value of t in the preceding interval, Wynne & Staddon also demonstrated two kinds of instability predicted by linear waiting.

The fact that linear waiting is obligatory allows us to look for its effects on schedules other than the simple RID schedule. The most obvious application is to ratio schedules. The time to emit a fixed number of responses is approximately constant; hence the delay to food after the first response in each interval is also approximately constant on fixed ratio (FR), as on fixed- T RID ( Powell 1968 ). Thus, the optimal strategy on FR, as on fixed- T RID, is to respond immediately after food. However, in both cases animals wait before responding and, as one might expect based on the assumption of a roughly constant interresponse time on all ratio schedules, the duration of the wait on FR is proportional to the ratio requirement ( Powell 1968 ), although longer than on a comparable chain-type schedule with the same interreinforcement time ( Crossman et al. 1974 ). The phenomenon of ratio strain —the appearance of long pauses and even extinction on high ratio schedules ( Ferster & Skinner 1957 )—may also have something to do with obligatory linear waiting.

Chain Schedules

A chain schedule is one in which a stimulus change, rather than primary reinforcement, is scheduled. Thus, a chain fixed-interval–fixed-interval schedule is one in which, for example, food reinforcement is followed by the onset of a red key light in the presence of which, after a fixed interval, a response produces a change to green. In the presence of green, food delivery is scheduled according to another fixed interval. RID schedules resemble two-link chain schedules. The first link is time t , before the animal responds; the second link is time T , after a response. We may expect, therefore, that waiting time in the first link of a two-link schedule will depend on the duration of the second link. We describe two results consistent with this conjecture and then discuss some exceptions.

Davison (1974) studied a two-link chain fixed-interval–fixed-interval schedule. Each cycle of the schedule began with a red key. Responding was reinforced, on fixed-interval I 1 s, by a change in key color from red to white. In the presence of white, food reinforcement was delivered according to fixed-interval I 2 s, followed by reappearance of the red key. Davison varied I 1 and I 2 and collected steady-state rate, pause, and link-duration data. He reported that when programmed second-link duration was long in relation to the first-link duration, pause in the first link sometimes exceeded the programmed link duration. The linear waiting predictions for this procedure can therefore be most easily derived for those conditions where the second link is held constant and the first link duration is varied (because under these conditions, the first-link pause was always less than the programmed first-link duration). The prediction for the terminal link is

where a is the proportionality constant, I 2 is the duration of the terminal-link fixed-interval, and t 2 is the pause in the terminal link. Because I 2 is constant in this phase, t 2 is also constant. The pause in the initial link is given by

where I 1 is the duration of the first link. Because I 2 is constant, Equation 3 is a straight line with slope a and positive y-intercept aI 2 .

Linear waiting theory can be tested with Davison's data by plotting, for every condition, t 1 and t 2 versus time-to-reinforcement (TTR); that is, plot pause in each link against TTR for that link in every condition. Linear waiting makes a straightforward prediction: All the data points for both links should lie on the same straight line through the origin (assuming that b → 0). We show this plot in Figure 1 . There is some variability, because the data points are individual subjects, not averages, but points from first and second links fit the same line, and the deviations do not seem to be systematic.

Steady-state pause duration plotted against actual time to reinforcement in the first and second links of a two-link chain schedule. Each data point is from a single pigeon in one experimental condition (three data points from an incomplete condition are omitted). (From Davison 1974 , Table 1)

A study by Innis et al. (1993) provides a dynamic test of the linear waiting hypothesis as applied to chain schedules. Innis et al. studied two-link chain schedules with one link of fixed duration and the other varying from reinforcer to reinforcer according to a triangular cycle. The dependent measure was pause in each link. Their Figure 3, for example, shows the programmed and actual values of the second link of the constant-cycle procedure (i.e., the first link was a constant 20 s; the second link varied from 5 to 35 s according to the triangular cycle) as well as the average pause, which clearly tracks the change in second-link duration with a lag of one interval. They found similar results for the reverse procedure, cycle-constant , in which the first link varied cyclically and the second link was constant. The tracking was a little better in the first procedure than in the second, but in both cases first-link pause was determined primarily by TTR.

There are some data suggesting that linear waiting is not the only factor that determines responding on simple chain schedules. In the four conditions of Davison's experiment in which the programmed durations of the first and second links added to a constant (120 s)—which implies a constant first-link pause according to linear waiting—pause in the first link covaried with first-link duration, although the data are noisy.

The alternative to the linear waiting account of responding on chain schedules is an account in terms of conditioned reinforcement (also called secondary reinforcement)—the idea that a stimulus paired with a primary reinforcer acquires some independent reinforcing power. This idea is also the organizing principle behind most theories of free-operant choice. There are some data that seem to imply a response-strengthening effect quite apart from the linear waiting effect, but they do not always hold up under closer inspection. Catania et al. (1980) reported that “higher rates of pecking were maintained by pigeons in the middle component of three-component chained fixed-interval schedules than in that component of the corresponding multiple schedule (two extinction components followed by a fixed-interval component)” (p. 213), but the effect was surprisingly small, given that no responding at all was required in the first two components. Moreover, results of a more critical control condition, chain versus tandem (rather than multiple) schedule, were the opposite: Rate was generally higher in the middle tandem component than in the second link of the chain. (A tandem schedule is one with the same response contingencies as a chain but with the same stimulus present throughout.)

Royalty et al. (1987) introduced a delay into the peck-stimulus-change contingency of a three-link variable-interval chain schedule and found large decreases in response rate [wait time (WT) was not reported] in both first and second links. They concluded that “because the effect of delaying stimulus change was comparable to the effect of delaying primary reinforcement in a simple variable-interval schedule … the results provide strong evidence for the concept of conditioned reinforcement” (p. 41). The implications of the Royalty et al. data for linear waiting are unclear, however, ( a ) because the linear waiting hypothesis does not deal with the assignment-of-credit problem, that is, the selection of the appropriate response by the schedule. Linear waiting makes predictions about response timing—when the operant response occurs—but not about which response will occur. Response-reinforcer contiguity may be essential for the selection of the operant response in each chain link (as it clearly is during “shaping”), and diminishing contiguity may reduce response rate, but contiguity may play little or no role in the timing of the response. The idea of conditioned reinforcement may well apply to the first function but not to the second. ( b ) Moreover, Royalty et al. did not report obtained time-to-reinforcement data; the effect of the imposed delay may therefore have been via an increase in component duration rather than directly on response rate.

Williams & Royalty (1990) explicitly compared conditioned reinforcement and time to reinforcement as explanations for chain schedule performance in three-link chains and concluded “that time to reinforcement itself accounts for little if any variance in initial-link responding” (p. 381) but not timing, which was not measured. However, these data are from chain schedules with both variable-interval and fixed-interval links, rather than fixed-interval only, and with respect to response rate rather than pause measures. In a later paper Williams qualified this claim: “The effects of stimuli in a chain schedule are due partly to the time to food correlated with the stimuli and partly to the time to the next conditioned reinforcer in the sequence” (1997, p. 145).

The conclusion seems to be that linear waiting plays a relatively major, and conditioned reinforcement (however defined) a relatively minor, role in the determination of response timing on chain fixed-interval schedules. Linear waiting also provides the best available account of a striking, unsolved problem with chain schedules: the fact that in chains with several links, pigeon subjects may respond at a low level or even quit completely in early links ( Catania 1979 , Gollub 1977 ). On fixed-interval chain schedules with five or more links, responding in the early links begins to extinguish and the overall reinforcement rate falls well below the maximum possible—even if the programmed interreinforcement interval is relatively short (e.g., 6×15=90 s). If the same stimulus is present in all links (tandem schedule), or if the six different stimuli are presented in random order (scrambled-stimuli chains), performance is maintained in all links and the overall reinforcement rate is close to the maximum possible (6 I , where I is the interval length). Other studies have reported very weak responding in early components of a simple chain fixed-interval schedule (e.g., Catania et al. 1980 , Davison 1974 , Williams 1994 ; review in Kelleher & Gollub 1962 ). These studies found that chains with as few as three fixed-interval 60-s links ( Kelleher & Fry 1962 ) occasionally produce extreme pausing in the first link. No formal theory of the kind that has proliferated to explain behavior on concurrent chain schedules (discussed below) has been offered to account for these strange results, even though they have been well known for many years.

The informal suggestion is that the low or zero response rates maintained by early components of a multi-link chain are a consequence of the same discrimination process that leads to extinction in the absence of primary reinforcement. Conversely, the stimulus at the end of the chain that is actually paired with primary reinforcement is assumed to be a conditioned reinforcer; stimuli in the middle sustain responding because they lead to production of a conditioned reinforcer ( Catania et al. 1980 , Kelleher & Gollub 1962 ). Pairing also explains why behavior is maintained on tandem and scrambled-stimuli chains ( Kelleher & Fry 1962 ). In both cases the stimuli early in the chain are either invariably (tandem) or occasionally (scrambled-stimulus) paired with primary reinforcement.

There are problems with the conditioned-reinforcement approach, however. It can explain responding in link two of a three-link chain but not in link one, which should be an extinction stimulus. The explanatory problem gets worse when more links are added. There is no well-defined principle to tell us when a stimulus changes from being a conditioned reinforcer, to a stimulus in whose presence responding is maintained by a conditioned reinforcer, to an extinction stimulus. What determines the stimulus property? Is it stimulus number, stimulus duration or the durations of stimuli later in the chain? Perhaps there is some balance between contrast/extinction, which depresses responding in early links, and conditioned reinforcement, which is supposed to (but sometimes does not) elevate responding in later links? No well-defined compound theory has been offered, even though there are several quantitative theories for multiple-schedule contrast (e.g., Herrnstein 1970 , Nevin 1974 , Staddon 1982 ; see review in Williams 1988 ). There are also data that cast doubt even on the idea that late-link stimuli have a rate-enhancing effect. In the Catania et al. (1980) study, for example, four of five pigeons responded faster in the middle link of a three-link tandem schedule than the comparable chain.

The lack of formal theories for performance on simple chains is matched by a dearth of data. Some pause data are presented in the study by Davison (1974) on pigeons in a two-link fixed-interval chain. The paper attempted to fit Herrnstein's (1970) matching law between response rates and link duration. The match was poor: The pigeon's rates fell more than predicted when the terminal links (contiguous with primary reinforcement) of the chain were long, but Davison did find that “the terminal link schedule clearly changes the pause in the initial link, longer terminal-link intervals giving longer initial-link pauses” (1974, p. 326). Davison's abstract concludes, “Data on pauses during the interval schedules showed that, in most conditions, the pause duration was a linear function of the interval length, and greater in the initial link than in the terminal link” (p. 323). In short, the pause (time-to-first-response) data were more lawful than response-rate data.

Linear waiting provides a simple explanation for excessive pausing on multi-link chain fixed-interval schedules. Suppose the chief function of the link stimuli on chain schedules is simply to signal changing times to primary reinforcement 4 . Thus, in a three-link fixed-interval chain, with link duration I , the TTR signaled by the end of reinforcement (or by the onset of the first link) is 3 I . The onset of the next link signals a TTR of 2 I and the terminal, third, link signals a TTR of I . The assumptions of linear waiting as applied to this situation are that pausing (time to first response) in each link is determined entirely by TTR and that the wait time in interval N +1 is a linear function of the TTR in the preceding interval.

To see the implications of this process, consider again a three-link chain schedule with I =1 (arbitrary time units). The performance to be expected depends entirely on the value of the proportionality constant, a , that sets the fraction of time-to-primary-reinforcement that the animal waits (for simplicity we can neglect b ; the logic of the argument is unaffected). All is well so long as a is less than one-third. If a is exactly 0.333, then for unit link duration the pause in the third link is 0.33, in the second link 0.67, and in the first link 1.0 However, if a is larger, for instance 0.5, the three pauses become 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5; that is, the pause in the first link is now longer than the programmed interval, which means the TTR in the first link will be longer than 3 the next time around, so the pause will increase further, and so on until the process stabilizes (which it always does: First-link pause never goes to ∞).

The steady-state wait times in each link predicted for a five-link chain, with unit-duration links, for two values of a are shown in Figure 2 . In both cases wait times in the early links are very much longer than the programmed link duration. Clearly, this process has the potential to produce very large pauses in the early links of multilink-chain fixed-interval schedules and so may account for the data Catania (1979) and others have reported.

Wait time (pause, time to first response) in each equal-duration link of a five-link chain schedule (as a multiple of the programmed link duration) as predicted by the linear-waiting hypothesis. The two curves are for two values of parameter a in Equation 1 ( b =0). Note the very long pauses predicted in early links—almost two orders of magnitude greater than the programmed interval in the first link for a =0.67. (From Mazur 2001 )

Gollub in his dissertation research (1958) noticed the additivity of this sequential pausing. Kelleher & Gollub (1962) in their subsequent review wrote, “No two pauses in [simple fixed interval] can both postpone food-delivery; however, pauses in different components of [a] five-component chain will postpone food-delivery additively” (p. 566). However, this additivity was only one of a number of processes suggested to account for the long pauses in early chain fixed-interval links, and its quantitative implications were never explored.

Note that the linear waiting hypothesis also accounts for the relative stability of tandem schedules and chain schedules with scrambled components. In the tandem schedule, reinforcement constitutes the only available time marker. Given that responding after the pause continues at a relatively high rate until the next time marker, Equation 1 (with b assumed negligible) and a little algebra shows that the steady-state postreinforcement pause for a tandem schedule with unit links will be

where N is the number of links and a is the pause fraction. In the absence of any time markers, pauses in links after the first are necessarily short, so the experienced link duration equals the programmed duration. Thus, the total interfood-reinforcement interval will be t + N − 1 ( t ≥ 1): the pause in the first link (which will be longer than the programmed link duration for N > 1/ a ) plus the programmed durations of the succeeding links. For the case of a = 0.67 and unit link duration, which yielded a steady-state interfood interval (IFI) of 84 for the five-link chain schedule, the tandem yields 12. For a = 0.5, the two values are approximately 16 and 8.

The long waits in early links shown in Figure 2 depend critically on the value of a . If, as experience suggests (there has been no formal study), a tends to increase slowly with training, we might expect the long pausing in initial links to take some time to develop, which apparently it does ( Gollub 1958 ).

On the scrambled-stimuli chain each stimulus occasionally ends in reinforcement, so each signals a time-to-reinforcement (TTR) 5 of I , and pause in each link should be less than the link duration—yielding a total IFI of approximately N , i.e., 5 for the example in the figure. These predictions yield the order IFI in the chain > tandem > scrambled, but parametric data are not available for precise comparison. We do not know whether an N -link scrambled schedule typically stabilizes at a shorter IFI than the comparable tandem schedule, for example. Nor do we know whether steady-state pause in successive links of a multilink chain falls off in the exponential fashion shown in Figure 2 .

In the final section we explore the implications of linear waiting for studies of free-operant choice behavior.

Although we can devote only limited space to it, choice is one of the major research topics in operant conditioning (see Mazur 2001 , p. 96 for recent statistics). Choice is not something that can be directly observed. The subject does this or that and, in consequence, is said to choose. The term has unfortunate overtones of conscious deliberation and weighing of alternatives for which the behavior itself—response A or response B—provides no direct evidence. One result has been the assumption that the proper framework for all so-called choice studies is in terms of response strength and the value of the choice alternatives. Another is the assumption that procedures that are very different are nevertheless studying the same thing.

For example, in a classic series of experiments, Kahneman & Tversky (e.g., 1979) asked a number of human subjects to make a single choice of the following sort: between $400 for sure and a 50% chance of $1000. Most went for the sure thing, even though the expected value of the gamble is higher. This is termed risk aversion , and the same term has been applied to free-operant “choice” experiments. In one such experiment an animal subject must choose repeatedly between a response leading to a fixed amount of food and one leading equiprobably to either a large or a small amount with the same average value. Here the animals tend to be either indifferent or risk averse, preferring the fixed alternative ( Staddon & Innis 1966b , Bateson & Kacelnik 1995 , Kacelnik & Bateson 1996 ).

In a second example pigeons responded repeatedly to two keys associated with equal variable-interval schedules. A successful response on the left key, for example, is reinforced by a change in the color of the pecked key (the other key light goes off). In the presence of this second stimulus, food is delivered according to a fixed-interval schedule (fixed-interval X ). The first stimulus, which is usually the same on both keys, is termed the initial link ; the second stimulus is the terminal link . Pecks on the right key lead in the same way to food reinforcement on variable-interval X . (This is termed a concurrent-chain schedule.) In this case subjects overwhelmingly prefer the initial-link choice leading to the variable-interval terminal link; that is, they are apparently risk seeking rather than risk averse ( Killeen 1968 ).

The fact that these three experiments (Kahneman & Tversky and the two free-operant studies) all produce different results is sometimes thought to pose a serious research problem, but, we contend, the problem is only in the use of the term choice for all three. The procedures (not to mention the subjects) are in fact very different, and in operant conditioning the devil is very much in the details. Apparently trivial procedural differences can sometimes lead to wildly different behavioral outcomes. Use of the term choice as if it denoted a unitary subject matter is therefore highly misleading. We also question the idea that the results of choice experiments are always best explained in terms of response strength and stimulus value.

Concurrent Schedules

Bearing these caveats in mind, let's look briefly at the extensive history of free-operant choice research. In Herrnstein's seminal experiment (1961 ; see Davison & McCarthy 1988 , Williams 1988 for reviews; for collected papers see Rachlin & Laibson 1997 ) hungry pigeons pecked at two side-by-side response keys, one associated with variable-interval v 1 s and the other with variable-interval v 2 s ( concurrent variable-interval–variable-interval schedule). After several experimental sessions and a range of v 1 and v 2 values chosen so that the overall programmed reinforcement rate was constant (1/ v 1 + 1/ v 2 = constant), the result was matching between steady-state relative response rates and relative obtained reinforcement rates:

where x and y are the response rates on the two alternatives and R ( x ) and R ( y ) are the rates of obtained reinforcement for them. This relation has become known as Herrnstein's matching law. Although the obtained reinforcement rates are dependent on the response rates that produce them, the matching relation is not forced, because x and y can vary over quite a wide range without much effect on R ( x ) and R ( y ).

Because of the negative feedback relation intrinsic to variable-interval schedules (the less you respond, the higher the probability of payoff), the matching law on concurrent variable-interval–variable-interval is consistent with reinforcement maximization ( Staddon & Motheral 1978 ), although the maximum of the function relating overall payoff, R ( x ) + R ( y ), to relative responding, x /( x + y ), is pretty flat. However, little else on these schedules fits the maximization idea. As noted above, even responding on simple fixed- T response-initiated delay (RID) schedules violates maximization. Matching is also highly overdetermined, in the sense that almost any learning rule consistent with the law of effect—an increase in reinforcement probability causes an increase in response probability—will yield either simple matching ( Equation 5 ) or its power-law generalization ( Baum 1974 , Hinson & Staddon 1983 , Lander & Irwin 1968 , Staddon 1968 ). Matching by itself therefore reveals relatively little about the dynamic processes operating in the responding subject (but see Davison & Baum 2000 ). Despite this limitation, the strikingly regular functional relations characteristic of free-operant choice studies have attracted a great deal of experimental and theoretical attention.

Herrnstein (1970) proposed that Equation 5 can be derived from the function relating steady-state response rate, x , and reinforcement rate, R ( x ), to each response key considered separately. This function is negatively accelerated and well approximated by a hyperbola:

where k is a constant and R 0 represents the effects of all other reinforcers in the situation. The denominator and parameter k cancel in the ratio x / y , yielding Equation 5 for the choice situation.

There are numerous empirical details that are not accounted for by this formulation: systematic deviations from matching [undermatching and overmatching ( Baum 1974 )] as a function of different types of variable-interval schedules, dependence of simple matching on use of a changeover delay , extensions to concurrent-chain schedules, and so on. For example, if animals are pretrained with two alternatives presented separately, so that they do not learn to switch between them, when given the opportunity to respond to both, they fixate on the richer one rather than matching [extreme overmatching ( Donahoe & Palmer 1994 , pp. 112–113; Gallistel & Gibbon 2000 , pp. 321–322)]. (Fixation—extreme overmatching—is, trivially, matching, of course but if only fixation were observed, the idea of matching would never have arisen. Matching implies partial, not exclusive, preference.) Conversely, in the absence of a changeover delay, pigeons will often just alternate between two unequal variable-interval choices [extreme undermatching ( Shull & Pliskoff 1967 )]. In short, matching requires exactly the right amount of switching. Nevertheless, Herrnstein's idea of deriving behavior in choice experiments from the laws that govern responding to the choice alternatives in isolation is clearly worth pursuing.

In any event, Herrnstein's approach—molar data, predominantly variable-interval schedules, rate measures—set the basic pattern for subsequent operant choice research. It fits the basic presuppositions of the field: that choice is about response strength , that response strength is equivalent to response probability, and that response rate is a valid proxy for probability (e.g., Skinner 1938 , 1966 , 1986 ; Killeen & Hall 2001 ). (For typical studies in this tradition see, e.g., Fantino 1981 ; Grace 1994 ; Herrnstein 1961 , 1964 , 1970 ; Rachlin et al. 1976 ; see also Shimp 1969 , 2001 .)

We can also look at concurrent schedules in terms of linear waiting. Although published evidence is skimpy, recent unpublished data ( Cerutti & Staddon 2002 ) show that even on variable-interval schedules (which necessarily always contain a few very short interfood intervals), postfood wait time and changeover time covary with mean interfood time. It has also long been known that Equation 6 can be derived from two time-based assumptions: that the number of responses emitted is proportional to the number of reinforcers received multiplied by the available time and that available time is limited by the time taken up by each response ( Staddon 1977 , Equations 23–25). Moreover, if we define mean interresponse time as the reciprocal of mean response rate, 6 x , and mean interfood interval is the reciprocal of obtained reinforcement rate, R ( x ), then linear waiting yields

where a and b are linear waiting constants. Rearranging yields

where 1/ b = k and a / b = R 0 in Equation 6 . Both these derivations of the hyperbola in Equation 6 from a linear relation in the time domain imply a correlation between parameters k and R 0 in Equation 6 under parametric experimental variation of parameter b by (for example) varying response effort or, possibly, hunger motivation. Such covariation has been occasionally but not universally reported ( Dallery et al. 2000 , Heyman & Monaghan 1987 , McDowell & Dallery 1999 ).

Concurrent-Chain Schedules

Organisms can be trained to choose between sources of primary reinforcement (concurrent schedules) or between stimuli that signal the occurrence of primary reinforcement ( conditioned reinforcement : concurrent chain schedules). Many experimental and theoretical papers on conditioned reinforcement in pigeons and rats have been published since the early 1960s using some version of the concurrent chains procedure of Autor (1960 , 1969) . These studies have demonstrated a number of functional relations between rate measures and have led to several closely related theoretical proposals such as a version of the matching law, incentive theory, delay-reduction theory, and hyperbolic value-addition (e.g., Fantino 1969a , b ; Grace 1994 ; Herrnstein 1964 ; Killeen 1982 ; Killeen & Fantino 1990 ; Mazur 1997 , 2001 ; Williams 1988 , 1994 , 1997 ). Nevertheless, there is as yet no theoretical consensus on how best to describe choice between sources of conditioned reinforcement, and no one has proposed an integrated theoretical account of simple chain and concurrent chain schedules.

Molar response rate does not capture the essential feature of behavior on fixed-interval schedules: the systematic pattern of rate-change in each interfood interval, the “scallop.” Hence, the emphasis on molar response rate as a dependent variable has meant that work on concurrent schedules has emphasized variable or random intervals over fixed intervals. We lack any theoretical account of concurrent fixed-interval–fixed-interval and fixed-interval–variable-interval schedules. However, a recent study by Shull et al. (2001 ; see also Shull 1979) suggests that response rate may not capture what is going on even on simple variable-interval schedules, where the time to initiate bouts of relatively fixed-rate responding seems to be a more sensitive dependent measure than overall response rate. More attention to the role of temporal variables in choice is called for.

We conclude with a brief account of how linear waiting may be involved in several well-established phenomena of concurrent-chain schedules: preference for variable-interval versus fixed-interval terminal links, effect of initial-link duration, and finally, so-called self-control experiments.

preference for variable-interval versus fixed-interval terminal links On concurrent-chain schedules with equal variable-interval initial links, animals show a strong preference for the initial link leading to a variable-interval terminal link over the terminal-link alternative with an equal arithmetic-mean fixed interval. This result is usually interpreted as a manifestation of nonarithmetic (e.g., harmonic) reinforcement-rate averaging ( Killeen 1968 ), but it can also be interpreted as linear waiting. Minimum TTR is necessarily much less on the variable-interval than on the fixed-interval side, because some variable intervals are short. If wait time is determined by minimum TTR—hence shorter wait times on the variable-interval side—and ratios of wait times and overall response rates are (inversely) correlated ( Cerutti & Staddon 2002 ), the result will be an apparent bias in favor of the variable-interval choice.

effect of initial-link duration Preference for a given pair of terminal-link schedules depends on initial link duration. For example, pigeons may approximately match initial-link relative response rates to terminal-link relative reinforcement rates when the initial links are 60 s and the terminal links range from 15 to 45 s ( Herrnstein 1964 ), but they will undermatch when the initial-link schedule is increased to, for example, 180 s. This effect is what led to Fantino's delay-reduction modification of Herrnstein's matching law (see Fantino et al. 1993 for a review). However, the same qualitative prediction follows from linear waiting: Increasing initial-link duration reduces the proportional TTR difference between the two choices. Hence the ratio of WTs or of initial-link response rates for the two choices should also approach unity, which is undermatching. Several other well-studied theories of concurrent choice, such as delay reduction and hyperbolic value addition, also explain these results.

Self-Control

The prototypical self-control experiment has a subject choosing between two outcomes: not-so-good cookie now or a good cookie after some delay ( Rachlin & Green 1972 ; see Logue 1988 for a review; Mischel et al. 1989 reviewed human studies). Typically, the subject chooses the immediate, small reward, but if both delays are increased by the same amount, D , he will learn to choose the larger reward, providing D is long enough. Why? The standard answer is derived from Herrnstein's matching analysis ( Herrnstein 1981 ) and is called hyperbolic discounting (see Mazur 2001 for a review and Ainslie 1992 and Rachlin 2000 for longer accounts). The idea is that the expected value of each reward is inversely related to the time at which it is expected according to a hyperbolic function:

where A i is the undiscounted value of the reward, D i is the delay until reward is received, i denotes the large or small reward, and k is a fitted constant.

Now suppose we set D L and D S to values such that the animal shows a preference for the shorter, sooner reward. This would be the case ( k =1) if A L =6, A S =2, D L = 6 s, and D S = 1 s: V L =0.86 and V S =1—preference for the small, less-delayed reward. If 10 s is added to both delays, so that D L = 16 s and D S =11 s, the values are V L =0.35 and V S =0.17—preference for the larger reward. Thus, Equation 8 predicts that added delay—sometimes awkwardly termed pre-commitment— should enhance self-control, which it does.

The most dramatic prediction from this analysis was made and confirmed by Mazur (1987 , 2001) in an experiment that used an adjusting-delay procedure (also termed titration ). “A response on the center key started each trial, and then a pigeon chose either a standard alternative (by pecking the red key) or an adjusting alternative (by pecking the green key) … the standard alternative delivered 2 s of access to grain after a 10-s delay, and the adjusting alternative delivered 6 s of access to grain after an adjusting delay” (2001, p. 97). The adjusting delay increased (on the next trial) when it was chosen and decreased when the standard alternative was chosen. (See Mazur 2001 for other procedural details.) The relevant independent variable is TTR. The discounted value of each choice is given by Equation 8 . When the subject is indifferent does not discriminate between the two choices, V L = V S . Equating Equation 8 for the large and small choices yields

that is, an indifference curve that is a linear function relating D L and D S , with slope A L / A S > 1 and a positive intercept. The data ( Mazur 1987 ; 2001 , Figure 2 ) are consistent with this prediction, but the intercept is small.

It is also possible to look at this situation in terms of linear waiting. One assumption is necessary: that the waiting fraction, a , in Equation 1 is smaller when the upcoming reinforcer is large than when it is small ( Powell 1969 and Perone & Courtney 1992 showed this for fixed-ratio schedules; Howerton & Meltzer 1983 , for fixed-interval). Given this assumption, the linear waiting analysis is even simpler than hyperbolic discounting. The idea is that the subject will appear to be indifferent when the wait times to the two alternatives are equal. According to linear waiting, the wait time for the small alternative is given by

where b S is a small positive intercept and a S > a L . Equating the wait times for small and large alternatives yields

which is also a linear function with slope > 1 and a small positive intercept.

Equations 9 and 11 are identical in form. Thus, the linear waiting and hyperbolic discounting models are almost indistinguishable in terms of these data. However, the linear waiting approach has three potential advantages: Parameters a and b can be independently measured by making appropriate measurements in a control study that retains the reinforcement-delay properties of the self-control experiments without the choice contingency; the linear waiting approach lacks the fitted parameter k in Equation 9 ; and linear waiting also applies to a wide range of time-production experiments not covered by the hyperbolic discounting approach.

Temporal control may be involved in unsuspected ways in a wide variety of operant conditioning procedures. A renewed emphasis on the causal factors operating in reinforcement schedules may help to unify research that has hitherto been defined in terms of more abstract topics like timing and choice.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Catalin Buhusi and Jim Mazur for comments on an earlier version and the NIMH for research support over many years.

The first and only previous Annual Review contribution on this topic was as part of a 1965 article, “Learning, Operant Conditioning and Verbal Learning” by Blough & Millward. Since then there have been (by our estimate) seven articles on learning or learning theory in animals, six on the neurobiology of learning, and three on human learning and memory, but this is the first full Annual Review article on operant conditioning. We therefore include rather more old citations than is customary (for more on the history and philosophy of Skinnerian behaviorism, both pro and con, see Baum 1994 , Rachlin 1991 , Sidman 1960 , Staddon 2001b , and Zuriff 1985 ).

By “internal” we mean not “physiological” but “hidden.” The idea is simply that the organism's future behavior depends on variables not all of which are revealed in its current behavior (cf. Staddon 2001b , Ch. 7).

When there is no response-produced stimulus change, this procedure is also called a conjunctive fixed-ratio fixed-time schedule ( Shull 1970 ).

This idea surfaced very early in the history of research on equal-link chain fixed-interval schedules, but because of the presumed importance of conditioned reinforcement, it was the time to reinforcement from link stimulus offset, rather than onset that was thought to be important. Thus, Gollub (1977) , echoing his 1958 Ph.D. dissertation in the subsequent Kelleher & Gollub (1962) review, wrote, “In chained schedules with more than two components … the extent to which responding is sustained in the initial components … depends on the time that elapses from the end of the components to food reinforcement” (p. 291).

Interpreted as time to the first reinforcement opportunity.

It is not of course: The reciprocal of the mean IRT is the harmonic mean rate. In practice, “mean response rate” usually means arithmetic mean, but note that harmonic mean rate usually works better for choice data than the arithmetic mean (cf. Killeen 1968 ).

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Published: 31 October 2024

Applying integrated enhanced cognitive behaviour therapy (I-CBTE) to severe and longstanding eating disorders (SEED) Paper 2: An in-depth case study for clinicians

David Viljoen 1 , 2 ,
Agnes Ayton 2 ,
Lyn Roberts 3 ,
Mollie Twitchell 2 , 4 &
Lorna Collins 5

Journal of Eating Disorders volume 12 , Article number: 172 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This case study examines the application of Integrated Enhanced Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (I-CBTE) for a patient with severe, longstanding anorexia nervosa and multiple comorbidities, including organic hallucinosis, complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD), and severe self-harm. Such complex presentations often result in patients falling between services, which can lead to high chronicity and increased mortality risk. Commentaries from two additional patients who have recovered from severe and longstanding anorexia nervosa are included.

The patient developed severe anorexia nervosa and hallucinosis after a traumatic brain injury in 2000. Despite numerous hospitalisations and various psychotropic medications in the UK and France, standard treatments were ineffective for 17 years. However, Integrated Enhanced Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (I-CBTE) using a whole-team approach and intensive, personalised psychological treatment alongside nutritional rehabilitation proved effective.

In this paper, we describe the application of the I-CBTE model for individuals with severe, longstanding, and complex anorexia nervosa, using lived experience perspectives from three patients to inform clinicians. We also outline the methodology for adapting the model to different presentations of the disorder.

The patient achieved and maintained full remission from her eating disorder over the last 6 years, highlighting the benefit of the I-CBTE approach in patients with complex, longstanding eating disorder histories. Successful treatment also saved in excess of £360 k just by preventing further hospitalisations and not accounting for the improvement in her quality of life. This suggests that this method can improve outcomes and reduce healthcare costs.

This case study, with commentaries from two patients with histories of severe and longstanding anorexia nervosa, provides a detailed description of the practical application of I-CBTE for patients with severe and longstanding eating disorders with complex comorbidities, and extensive treatment histories. This offers hope for patients and a framework for clinicians to enhance existing treatment frameworks, potentially transforming the trajectory of those traditionally deemed treatment resistant.

Recommendations

We advocate the broader integration of CBT for EDs into specialist services across the care pathway to help improve outcomes for patients with complex eating disorders. Systematic training and supervision for multidisciplinary teams in this specialised therapeutic approach is recommended. Future research should investigate the long-term effectiveness of I-CBTE through longitudinal studies. Patient feedback on experiences of integrated models of care such as I-CBTE is also needed. In addition, systematic health economics studies should be conducted.

Plain language summary

This case study, with commentaries from two other patients who have recovered from severe and longstanding anorexia nervosa, examines the use of Integrated Enhanced Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (I-CBTE) for a patient with severe and longstanding anorexia nervosa and multiple comorbidities. The patient had a history of multiple hospitalisations and was treated with various psychotropic medications without success for 17 years. However, she responded to I-CBTE. The model integrates multidisciplinary treatment to address the eating disorder and co-occurring conditions effectively. The patient achieved and maintained full remission from her eating disorder over the last 6 years, highlighting the effectiveness of the I-CBTE approach in patients with complex, longstanding and severe eating disorders. This intervention is cost-effective and has significant financial advantages for healthcare systems. The authors recommend further research into the long-term effectiveness of I-CBTE and broader integration of CBT for ED into clinical services and existing treatment frameworks to enhance care for patients with severe and longstanding eating disorders. Systematic training and supervision for multidisciplinary teams is needed and patient feedback on experiences of integrated models of care such as I-CBTE is also needed. Finally, systematic health economics studies should be conducted.

Introduction

The second of the linked papers examines the application of Integrated Enhanced Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (I-CBTE) for a patient, Lorna, with severe, enduring anorexia nervosa (SE-AN) and comorbidities such as traumatic brain injury (TBI), organic hallucinosis, depression, complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD), emotionally unstable or organic personality disorders and self-harm [ 1 ]. Patients with such complex presentations often fall between services, resulting in substantial risk of chronicity and mortality. Commentaries and lived experience examples of two other patients are included. Lyn, received I-CBTE and recovered after more than 30 years of severe and longstanding anorexia nervosa, without complex co-morbidities (see Additional File 1 ) and Mollie, who is autistic, recovered after 12 years and 10 inpatient admissions and compulsory treatment for SE-AN (see Additional File 2 ).

There is significant controversy regarding the optimal treatment for patients with severe and longstanding eating disorders [ 2 ]. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) [ 3 ] does not address this issue in the evidence-based recommendations for England and Wales. Traditional inpatient treatment as usual (TAU) has been criticised for poor outcomes and high financial and psychosocial costs [ 4 , 5 ]. Furthermore, the separation of inpatient and community care teams makes patients more likely to experience unplanned admissions and discharges, therapy interruptions, and changes in the therapeutic models. Severe and enduring eating disorder (SEED) pathways have been developed widely in the National Health Service (NHS) based on the assumption that patients with longstanding illnesses do not benefit from inpatient treatment or full weight restoration, despite evidence to the contrary [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. The notion of focusing on improving quality of life (e.g. through education and employment), rather than full weight restoration and recovery [ 10 , 11 ] is, in our opinion, a contradiction in terms. There is no consensus among clinicians regarding the definition and treatment of patients with longstanding EDs [ 12 , 13 ]. Patients have raised concerns that SEED pathways have become a ‘management of decline’ and are campaigning for more effective treatments [ 2 , 14 ]. More research is therefore urgently needed, as well as the development of novel conceptualisations of treatments that move beyond historic approaches that render patients institutionalised, traumatised, and disempowered [ 15 ].

Patients with EDs exhibit significant heterogeneity, which may explain why up to 50% of diagnosed individuals do not improve from first-line treatment. Research is increasingly showing that personalised approaches have longer-lasting and more effective outcomes than average-based treatments [ 16 , 17 ].

This detailed case study aims to illustrate the practical application of I-CBTE and demonstrates its potential to provide hope and effective treatment for patients with SE-AN. The paper outlines the formulation-based MDT treatment process, the key elements of the I-CBTE model, and how to personalise these components for individual patients. We aim for clinicians to use this guide to effectively apply the I-CBTE approach to patients with severe, longstanding EDs, complex comorbidities, and multiple admissions in their own practice.

Additionally, the two linked papers and Lyn and Mollie’s commentaries (see Additional Files 1 & 2 ) contribute to the academic dialogue by challenging the controversial concept of terminal anorexia [ 23 ] which has caused alarm among patients [ 24 , 25 , 26 ] and could have been relevant for Lorna at certain times.

In the first linked paper, Lorna provided a personal narrative of her lived experience of having a severe, longstanding eating disorder and other mental and physical co-morbidities [ 1 ]. This second paper details the personalised application of the I-CBTE model, illustrating the main components of treatment through a comprehensive clinical description of Lorna’s case with the aim of helping services apply the model for their patients. Lorna kept detailed personal notes and clinical reports of her treatment spanning decades which together with the I-CBTE clinical notes helped reduce memory bias. We only reported the coping strategies and aspects of MDT treatment that she found helpful as evidenced by entries in historical clinical notes and her formulation document.

We also include two patients’ commentaries on this paper. Lyn’s commentary describes her personal narrative of living with severe and longstanding anorexia nervosa for more than three decades and how recovery was possible with I-CBTE in tandem with an emphasis on full weight restoration (see Additional File 1 ). Mollie’s commentary on this paper, highlights the value of a formulation-driven, holistic and multi-disciplinary I-CBTE approach delivered seamlessly across the inpatient, day-patient and community pathway which enabled her to recover when she would have been deemed ‘untreatable’ and a ‘candidate for palliative care’ after 10 admissions in 12 years. Her I-CBTE treatment was effective despite having to use compulsory treatment during her last admission in 2020. Mollie was subsequently diagnosed with autism (see Additional File 2 ). Lyn and Mollie’s personal narratives and commentaries provide further lived experiences and insights into the benefits of the model for their recovery journey from SE-AN. Overall, the three lived experience examples of Lorna, Lyn and Mollie, each with very different clinical presentations, highlight the human aspects of the condition and the transformative potential of effective personalised treatment models such as I-CBTE. We discuss clinical implications and generalisability of the I-CBTE model for other patients with severe and longstanding eating disorders.

Description of the integrated enhanced cognitive behavioural therapy (I-CBTE) model

Our work with Lorna began when she had already spent almost 20 years being repeatedly hospitalised without any improvement. This happened at the same time as the introduction of I-CBTE programme on our specialist ED unit (SEDU) [ 9 ]. This model addresses the problem of multiple fragmentations in mental health systems. It utilises a multidisciplinary team (MDT)-based inpatient programme that helps patients achieve a healthy weight through intensive psychological treatment and integration of treatment across the care pathway. Originally developed by Fairburn as an outpatient therapy for bulimia nervosa [ 18 , 19 ], CBT-Enhanced has been adapted by the Dalle Grave for patients with severe AN requiring more intensive treatment [ 20 , 21 , 22 ].

The I-CBTE model is integrated, inclusive, intensive, and individualised and has been adapted for patients with severe EDs who do not respond to outpatient treatment. The model expands on the CBT for ED approach and is integrative because it is a ‘whole systems approach’ informed by a biopsychosocial formulation. Evidence-based treatments for the range of maintaining factors and comorbidities are incorporated in a coordinated manner and delivered by an MDT, ideally in-house or where needed seamlessly across the inpatient, day, and outpatient care pathways and across the life span. I-CBTE collaboratively involves patients, family, friends, the MDT, other treatment providers, and stakeholders. The treatment is intensive in a stepped-care approach, requires MDT (rather than a single therapist) interventions, and is delivered with increased intensity and higher dosages of interventions (e.g. multiple therapy sessions per week) depending on the patient’s needs. Individualised care implies that the model is patient-led (e.g. respecting their choices and preferences), with personalised formulation of needs, goals, and precision treatment.

Components of I-CBTE compared with TAU

We introduced the I-CBTE approach in Oxford specialised eating disorder unit (SEDU, ‘Cotswold House’) in 2017. This programme offers evidence-based psychological treatment across inpatient, day-patient, and community settings, with a structured timeline of 13 weeks of inpatient treatment, 7 weeks of stabilisation as a day-patient, and up to 40 weeks of outpatient care as recommended by Dalle Grave [ 20 ].

Key innovations included the introduction of MDT admission planning meetings. This preparation process aimed to empower patients by promoting a sense of control and autonomy, fostering therapeutic alliance and trust before admission, and is crucial for successful engagement and treatment outcomes. Additionally, we improved the rate of weight restoration to 1–1.5 kg per week.

CBT for eating disorders identifies a comprehensive range of maintaining factors (Fig. 1 ) such as body image and/or eating control, dietary restraint and other weight control behaviours, malnutrition, binge eating, compensatory behaviours (e.g. over-exercising, vomiting), mood intolerance and event-related eating, perfectionism, low self-esteem/identity issues, and interpersonal relationship difficulties. To accommodate the complexity of inpatients, we added additional maintaining factors such as unresolved trauma and any medical and mental health comorbidities to the formulation. The model is flexible to include motivation to change/insight, risks, social care needs, education/employment, the care/treatment context, and other contextual and diversity factors (e.g. gender, culture, and religion).

Formulation diagram with key maintaining factors that needs to be personalised for each patient

While CBT for EDs is a psychological model typically delivered by one therapist, [ 18 ] MDT involvement is essential for patients with SEED [ 22 ]. In partnership with the patient, all team members need to work together to address individual maintaining factors. Qualified psychologists provided evidence-based, personalised therapy to address patients’ unique combinations of maintaining factors, including depression, OCD, trauma, etc. Psychologists joined family sessions when clinically indicated. Psychological treatment was enhanced through the development of a rolling 20-week MDT group programme focussing in more depth on the key maintaining factors in the formulation (e.g. body image, self-esteem, perfectionism, interpersonal difficulties, nutrition, Dialectical Behaviour Therapy skills (DBT) for mood intolerance). Rolling 10-week formulation groups (later co-presented with Lorna after she was well and discharged) were popular with patients and staff, and introduced them systematically to the formulation diagram and helped them to ‘idea storm’ coping strategies for each of the maintaining factors.

Patient experience was improved by making the ward rounds more collaborative, person-centred, less anxiety-provoking, and focussing on formulation-based goals [ 23 ].

The transition from TAU to I-CBTE marked a shift towards an evidence-based, patient-centred approach to treating severe EDs and pioneered integration of psychological and medical treatments to improve patient outcomes. The differences between inpatient TAU and I-CBTE treatment approaches are summarised in Table 1 .

Although many patients have benefited from the I-CBTE approach [ 9 ], few wish to share their experiences publicly. However, individual case studies, such as Lorna’s, provide invaluable insights beyond the aggregated data. Lyn and Mollie’s commentaries illustrate their lived experiences and similar improvements from SE-AN through I-CBTE after many years of severe and potentially life-threatening illnesses (see Additional Files 1 & 2 ).

Detailed case study: Lorna

The first of the two linked papers describes in detail Lorna’s lived experience of her physical and mental health recovery journey [ 1 ]. In summary, she had a complex psychiatric history that began in 2000, following a horse-riding accident when she was 18-years-old and suffered a TBI. She was in a coma for several days, and brain scans showed multiple lesions following the head injury, particularly affecting the right parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and claustrum. Prior to the accident, she was highly functioning, excelling in both academia and sports. There is no family history of mental illness.

She was hospitalised on many occasions (See Table 2 ) and never out of hospital for more than 6 months, over a span of 17 years, because of AN, acute mental health crises, and incidents of life-threatening self-harm. She struggled with chronic malnutrition and required repeated emergency medical treatments, often against her will. Lorna experiences residual visual, auditory, and tactile hallucinations, but these do not interfere with her functioning.

Throughout her medical history, she had multiple changes in her diagnoses, and in addition to AN, she was diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder, schizophrenia, psychotic depression, various types of personality disorder (e.g. emotional unstable personality disorder, organic personality disorder), organic hallucinosis, and CPTSD which highlights the complex nature of her condition but caused confusion and inconsistency in her treatment. She was treated with multiple psychotropic medications and received an eclectic combination of individual and group therapies (Table 2 ). Her admissions represented typical TAU in the UK SEDUs.

The total cost of her psychiatric admissions prior to the I-CBTE treatment was in excess of £1million (based on a conservative estimate of £500/bed day on average) in 17 years, approximately £60 k/year. Since completing I-CBTE treatment, she has not had any admissions in 6 years and saved approximately £360 k for the NHS on psychiatric admissions alone, not to mention an improved quality of life, ability to work and flourish, and her life being saved.

Formulation-informed multidisciplinary treatment

The I-CBTE formulation was at the centre of Lorna’s treatment and encouraged her to consider why she became ill and what the maintaining factors were. She had a background in research and found this useful because it helped to justify and understand the illness rather than blaming herself. A personalised version of the formulation diagram (Fig. 1 ) provided a ‘helicopter overview’ of her key maintaining factors and guided her and the MDT (including dieticians, family therapists, nursing staff, occupational therapists, psychologists, psychiatrists) in terms of goal setting and the development of a detailed MDT treatment plan. The staff helped her develop a range of old and new coping skills and strategies (‘tools in her toolbox’) for each maintaining factor and to ultimately become her own therapist. Similarly, other patients, including Lyn and Mollie found the personal formulation very helpful (See Additional Files 1 & 2 ).

Every member of the multidisciplinary team at Cotswold House contributed towards my treatment. I could speak to someone on each shift about how I was doing. In this way, I built trust with the team, as they all said the same thing, which supported my recovery journey. The I-CBTE model worked because it was built on my strengths and flexible to my particular situation ... I accrued a bundle of go-to resources to help me deal with life’s continual ups-and-downs... [ 1 ]

Body-image and overevaluation of weight and shape and control

Lornas’ ED involved an extremely negative body image and a strong ‘need for control’. She presented with weight-checking behaviours (e.g. frequent weighing), shape checking (e.g. measuring body parts, checking for a flat stomach), and shape avoidance behaviours (e.g. wearing baggy clothes and avoiding looking at certain body parts). She engaged in comparison making behaviours with others (i.e. a competition to be the thinnest) and herself (e.g. when she was at a lower weight). Her artwork illustrated distorted perceptions of her body and beliefs of being fat. According to her notes, therapy and psychoeducation helped her develop a range of coping strategies, including setting goals for self-care, using self-talk techniques, and building a new identity separate from her appearance (i.e. to become a ‘survivor’ and to transition from a ‘chrysalis to being a butterfly’). Members of the MDT coordinated their interventions to improve her body image. For example, to help with between-therapy session tasks, the assistant occupational therapist took her shopping to explore which clothes and jewellery she liked wearing and made her feel more comfortable in her body. The importance of the whole team approach was also highlighted by other patients (see Additional Files 1 & 2 ).

Dietary restriction and other weight control behaviours

Patients restrict their food and drink intake for many reasons. For Lorna, it was to manage her weight, to regain a sense of control, a method of ‘self-destruction’, to ‘purify’ herself and to gain a sense of achievement. Obsessions with food restriction, weight control and over-exercising helped to deal with the voices, frustration with the brain injury, and ‘bad’ emotions of shame and guilt. Alongside psychological therapy to address the underlying reasons for restricting (e.g. trauma, emotional dysregulation, low self-esteem), the dietetic, medical, and nursing teams played a key role in helping her restore weight through psychoeducation, maintaining her safety with alternative skills for emotional regulation and distress tolerance, implementing meal plans, and transitioning to independent shopping and social eating. Calorie counting, to distract from the hallucinations, required further neurological assessments and management with medication and cognitive behavioural and Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) strategies. A collaborative approach with Lorna was essential to replace the sense of control provided by dietary restriction and weight control behaviours.

Malnutrition and secondary effects of being underweight

Similar to other patients who experienced repeated admissions with partial weight restoration, Lorna found it difficult to accept that full weight restoration was essential for recovery. Helping her understand the science and sharing outcome data helped her take a plunge and work towards full weight restoration. Supported by the MDT, she engaged in nutritional groups and mealtime planning with a dietician, and healthcare assistants helped her manage post-meal discomfort using new strategies such as painting and writing. She achieved a BMI of 20 at discharge and continued her progress in the community, stabilising at approximately a BMI of 22. Weight restoration meant that the secondary psychological (e.g. rigid and black-and-white thinking), physical (e.g. exhaustion, dehydration, dizziness, feeling weak, and cold), and social effects of malnutrition went into remission.

During previous admissions… I managed to convince the doctors that I did not need to put on much weight at all. The physicians then entertained this idea and never attained a healthy weight. I did not even know what a healthy weight was. The breakthrough came at Cotswold House, where I realised that if any kind of future or life was possible, I needed to put on a lot more weight and be this new thing—a ‘healthy weight’. I learned that doing this would allow my body to heal, and it would give me the chance to finally live well. Suddenly, I had options: not just an eating disorder but a future [ 1 ] .

Compensatory behaviours

Lorna identified overexercising and the use of appetite suppressants (e.g. compulsively chewing gum and drinking fizzy drinks) as key maintaining factors. Treatment helped her to stop and learn healthy alternatives to replace these behaviours. By the time she was discharged, she no longer had the inclination to use these behaviours.

Mood intolerance and event-related eating

Lorna’s ED and self-harm were partly coping strategies to numb and regulate intolerable emotions and feelings of shame, guilt, low mood, frustration, and impatience with herself. Self-harm incidents were extreme acts of aggression for not meeting her own standards, for internalising anger towards her family, and for ‘being angry at being angry’. Her medication (and reminders), individual therapy, I-CBTE groups, and the MDT helped her find new ways to express her emotions (e.g. writing poems, cathartic painting), problem-solving to deal with situations, and use DBT skills [ 25 ] for mood intolerance.

Perfectionism

In her family, high standards provided an ‘exemplary, necessary method of living’. Striving for perfectionism reflected her ambitions and competitiveness, including a desire to become an Olympic champion, and meant that she could never appreciate or be satisfied with her performance. Achievements were replaced with higher targets. The MDT supported her in challenging her perfectionism and developing skills to build a new outlook for herself and her world. In this regard, overcoming perfectionism required a wide variety of new strategies, such as learning to identify ‘vicious cycles of perfectionism’, setting and celebrate smaller achievable goals, setting goals for other areas of her life, developing a better work/life balance, using kind rather than critical self-talk, and ‘rewarding herself for rewarding herself’.

Low self-esteem and identity problems

Lorna exhibited many negative cognitive processes of a core low self-esteem such as discounting any positive qualities and achievements, selective attention to her ‘defects’, and applying double and higher standards for herself than for others. The individual therapy and self-esteem groups taught her many skills to improve her self-esteem, and she was able to replace negative core beliefs (for example, ‘I am bad, not good enough, insufficient, always wrong’) with new helpful self-beliefs (for example, ‘I am a survivor and a butterfly’).

Interpersonal difficulties

Lorna was estranged from her family during long periods of her life, and they declined formal family therapy sessions. However, changing the language and offering ‘meetings to manage Lorna’s transition to the community’, rather than calling it ‘family therapy’, helped to engage her family and enabled her to successfully transition back into her family and to rebuild fulfilling relationships. Regular family Sunday lunches were introduced with the family and continue to this day.

Components of trauma-focused CBT, as recommended by NICE [ 26 ], were integrated into Lorna’s treatment, such as psycho-education about trauma reactions; strategies for managing arousal and flashbacks; development of a trauma narrative; safety planning; processing trauma-related emotions such as guilt, shame, and anger; restructuring trauma-related meanings; and re-establishing adaptive functioning, such as engaging in work. Integrating art and paintings into therapy allowed her to process and express the unsayable through other means than self-harm wounds. Painting was a helpful distraction strategy, provided a window for others into her internal pain and trauma, and was an important part of the healing process.

...I used my art (painting and poetry) to express the most difficult issues, about trauma, abuse, dissociation and amnesia. David would ask me to paint what I could not speak about. I was able to go away and paint a picture (abstract or figurative), which opened the unmentionables. We then discussed this painting, and approached the topic from a creative angle, which made it more possible to process. In this way, I began dealing with the most difficult roots of my illness [ 1 ] .

Motivation and insight to change

Lorna’s motivation, insight, and commitment to change fluctuated, and, for long periods, the team had to hold the hope that recovery was possible. For example, she resisted achieving a healthy weight, but with education and support from the staff, her trust in the team and herself grew, which in turn helped her motivation. She felt increasingly motivated to recover, as she began to experience that weight gain and progress on various historic maintaining factors were realistic and attainable targets.

Lorna had a very high risk of suicide with a history of severe self-harm and multiple suicide attempts. Her extreme self-harm had many functions.

Self-harm was a method of communication, but nobody was listening. Maybe I did not exist; only the men telling me to destroy myself were real [ 1 ] .

The coping strategies that she found most helpful were talking to staff and finding distraction techniques which worked best e.g. ice packs on her wrist, listening to music to distract from the ‘aural cacophony’ and using self-statements (e.g. ‘I’ve had periods of not doing it, which shows that it is possible to resist the urges and stay safe’), reminding herself that there were things she wanted to do in this world, which she couldn’t if she destroyed herself. In this regard, spending time in nature with her dog and horses after discharge provided sustained relief and reminded her that she had a purpose and was needed. Writing and making art to express how she felt was all-important.

My paintings allowed me to express myself in some other means than my wounds. The abstract images I created embodied my feelings and gave me a voice other than self-injury. I could show the ward doctor the paintings and he could then understand my illness since I would paint how I felt [ 1 ].

Medical and psychiatric comorbidities

For many years, my eating disorder provided a (flawed) coping mechanism for the mental health difficulties I was having. After decades of unsuccessful treatment, the holistic, expansive care I received in Oxford helped me ... [ 1 ]

Lorna’s case underscores the necessity for integrating evidence-based treatments for both psychiatric and medical comorbidities which, if left untreated, complicate treatment and hampers outcomes [ 27 ]. Lorna’s treatment included interventions and principles from trauma-focused CBT; DBT for emotional dysregulation, distress tolerance, and self-harm; and CBT principles for the eating disorder and psychosis. Writing or creating art about her psychotic and trauma experiences were therapeutic and helped clinicians to understand what she was experiencing.

The TBI left her with organic hallucinosis and a range of visual and auditory (e.g. piercing sounds, noises, and voices), olfactory (e.g. smells that others could not smell), and tactile (being touched by a physical presence) hallucinations that contributed to her self-harm behaviour. Joining meetings of a Hearing Voices Network provided support and made her feel accepted by people with unique feelings and experiences.

Optimising her psychotropic medication was essential. We recommended Olanzapine as this has been shown to be beneficial in both hallucinosis and AN [ 28 , 29 ]. In addition, Lithium was introduced because of its mood-stabilising and neuroprotective properties. The antidepressant was not changed. The combination of medications reduced the intensity of hallucinations and high levels of distress, enabling her to engage in psychological therapy. She had a history of discontinuing antipsychotic medications owing to partial symptom relief and negative side effects. During treatment, she learned to identify early warning signs, such as thoughts and urges to be “uncontaminated by chemicals” or wanting “to be free from psycho-pharmaceuticals”, indicating that she was about to stop her medication. Techniques such as self-talk, reminders to take prescribed medications, and strategies to manage side effects all improved her compliance.

Social care needs

Social insecurities (e.g. housing and financial problems) can delay recovery. For several years, Lorna had no home beyond university or hospital, and the housing difficulties contributed to cycles of relapse. As part of the I-CBTE model, the MDT supported her in finding accommodation near her family which helped to facilitate sustainable discharge.

Education/employment

Treatment helped Lorna reverse her malnutrition, reduce self-harm and make progress on various maintaining factors including developing as a whole person separate from the ED. Exploring new career opportunities, however, was not a straightforward journey. There were setbacks including when Lorna fractured a hip and was severely incapacitated for a period of time. Engaging in education and work opportunities provided the foundations for a new recovery identity and ongoing health because she knew she had to be well to become and sustain the person she dreamed of being.

Care and treatment context

Unfortunately, systems of care can contribute to EDs becoming severe and chronic. Compared to admissions in previous SEDUs, Lorna’s prognosis improved significantly when she received treatment in the Oxford SEDU that promoted full weight restoration, offered in-house evidence-based treatments delivered by qualified clinicians for all comorbidities and seamlessly across the inpatient and community pathway. Unlike, previous admissions, she was treated by an MDT that believed, and had experienced, that patients could recover from an ED irrespective of severity, duration or complexity.

My presentation (in a previous SEDU) flummoxed my consultant, and all the medical team. They said I was “treatment resistant”, I needed “long-term hospitalisation”... They even talked about a need to keep me “sectioned for life” [ 1 ].

Challenges and breakthroughs

As in all treatments for patients with severe and longstanding EDs, there were challenges. Lorna’s recovery was not linear. Her psychological state, motivation and commitment to change fluctuated, and there was a severe self-harm incident, which delayed her discharge. The team approached this crisis as a setback and an opportunity to learn from.

Treating the ED in the context of a traumatic brain injury provided another layer of complexity. Her medical management and medication side effects were another challenge. Setbacks were expected and framed as learning opportunities for both the MDT and patient.

Alongside the challenges and consistency of 24/7 MDT inpatient care followed by seamless outpatient care for a year, there were important breakthroughs and turning points. We adopted Dalle Grave’s (personal communication) approach of SEDUs being ‘colleges of eating disorders’ where patients and staff are interested in learning together and sharing knowledge about the development, presentation and evidence-based treatment of EDs. Lorna’s cohort of patients was invited to join the staff for a presentation by an external speaker on the relapse rates of patients with and without full weight restoration. Listening to the research evidence helped her accept that weight restoration to a minimum BMI of 20 was necessary for staying well. Other key factors on the road to recovery were the seamless continuation of psychological therapy after discharge and rebuilding of her life and relationships.

Long-term outcomes

After being a ‘SEED patient’ for almost 20 years, the long-term outcomes for Lorna included no further hospitalisations since 2018. She has not self-harmed or made any suicide attempts and the ED remains in full remission. Her organic hallucinosis is managed by medication (Olanzapine, Aripiprazole, Lithium, Sertraline) for which she continues to receive outpatient psychiatric follow-up. She had a setback in 2023, following a cycling accident and another head injury, which temporarily exacerbated the hallucinations, but not the ED. Her weight is maintained within the healthy range (BMI, 22–23). As for her current level of functioning, she has fully engaged in life and leads a successful life as an artist, writer, filmmaker and a creative health researcher leading research projects about the brain, mental health and creativity. Similarly, Lyn and Mollie have maintained long-term remission and have successfully rebuilt their lives.

This second linked paper illustrates the application of I-CBTE, using a real-life example of a patient who might have been categorised as having ‘SEED’, considered ‘too complex’, ‘treatment resistant’ and eligible for ‘palliative care’. Co-writing the two articles, with commentaries from Lyn who had SE-AN without complex comorbidities for more than 30 years (see Additional File 1 ) and Mollie, who had SE-AN for 12 years with 10 admissions and a subsequent diagnosis of autism (see Additional File 2 ), show that collaborating with individuals who have lived experiences provide a unique and insightful perspective on the recovery process even after many years of suffering and unsuccessful treatments. These case histories are consistent with previous findings that length of illness is not a predictor of poor outcomes, and that reversal of malnutrition is a key factor [ 8 , 9 , 30 ].

This case study complements our previous paper, which was the largest cohort study in the UK at the time of writing, involving 212 adults from 15 SEDUs. [ 9 ]. It was also the only study to compare treatment outcomes one year after discharge. Seventy percent of patients receiving I-CBTE achieved full remission, whereas less than 5% of TAU patients achieved full remission despite longer hospital stays. A 14.3% readmission rate in the I-CBTE group was significantly lower than that in the TAU group (~ 50%). Hay and Touyz’s definition would have categorised all patients receiving I-CBTE as SEED [ 31 ].

This case study illustrates the application of I-CBTE for a complex presentation and offers an in-depth analysis of the factors that contributed to a ‘SEED’ patient’s recovery, emphasising the importance of personalised and comprehensive biopsychosocial formulation and an MDT treatment approach. Lorna, Lyn and Mollie are three of the many patients who had positive outcomes in our study despite fitting the life-threatening SE-AN profile or, offering alternative case examples of the transformative benefits of this approach regardless of previous treatment failures, severity or duration of illness. Another example is a patient treated with I-CBTE who achieved full remission after more than 40 admissions, spanning 25 years.

The collaborative I-CBTE formulation is at the centre of the treatment [ 21 , 32 ]. Every patient has a unique combination of maintaining factors and their proportional relevance is reflected in the formulation. Personalising the formulation diagram (Fig. 1 ) and co-writing the formulation encourages patients to become curious about the biopsychosocial maintaining factors of their eating difficulties and comorbidities. The formulation actively engages patients in their care, helps them to develop alternative coping skills to replace detrimental behaviours, and have a sense of ownership and agency. In this regard, see also Lyn and Mollie’s reflections on the crucial role of the formulation and the importance of learning new skills and ‘tools’ to replace harmful ways of coping (see Additional Files 1 & 2 ). Additionally, the formulation ensures continuity and consistency in the MDT’s understanding and treatment of the maintaining factors of each patient. This approach is also supported by recent meta-analyses that found personalization is an effective strategy to improve outcomes from psychological therapy [ 16 , 17 ].

Issues with body image and/or control are central features of EDs and addressing this is a key component of CBT for EDs [ 18 ]. Patients’ identity and self-evaluation could be disproportionately influenced by an overevaluation of the importance of their weight and shape, and its control, and culminate in varying experiences of feeling fat [ 33 ], body checking, body avoidance, and comparison making behaviours to the point where they marginalise other areas of their lives.

Dietary restriction and control of weight and shape is associated with an extreme need for control. Some patients have body-image difficulties, some have control issues, many have both. The relative importance of these maintaining factors will be unique and differ for example between neurodiverse patients, patients with avoidant restrictive food intake disorder or those who have experienced trauma. Consequently, issues with body-image and/or control require precise formulation-based interventions.

The formulation and treatment plan must address the many reasons why patients attempt to restrict what they eat. Individual and group sessions offer psychoeducation and address dietary rules, reactions to rule-breaking and food avoidance [ 22 ]. Lorna’s case highlights too that food restriction and weight control behaviours were more than attempts to manage her weight or gain a sense of control, and that various other reasons (e.g. the need for self-destruction, to purify herself and gain a sense of achievement) had to be included in the formulation and treatment.

Low weight and malnutrition are key factors maintaining ED psychopathology in the transdiagnostic formulation of CBT for EDs [ 18 ]. Research has consistently shown that full weight restoration is crucial for recovery, long-term remission and weight stability [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 34 ]. This was replicated in our study of 212 patients which showed that discharge BMI was a predictor of good outcomes alongside I-CBTE treatment, whereas age, severity, comorbidities, and length of illness were not [ 9 ]. In fact, unless malnutrition is addressed, patients remain entrenched in their disorder because of symptoms of malnourishment such as obsessive thoughts about food, rigid routines, and social withdrawal. Failure to achieve a healthy weight frequently results in relapse as demonstrated by Lorna’s lived experience.

Weight restoration is also the only way for the secondary psychological, physical, and social effects of malnutrition to go into remission and this is highlighted in Lyn’s reflections on the benefits of full weight restoration after being underweight for three decades. Her improved quality of life since recovery is reflected by her spending proportionally much more time on relationships, family, socialising and her interests/courses, versus on the eating disorder and her health. The proportional changes in weekly time spent on activities and preoccupations related to her health and the ED since recovery (5%), compared to when she had severe and longstanding anorexia nervosa (> 70%) are clearly illustrated in two pie charts (see Additional File 1 ). Similarly, the reversal of malnutrition was essential for improving Mollie’s quality of life, even though she found this very difficult with high level of anxiety during her treatment. This extreme weight related anxiety is a common reason for poor outcomes and need to be addressed in treatment. As our cases show, motivation to change improves during treatment. The risk of deterioration after discharge can be successfully managed by an integrated approach across the care pathway [ 9 , 20 ]. Walsh et al . showed that the risk of deterioration is highest in the first 2–3 months after discharge, gradually tailoring down during the first year [ 35 ]. This is consistent with Dalle Grave’s recommendation of 7 weeks of intensive day treatment to help the maintenance of a healthy weight and ongoing outpatient psychological treatment to consolidate changes and support the patients rebuild their lives[ 20 ]. Our results replicated the importance of this gradual transition[ 9 ], and the lived experience testimonies in this paper highlight the importance of this.

Patients’ formulation and treatment need to identify and address any personal patterns of compensatory behaviours (e.g. purging, fasting, over-exercising), including their frequency and function. Learning and practising new non-harmful alternatives to purging and intense activity to manage emotions gave Lyn hope that ‘a different future was possible and achievable’ (See Additional File 1 ).

A focus on the role of emotional dysregulation or emotional overcontrol is key to the theoretical understanding of the development, maintenance and treatment of patients with EDs [ 25 ]. Similarly, a systematic review of comorbid PTSD with EDs found that maladaptive emotional regulation act as a mediating mechanism where ED behaviours enable the avoidance of trauma-related feelings and thoughts and reduce hyperarousal [ 36 , 37 ] and is linked with higher rates of relapse. It is therefore crucial, to address emotional intolerance and dys/over-regulation, especially where this is associated with risk behaviours to self or others (e.g. through the use of DBT skills, etc.)

The need to address clinical perfectionism in some patients with EDs was recognised by Fairburn [ 18 ], and have been confirmed in a recent systematic review and meta-analysis [ 38 ]. Perfectionism was a destructive maintaining factor in all three cases, that had to be addressed using CBT approaches [ 21 , 22 ].

Lorna exhibited several negative cognitive processes of a core low self-esteem that were addressed in individual and group I-CBTE sessions. Additionally, apart from low self-esteem, patients with EDs often struggle with a lack of identity separate from the ED and have negative core beliefs that require cognitive restructuring and the development of more functional core beliefs [ 39 ]. The notion of ‘becoming a butterfly’ as a new core self-belief and identity was a constant focus in therapy and encouraged by the nursing staff and between-session tasks (e.g. by asking: “What would the butterfly do in this situation?”). The development of a new identity and future, separate from the eating disorder, was equally important for Mollie and Lyn (see Additional Files 1 & 2 ).

Longstanding EDs have a significant impact on families who may need support in their own right too. Interpersonal difficulties and family relationships can contribute to the development and maintenance of eating problems (see also Lyn and Mollie’s lived experiences in Additional Files 1 & 2 ). However, families and friends are increasingly seen as resources for recovery and involving families in treatment can improve outcomes [ 40 , 41 , 42 ]. Consequently, I-CBTE regards the involvement of families of adults, where possible, as important as the inclusion of families in the treatment of adolescents and children. Ideally, families need to be part of the recovery journey and co-evolve [ 43 ] with patients to maximise the likelihood of sustainable change.

One of the main strengths of CBT for EDs is its focus on the here and now, with a future orientation. However, some patients with longstanding EDs requires therapy to consider their past unresolved traumas. For example, patients with symptoms of PTSD may have more severe ED presentations resulting in treatment dropout, symptom relapse, and poorer outcomes [ 37 , 44 ]. Some patients with trauma histories purge or use laxatives ‘to feel clean’ or to get rid of the feeling of ‘having something in their body’. In these cases, the ED is unlikely to resolve without offering additional evidence-based treatment for trauma. Often, the most extreme trauma symptoms (including flashbacks, dissociation, and self-harm) can only be treated and managed in a safe hospital environment with a skilled MDT. Given that patients with trauma histories benefit from ED treatment, similarly to their unexposed peers, but are more likely to relapse, the trauma requires treatment in its own right [ 36 ]. Consequently, evidence-based therapy for trauma and trauma-informed care has to be integrated into the formulation and treatment. Further research is needed, but we concur with the views of clinicians and patients who favour an integrated approach rather than sequential diagnosis or parallel treatments for trauma and EDs in separate services [ 45 ]

Motivation to change and insight

Motivation to change is crucial in treating EDs, but standalone motivational interventions are insufficient to effectively improving ED psychopathology [ 46 ]. The relationship between motivation and maintenance factors is reciprocally dynamic. In I-CBTE, active patient involvement in formulating treatment goals and plans is crucial, focusing initially on the areas they are motivated to change, such as self-esteem and identity (including re-connecting with values, hopes, and dreams), addressing individual challenges, and improving interpersonal relationships [ 47 ]. Similarly, weight restoration, supportive psychoeducation, and dealing with cognitive inflexibility and body dissatisfaction can enhance motivation and insight into the need for change, which is illustrated by all three lived experience accounts. Mollie’s narrative also highlights the importance of clinicians ‘not giving up’ at times when patients are severely unwell, have lost all hope of getting better and ‘can’t fight for themselves’ (see Additional File 2 ). Her case also demonstrates that I-CBTE can be helpful for patients who are initially treated against their will.

Patients’ risk to themselves, others, and from others must be treated as a priority. The lifetime risk of self-harm in patients with AN is as high as 22% and even higher for patients with a history of suicide attempts. Patients with a history of ED admissions have a four-fold higher likelihood of subsequent independent admissions for self-harm [ 48 , 49 ]. This mirrored Lorna’s presentation , who required multiple hospital treatments for self-injuries, either in its own right or during ED admissions. The high prevalence of self-harm and its positive correlation with attempted suicide means that the treatment of self-injury in patients should be a primary focus. I-CBTE provides a model for integrating such treatment based on a comprehensive formulation and management of all types of risk by the MDT. Lorna’s case demonstrates that full weight restoration is beneficial not only for physical health, but also for improving emotional regulation and reducing the risk of suicide. Sometimes compulsory treatment may be required to manage the risk but this should not exclude psychological treatment.

The intractability and complexity of severe and longstanding EDs are not only due to illness duration or past failures [ 50 , 51 ], but are also exacerbated by psychiatric and medical comorbidities [ 27 ]. Recent genetic studies elucidated the association between AN and a range of psychiatric disorders, including OCD, depression, and schizophrenia [ 52 ]. These discoveries highlight the need for effective treatment of any co-occurring disorders. In Lorna’s case, the long-term sequalae of TBI necessitated pharmacological treatment of her perceptual abnormalities, and this helped her access psychological treatment.

Some patients with severe and longstanding eating disorders have co-occurring (sometimes undiagnosed) autism. Being subsequently confirmed as autistic was a pivotal part of Mollie’s recovery journey (see Additional File 2 ). We recommend the early screening and identifying of patients with autism and to make adaptations to the evidence-based treatments as soon as neuro-diversity is suspected [ 53 ].

Social safety is a fundamental requirement for emotional wellbeing[ 54 ]. Social insecurities (e.g. financial or housing insecurities) increase stress and can delay recovery. For several years, Lorna’s housing difficulties contributed to cycles of relapse. A comprehensive treatment model therefore needs to take ‘a whole-person approach’ by improving patients’ overall general functioning including access to suitable housing and finding suitable education and employment. Addressing social care, as well as education and employment needs, require seamless MDT support across the care pathway.

Patients with SE-AN are more likely to be underemployed or unemployed [ 55 ] and chances of recovery increase with re-integration into the community and engaging in meaningful work and activities. Similarly, rebuilding one’s life after trauma and re-establishing adaptive functioning through education and work [ 26 ] are key components of trauma-focused CBT. The inpatient MDT supported Lorna in developing a new recovery identity that involved rethinking what career a ‘recovered Lorna’ wanted to have and this work continued with the community MDT. Lyn’s case demonstrates how work and employment can become a maintaining factor for the eating disorder and the importance of developing a healthy work-life balance (see Additional File 1 ), while Mollie’s case shows that education can help patients to develop new purpose and identity (see Additional File 2 ).

Systems of care can contribute to EDs becoming severe and chronic and should receive more attention in the literature. Patients with longstanding EDs are often trapped in care systems that are ill-equipped to treat them as our case study and Lyn and Mollie’s commentaries demonstrate (see Additional Files 1 & 2 ). These include service-level delays in diagnosis and treatment [ 56 ], poor inter-agency communication and working [ 10 ], a breakdown in the relationship between the patient and service, lack of clinician training, or ineffective treatments [ 15 ]. Lyn describes how negative experiences with her treatment team as a teenager ‘left her with a deep distrust of doctors’ and disengagement from services which lasted for the next 30 years (see Additional File 1 ). Many patients experience long waiting lists, underfunded and understaffed services, where patients may have to deteriorate to receive support [ 57 ], and a lack of research and funding for new treatments [ 2 , 58 ]. Mollie’s recovery was delayed by professionals and treatment settings that were not equipped to offer her the individualised treatment that she needed. She required compulsory treatment which saved her life (see Additional File 2 ). In the context of discourses about ‘palliative care pathways’ Mollie, like Lorna’s, long-term survival rate could have been catastrophic if she had been treated by a different service and clinicians who might have believed it to be ethically inappropriate or too expensive to compulsory admit a patient for a 10th admission.

Prior to COVID-19, healthcare services in England and Scotland were only 15% funded to meet demand and referral rates [ 57 ]. Most services have limited MDTs and are unable to, adapt treatments for comorbidities, or ensure assertive outreach, with poor transitions between care settings. Unless care transitions are seamless, approximately 50% of patients relapse within a year of hospital discharge [ 9 ]. Our research has shown that if psychological and MDT treatments are delivered seamlessly across the care pathway relapse rates can be reduced to 15% and the majority of patients with SE-AN can achieve full remission. The pandemic presented a natural experiment, when this gradual transition was disrupted and the remission rates became much lower[ 9 ]. Seamless continuation of psychological treatment after discharge was key for all three patients (see Paper [ 1 ], Additional Files 1 & 2 ). However, Lyn’s experience shows that remote intensive support can be effective.

Contextual and diversity factors

Rather than applying the same approach to all patients, the formulation and treatment need to incorporate and adapt to the full range of human diversity, such as age, class, gender, race, religion, neurodiversity, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status. Clinicians need to consider the social-economic context where factors such as soaring food and energy prices may hamper patients from adhering to a dietitian’s recommended meal plan. Similarly, undernourished patients may have higher energy bills because of being cold, which might increase financial pressures that maintain their EDs [ 59 ].

How I-CBTE can help patients with severe and enduring anorexia nervosa

I-CBTE offers a novel integrated approach which brings hope for patients with severe and longstanding eating disorders requiring intensive treatment. Implementing the model is not expensive but requires reviews of staffing mixes and training of all staff in the model. The insufficient number of psychologists in UK SEDUs is a major barrier to implementation. A summary of how I-CBTE can help patients with SE-AN is provided in Table 3 .

Clinical implications

The I-CBTE model offers a comprehensive, personalised, and multidisciplinary approach to address severe and longstanding EDs. This model fosters a non-judgmental, collaborative treatment stance that prioritises patients’ strengths and interests and promotes resilience and autonomy. It integrates the work of the MDT and provides consistency across the patient’s recovery journey. Our service development and implementation of the I-CBTE model significantly improved recovery rates, and demonstrates long-term cost savings particularly for patients with complex conditions. For instance, Lorna, who had a severe and complex ED, has been admission-free for six years after completing treatment, saving the NHS approximately £360,000 in psychiatric admissions alone, not taking into account acute admissions and her improved quality of life. The magnitude of cost benefit is similar for Mollie too. Expanding the I-CBTE model could yield significant benefits not only for individuals but also for the NHS.

While there is a lack of RCT evidence supporting the integration of I-CBTE into intensive services, it is worth noting that no adult inpatient treatment model has undergone testing in RCTs. This is due to the high risk and complex patient population. Dalle Grave conducted a comparison between two versions of inpatient CBT for ED in a single centre trial [ 22 ], while our previous study in real-life settings examined the outcomes of I-CBTE in comparison to 15 SEDUs in the UK [ 9 ]. In addition, the model aligns perfectly with the established best practice guidelines in the UK [ 3 , 60 , 61 ].

Recommendations for implementing I-CBTE

I-CBTE provides a holistic and personalised treatment and the whole-person approach is essential for addressing the psychological, social, and medical aspects of care concurrently and tailored to each patient’s unique formulation, needs and preferences. All MDT members should be trained in I-CBTE principles using treatment manuals and online resources where appropriate. Ongoing supervision is essential for maintaining high treatment fidelity and effectiveness and aligning the team’s approach to patient care. Commissioners and service managers need to ensure appropriate staffing by transitioning from unqualified staff to qualified professionals to support the effective and sustainable implementation of the I-CBTE model. This will ensure high-quality, evidence-based care and improved patient outcomes. Co-production with patients with lived experiences will help to increase knowledge in the ED field, and improve quality, treatment and services for patients with severe and longstanding EDs and improve outcomes. Finally, integrated, evidence-based treatment must be delivered seamlessly across various treatment settings and care pathways to ensure consistent, coordinated and continues care throughout the patient’s treatment journey.

Future directions

Future research should investigate the long-term effectiveness of I-CBTE through longitudinal studies across diverse populations and explore remote technologies for intensive support as opposed to in-person day hospitals. Patient feedback on experiences of integrated models of care is important and this is also needed for I-CBTE. In addition, systematic health economics studies should be conducted.

In conclusion, the use of I-CBTE in treating SE-AN demonstrates significant promise, challenging the notion of intractability that is often associated with severe and longstanding EDs. This case study not only highlights the potential for recovery but also provides a comprehensive model for enhancing existing treatment frameworks to better serve this complex patient population. We conclude with Lorna’s words:

My story of recovery from a SEED demonstrates that it is possible to recover from a highly complex illness and live a meaningful, successful life, against all the odds... I became a butterfly: I grew from being the cumbersome caterpillar, locked into their cramped cocoon, into a beautiful being with wings, who can fly wherever she wishes. In other words, I did get better, thanks to eventually finding the treatment model that tuned into my strengths and allowed me to build a brand-new version of myself; that home-made miracle: recovery [ 1 ] .

Availability of data and materials

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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We thank the multidisciplinary team at Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust who helped implement I-CBTE.

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DV proposed the idea for the manuscripts, AA and DV conducted the literature review DV and AA wrote the first draft, reviewed and edited the manuscript. These two authors equally contributed. LC provided lived experience input and authored the first linked paper. LR & MT provided lived experience commentaries in the supplementary section to illustrate different clinical presentations and lived experiences. All authors contributed to the revision of the manuscript and approved the final version.

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Viljoen, D., Ayton, A., Roberts, L. et al. Applying integrated enhanced cognitive behaviour therapy (I-CBTE) to severe and longstanding eating disorders (SEED) Paper 2: An in-depth case study for clinicians. J Eat Disord 12 , 172 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-024-01116-7

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Accepted : 19 September 2024

Published : 31 October 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-024-01116-7

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Anorexia nervosa
Integrated enhanced cognitive behavioural therapy (I-CBTE)
Severe and Enduring Eating Disorder (SEED)
Severe and Longstanding Anorexia Nervosa (SE-AN)
Comorbidities
Treatment effectiveness
Formulation
Compulsory treatment
Illness duration
Terminal anorexia

Journal of Eating Disorders

ISSN: 2050-2974

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200 Behavioral Economics Thesis Topics
This page provides a comprehensive list of 200 behavioral economics thesis topics, offering students a wide range of research ideas that explore the intersection of psychology and economics.From cognitive biases in decision-making to the role of behavioral insights in public policy and market dynamics, these topics cover critical issues, recent developments, and future trends shaping the field.
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This list of behavioral economics research paper topics is intended to provide students and researchers with a comprehensive guide for selecting research topics in the field of behavioral economics. The importance of choosing a pertinent and engaging topic for your research paper is paramount, and this guide is designed to facilitate this crucial process.
Frontiers in Behavioral Economics
Searching for Meaning in Work and Life: Happiness, Wellbeing and the Future of Organizations. Michela Floris. Laura Ferrari. Lucrezia Casulli. 34,480 views. 9 articles. Explores the role of cognitive limitations and biases in decision-making, from household economics to culture and ethics, increasing our understanding of human behavior.
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This paper explores the distinctions between behavioral and traditional economics by analyzing recent literature. It underscores the importance of employing nudge theory in economic decision ...
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Economic Man . Economic Choice. The main purpose of this paper is to systematize the characteristics of behavioural economics, and, on this basis, to highlight the differences between behavioural economics and neoclassical economics. Special emphasis is placed on the differences between the real and the rational economic man.
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Working Paper 7948. DOI 10.3386/w7948. Issue Date October 2000. Behavioral Economics is the combination of psychology and economics that investigates what happens in markets in which some of the agents display human limitations and complications. We begin with a preliminary question about relevance.
Behavioural economics theories in information-seeking behaviour
The temporal development of these articles, research themes, and the theoretical contributions of behavioural economics theories to information-seeking behaviour research were organised and analysed. The findings are as follows: First, behavioural economics theories have been applied in information-seeking behaviour research for more than30 ...
Behavioral Economics
Introduction. Behavioral economics, an increasingly influential research program in economics, tries to improve economic theory and policy by drawing mainly on psychological or behavioral insights on how real people, as opposed to the idealistically rational agent, think and behave (Mullainathan and Thaler, 2001; Camerer and Loewenstein, 2004).
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formerly the Journal of Socio-Economics. The Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics welcomes submissions that deal with various economic topics but also involve issues that are related to other social sciences, especially psychology, or use experimental methods of inquiry. Thus, contributions in behavioral economics, experimental economics, economic psychology, and judgment and ...
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Research And Policy. AbstractBehavioral economics is a burgeoning field of research that is being used to increase the effectiveness of military policies, programs, and operations. This chapter provides an overview of the origins of behavioral economics, key concepts, how behavioral economics research translates into applied behavioral change ...
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Abstract. Behavioral economics uses evidence from psychology and other disciplines to create models of limits on rationality, willpower and self-interest, and explore their implications in ...
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Working Papers; Books & Chapters; Videos; Periodicals. The Digest; ... Research; Topics; Behavioral Economics Behavioral Economics. Share. X LinkedIn Email. National Bureau of Economic Research. Contact Us 1050 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, MA 02138 617-868-3900 [email protected]
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A Behavioral Economics Dissertation is a research paper that looks at how people make decisions. It blends economics with psychology to understand why people act the way they do when it comes to money, work, and life choices. ... It can also show your ability to think critically and conduct in-depth research. Behavioral Economics topics are ...
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LIST OF SUPERVISORS AND EXAMPLE TOPICS. Aydogan Msc, PhD Student Behavioral Economics. illusions, heuristics and biases in probabilistic reasoning Example topics: T. e Causes of Description-Experience Gap and Models for Decisions from Experience. Studies on decisions from experience have shown that people seem to make decisions as if they are ...
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Decision Making, Behavioral Economics, Delay Discounting. Nudge 2.0 - The Future of Behavioural Analysis of Law, in Europe and beyond. A Review of "Nudge and the Law. A European Perspective", edited by Alberto Alemanno and Anne-Lise Sibony. This essay is both a review of the excellent book "Nudge and the Law.
Behavioural Economics and Human Decision Making: Instances from the
The paper underscores the significance of the discussed topics, encompassing the VaR model, marketing strategies, consumer behavior patterns, behavioral economics, and a concise touch on ...
Economics Research Paper Topics: 300+ Ideas for Students
Behavioral Economics Research Paper Topics. Behavioral economics combines insights from psychology and economics to understand how people make financial decisions. Below you can find behavioral economics research topics: Impact of cognitive biases on economic decision making. Role of emotions in consumer purchasing behavior.
Applying behavioral economics to financial services
Behavioral economics is the study of judgment and choice — in other words, it looks at how we make decisions. It was created as an alternative approach to the economic models that tried to explain the behavior of consumers, but which presented certain deficiencies as anomalies — because they didn't take into account the human factor.
Family Relationships and Well-Being
Translational Significance. It is important for future research and health promotion policies to take into account complexities in family relationships, paying attention to family context, diversity of family structures, relationship quality, and intersections of social statuses in an aging society to provide resources to families to reduce caregiving burdens and benefit health and well-being.
A nudge in the right direction: how behavioral economics could make
Richard H. Thaler is a world-renowned behavioral economist and professor of finance and psychology. Recently, he was interviewed by The Economist.The discussion covers some of the fundamental studies in the field, like "save more tomorrow" which encourages people to save more by signing up to increase their savings rate every year and auto-enrollment for pensions that have drastically ...
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Abstract. Behavioral economics explores what affects people's economic decisions and the consequences of those decisions for market prices, returns, and resource allocation. Traditional economic ...
Operant Conditioning
where I 1 is the duration of the first link. Because I 2 is constant, Equation 3 is a straight line with slope a and positive y-intercept aI 2.. Linear waiting theory can be tested with Davison's data by plotting, for every condition, t 1 and t 2 versus time-to-reinforcement (TTR); that is, plot pause in each link against TTR for that link in every condition. . Linear waiting makes a ...
Applying integrated enhanced cognitive behaviour therapy (I-CBTE) to
Background This case study examines the application of Integrated Enhanced Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (I-CBTE) for a patient with severe, longstanding anorexia nervosa and multiple comorbidities, including organic hallucinosis, complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD), and severe self-harm. Such complex presentations often result in patients falling between services, which can lead to ...

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