stages of research work

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Starting the research process

A Beginner's Guide to Starting the Research Process

When you have to write a thesis or dissertation , it can be hard to know where to begin, but there are some clear steps you can follow.

The research process often begins with a very broad idea for a topic you’d like to know more about. You do some preliminary research to identify a  problem . After refining your research questions , you can lay out the foundations of your research design , leading to a proposal that outlines your ideas and plans.

This article takes you through the first steps of the research process, helping you narrow down your ideas and build up a strong foundation for your research project.

Table of contents

Step 1: choose your topic, step 2: identify a problem, step 3: formulate research questions, step 4: create a research design, step 5: write a research proposal, other interesting articles.

First you have to come up with some ideas. Your thesis or dissertation topic can start out very broad. Think about the general area or field you’re interested in—maybe you already have specific research interests based on classes you’ve taken, or maybe you had to consider your topic when applying to graduate school and writing a statement of purpose .

Even if you already have a good sense of your topic, you’ll need to read widely to build background knowledge and begin narrowing down your ideas. Conduct an initial literature review to begin gathering relevant sources. As you read, take notes and try to identify problems, questions, debates, contradictions and gaps. Your aim is to narrow down from a broad area of interest to a specific niche.

Make sure to consider the practicalities: the requirements of your programme, the amount of time you have to complete the research, and how difficult it will be to access sources and data on the topic. Before moving onto the next stage, it’s a good idea to discuss the topic with your thesis supervisor.

>>Read more about narrowing down a research topic

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

So you’ve settled on a topic and found a niche—but what exactly will your research investigate, and why does it matter? To give your project focus and purpose, you have to define a research problem .

The problem might be a practical issue—for example, a process or practice that isn’t working well, an area of concern in an organization’s performance, or a difficulty faced by a specific group of people in society.

Alternatively, you might choose to investigate a theoretical problem—for example, an underexplored phenomenon or relationship, a contradiction between different models or theories, or an unresolved debate among scholars.

To put the problem in context and set your objectives, you can write a problem statement . This describes who the problem affects, why research is needed, and how your research project will contribute to solving it.

>>Read more about defining a research problem

Next, based on the problem statement, you need to write one or more research questions . These target exactly what you want to find out. They might focus on describing, comparing, evaluating, or explaining the research problem.

A strong research question should be specific enough that you can answer it thoroughly using appropriate qualitative or quantitative research methods. It should also be complex enough to require in-depth investigation, analysis, and argument. Questions that can be answered with “yes/no” or with easily available facts are not complex enough for a thesis or dissertation.

In some types of research, at this stage you might also have to develop a conceptual framework and testable hypotheses .

>>See research question examples

The research design is a practical framework for answering your research questions. It involves making decisions about the type of data you need, the methods you’ll use to collect and analyze it, and the location and timescale of your research.

There are often many possible paths you can take to answering your questions. The decisions you make will partly be based on your priorities. For example, do you want to determine causes and effects, draw generalizable conclusions, or understand the details of a specific context?

You need to decide whether you will use primary or secondary data and qualitative or quantitative methods . You also need to determine the specific tools, procedures, and materials you’ll use to collect and analyze your data, as well as your criteria for selecting participants or sources.

>>Read more about creating a research design

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Finally, after completing these steps, you are ready to complete a research proposal . The proposal outlines the context, relevance, purpose, and plan of your research.

As well as outlining the background, problem statement, and research questions, the proposal should also include a literature review that shows how your project will fit into existing work on the topic. The research design section describes your approach and explains exactly what you will do.

You might have to get the proposal approved by your supervisor before you get started, and it will guide the process of writing your thesis or dissertation.

>>Read more about writing a research proposal

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Is this article helpful?

Other students also liked.

• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

• How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

More interesting articles

• 10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project
• How to Choose a Dissertation Topic | 8 Steps to Follow
• How to Define a Research Problem | Ideas & Examples
• How to Write a Problem Statement | Guide & Examples
• Relevance of Your Dissertation Topic | Criteria & Tips
• Research Objectives | Definition & Examples
• What Is a Fishbone Diagram? | Templates & Examples
• What Is Root Cause Analysis? | Definition & Examples

Get unlimited documents corrected

✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar
• Skip to footer
• QuestionPro

• Solutions Industries Gaming Automotive Sports and events Education Government Travel & Hospitality Financial Services Healthcare Cannabis Technology Use Case AskWhy Communities Audience Contactless surveys Mobile LivePolls Member Experience GDPR Positive People Science 360 Feedback Surveys
• Resources Blog eBooks Survey Templates Case Studies Training Help center

Home Market Research Research Tools and Apps

Research Process Steps: What they are + How To Follow

There are various approaches to conducting basic and applied research. This article explains the research process steps you should know. Whether you are doing basic research or applied research, there are many ways of doing it. In some ways, each research study is unique since it is conducted at a different time and place.

Conducting research might be difficult, but there are clear processes to follow. The research process starts with a broad idea for a topic. This article will assist you through the research process steps, helping you focus and develop your topic.

Research Process Steps

The research process consists of a series of systematic procedures that a researcher must go through in order to generate knowledge that will be considered valuable by the project and focus on the relevant topic.

To conduct effective research, you must understand the research process steps and follow them. Here are a few steps in the research process to make it easier for you:

Step 1: Identify the Problem

Finding an issue or formulating a research question is the first step. A well-defined research problem will guide the researcher through all stages of the research process, from setting objectives to choosing a technique. There are a number of approaches to get insight into a topic and gain a better understanding of it. Such as:

• A preliminary survey
• Case studies
• Interviews with a small group of people
• Observational survey

Step 2: Evaluate the Literature

A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research process . It enables the researcher to identify the precise aspects of the problem. Once a problem has been found, the investigator or researcher needs to find out more about it.

This stage gives problem-zone background. It teaches the investigator about previous research, how they were conducted, and its conclusions. The researcher can build consistency between his work and others through a literature review. Such a review exposes the researcher to a more significant body of knowledge and helps him follow the research process efficiently.

Step 3: Create Hypotheses

Formulating an original hypothesis is the next logical step after narrowing down the research topic and defining it. A belief solves logical relationships between variables. In order to establish a hypothesis, a researcher must have a certain amount of expertise in the field. 

It is important for researchers to keep in mind while formulating a hypothesis that it must be based on the research topic. Researchers are able to concentrate their efforts and stay committed to their objectives when they develop theories to guide their work.

Step 4: The Research Design

Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and answering research questions. It outlines how to get the relevant information. Its goal is to design research to test hypotheses, address the research questions, and provide decision-making insights.

The research design aims to minimize the time, money, and effort required to acquire meaningful evidence. This plan fits into four categories:

• Exploration and Surveys
• Data Analysis
• Observation

Step 5: Describe Population

Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or how technology is used in the business. In research, the term population refers to this study group. The research topic and purpose help determine the study group.

Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of people in the community. In that case, the research could target a specific age group, males or females, a geographic location, or an ethnic group. A final step in a study’s design is to specify its sample or population so that the results may be generalized.

Step 6: Data Collection

Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or information required to answer the research issue. Every research collected data, either from the literature or the people being studied. Data must be collected from the two categories of researchers. These sources may provide primary data.

• Questionnaire

Secondary data categories are:

• Literature survey
• Official, unofficial reports
• An approach based on library resources

Step 7: Data Analysis

During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data, the researcher analyzes it. The data is examined based on the approach in this step. The research findings are reviewed and reported.

Data analysis involves a number of closely related stages, such as setting up categories, applying these categories to raw data through coding and tabulation, and then drawing statistical conclusions. The researcher can examine the acquired data using a variety of statistical methods.

Step 8: The Report-writing

After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare a report detailing his findings. The report must be carefully composed with the following in mind:

• The Layout: On the first page, the title, date, acknowledgments, and preface should be on the report. A table of contents should be followed by a list of tables, graphs, and charts if any.
• Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This section should include the study’s scope and limits.
• Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and recommendations will follow the introduction. The findings should be summarized if they’re lengthy.
• Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be broken up into sections that are easy to understand.
• Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the main text. It’s the final result.

LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers

The research process involves several steps that make it easy to complete the research successfully. The steps in the research process described above depend on each other, and the order must be kept. So, if we want to do a research project, we should follow the research process steps.

QuestionPro’s enterprise-grade research platform can collect survey and qualitative observation data. The tool’s nature allows for data processing and essential decisions. The platform lets you store and process data. Start immediately!

LEARN MORE         FREE TRIAL

MORE LIKE THIS

Age Gating: Effective Strategies for Online Content Control

Aug 23, 2024

Customer Experience Lessons from 13,000 Feet — Tuesday CX Thoughts

Aug 20, 2024

Insight: Definition & meaning, types and examples

Aug 19, 2024

Employee Loyalty: Strategies for Long-Term Business Success 

Other categories.

• Academic Research
• Artificial Intelligence
• Assessments
• Brand Awareness
• Case Studies
• Communities
• Consumer Insights
• Customer effort score
• Customer Engagement
• Customer Experience
• Customer Loyalty
• Customer Research
• Customer Satisfaction
• Employee Benefits
• Employee Engagement
• Employee Retention
• Friday Five
• General Data Protection Regulation
• Insights Hub
• Life@QuestionPro
• Market Research
• Mobile diaries
• Mobile Surveys
• New Features
• Online Communities
• Question Types
• QuestionPro Products
• Release Notes
• Research Tools and Apps
• Revenue at Risk
• Survey Templates
• Training Tips
• Tuesday CX Thoughts (TCXT)
• Uncategorized
• What’s Coming Up
• Workforce Intelligence

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Table of Contents

Research Process

Definition:

Research Process is a systematic and structured approach that involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data or information to answer a specific research question or solve a particular problem.

Research Process Steps

Research Process Steps are as follows:

Identify the Research Question or Problem

This is the first step in the research process. It involves identifying a problem or question that needs to be addressed. The research question should be specific, relevant, and focused on a particular area of interest.

Conduct a Literature Review

Once the research question has been identified, the next step is to conduct a literature review. This involves reviewing existing research and literature on the topic to identify any gaps in knowledge or areas where further research is needed. A literature review helps to provide a theoretical framework for the research and also ensures that the research is not duplicating previous work.

Formulate a Hypothesis or Research Objectives

Based on the research question and literature review, the researcher can formulate a hypothesis or research objectives. A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested to determine its validity, while research objectives are specific goals that the researcher aims to achieve through the research.

Design a Research Plan and Methodology

This step involves designing a research plan and methodology that will enable the researcher to collect and analyze data to test the hypothesis or achieve the research objectives. The research plan should include details on the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques that will be used.

Collect and Analyze Data

This step involves collecting and analyzing data according to the research plan and methodology. Data can be collected through various methods, including surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. The data analysis process involves cleaning and organizing the data, applying statistical and analytical techniques to the data, and interpreting the results.

Interpret the Findings and Draw Conclusions

After analyzing the data, the researcher must interpret the findings and draw conclusions. This involves assessing the validity and reliability of the results and determining whether the hypothesis was supported or not. The researcher must also consider any limitations of the research and discuss the implications of the findings.

Communicate the Results

Finally, the researcher must communicate the results of the research through a research report, presentation, or publication. The research report should provide a detailed account of the research process, including the research question, literature review, research methodology, data analysis, findings, and conclusions. The report should also include recommendations for further research in the area.

Review and Revise

The research process is an iterative one, and it is important to review and revise the research plan and methodology as necessary. Researchers should assess the quality of their data and methods, reflect on their findings, and consider areas for improvement.

Ethical Considerations

Throughout the research process, ethical considerations must be taken into account. This includes ensuring that the research design protects the welfare of research participants, obtaining informed consent, maintaining confidentiality and privacy, and avoiding any potential harm to participants or their communities.

Dissemination and Application

The final step in the research process is to disseminate the findings and apply the research to real-world settings. Researchers can share their findings through academic publications, presentations at conferences, or media coverage. The research can be used to inform policy decisions, develop interventions, or improve practice in the relevant field.

Research Process Example

Following is a Research Process Example:

Research Question : What are the effects of a plant-based diet on athletic performance in high school athletes?

Step 1: Background Research Conduct a literature review to gain a better understanding of the existing research on the topic. Read academic articles and research studies related to plant-based diets, athletic performance, and high school athletes.

Step 2: Develop a Hypothesis Based on the literature review, develop a hypothesis that a plant-based diet positively affects athletic performance in high school athletes.

Step 3: Design the Study Design a study to test the hypothesis. Decide on the study population, sample size, and research methods. For this study, you could use a survey to collect data on dietary habits and athletic performance from a sample of high school athletes who follow a plant-based diet and a sample of high school athletes who do not follow a plant-based diet.

Step 4: Collect Data Distribute the survey to the selected sample and collect data on dietary habits and athletic performance.

Step 5: Analyze Data Use statistical analysis to compare the data from the two samples and determine if there is a significant difference in athletic performance between those who follow a plant-based diet and those who do not.

Step 6 : Interpret Results Interpret the results of the analysis in the context of the research question and hypothesis. Discuss any limitations or potential biases in the study design.

Step 7: Draw Conclusions Based on the results, draw conclusions about whether a plant-based diet has a significant effect on athletic performance in high school athletes. If the hypothesis is supported by the data, discuss potential implications and future research directions.

Step 8: Communicate Findings Communicate the findings of the study in a clear and concise manner. Use appropriate language, visuals, and formats to ensure that the findings are understood and valued.

Applications of Research Process

The research process has numerous applications across a wide range of fields and industries. Some examples of applications of the research process include:

• Scientific research: The research process is widely used in scientific research to investigate phenomena in the natural world and develop new theories or technologies. This includes fields such as biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental science.
• Social sciences : The research process is commonly used in social sciences to study human behavior, social structures, and institutions. This includes fields such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, and economics.
• Education: The research process is used in education to study learning processes, curriculum design, and teaching methodologies. This includes research on student achievement, teacher effectiveness, and educational policy.
• Healthcare: The research process is used in healthcare to investigate medical conditions, develop new treatments, and evaluate healthcare interventions. This includes fields such as medicine, nursing, and public health.
• Business and industry : The research process is used in business and industry to study consumer behavior, market trends, and develop new products or services. This includes market research, product development, and customer satisfaction research.
• Government and policy : The research process is used in government and policy to evaluate the effectiveness of policies and programs, and to inform policy decisions. This includes research on social welfare, crime prevention, and environmental policy.

Purpose of Research Process

The purpose of the research process is to systematically and scientifically investigate a problem or question in order to generate new knowledge or solve a problem. The research process enables researchers to:

• Identify gaps in existing knowledge: By conducting a thorough literature review, researchers can identify gaps in existing knowledge and develop research questions that address these gaps.
• Collect and analyze data : The research process provides a structured approach to collecting and analyzing data. Researchers can use a variety of research methods, including surveys, experiments, and interviews, to collect data that is valid and reliable.
• Test hypotheses : The research process allows researchers to test hypotheses and make evidence-based conclusions. Through the systematic analysis of data, researchers can draw conclusions about the relationships between variables and develop new theories or models.
• Solve problems: The research process can be used to solve practical problems and improve real-world outcomes. For example, researchers can develop interventions to address health or social problems, evaluate the effectiveness of policies or programs, and improve organizational processes.
• Generate new knowledge : The research process is a key way to generate new knowledge and advance understanding in a given field. By conducting rigorous and well-designed research, researchers can make significant contributions to their field and help to shape future research.

Tips for Research Process

Here are some tips for the research process:

• Start with a clear research question : A well-defined research question is the foundation of a successful research project. It should be specific, relevant, and achievable within the given time frame and resources.
• Conduct a thorough literature review: A comprehensive literature review will help you to identify gaps in existing knowledge, build on previous research, and avoid duplication. It will also provide a theoretical framework for your research.
• Choose appropriate research methods: Select research methods that are appropriate for your research question, objectives, and sample size. Ensure that your methods are valid, reliable, and ethical.
• Be organized and systematic: Keep detailed notes throughout the research process, including your research plan, methodology, data collection, and analysis. This will help you to stay organized and ensure that you don’t miss any important details.
• Analyze data rigorously: Use appropriate statistical and analytical techniques to analyze your data. Ensure that your analysis is valid, reliable, and transparent.
• I nterpret results carefully : Interpret your results in the context of your research question and objectives. Consider any limitations or potential biases in your research design, and be cautious in drawing conclusions.
• Communicate effectively: Communicate your research findings clearly and effectively to your target audience. Use appropriate language, visuals, and formats to ensure that your findings are understood and valued.
• Collaborate and seek feedback : Collaborate with other researchers, experts, or stakeholders in your field. Seek feedback on your research design, methods, and findings to ensure that they are relevant, meaningful, and impactful.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing...

Appendices – Writing Guide, Types and Examples

Research Contribution – Thesis Guide

Research Approach – Types Methods and Examples

Future Research – Thesis Guide

Purpose of Research – Objectives and Applications

Basic Steps in the Research Process

The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a research paper. Depending on your familiarity with the topic and the challenges you encounter along the way, you may need to rearrange these steps.

Step 1: Identify and develop your topic

Selecting a topic can be the most challenging part of a research assignment. Since this is the very first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it be done correctly. Here are some tips for selecting a topic:

• Select a topic within the parameters set by the assignment. Many times your instructor will give you clear guidelines as to what you can and cannot write about. Failure to work within these guidelines may result in your proposed paper being deemed unacceptable by your instructor.
• Select a topic of personal interest to you and learn more about it. The research for and writing of a paper will be more enjoyable if you are writing about something that you find interesting.
• Select a topic for which you can find a manageable amount of information. Do a preliminary search of information sources to determine whether existing sources will meet your needs. If you find too much information, you may need to narrow your topic; if you find too little, you may need to broaden your topic.
• Be original. Your instructor reads hundreds of research papers every year, and many of them are on the same topics (topics in the news at the time, controversial issues, subjects for which there is ample and easily accessed information). Stand out from your classmates by selecting an interesting and off-the-beaten-path topic.
• Still can't come up with a topic to write about? See your instructor for advice.

Once you have identified your topic, it may help to state it as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about the epidemic of obesity in the American population, you might pose the question "What are the causes of obesity in America ?" By posing your subject as a question you can more easily identify the main concepts or keywords to be used in your research.

Step 2 : Do a preliminary search for information

Before beginning your research in earnest, do a preliminary search to determine whether there is enough information out there for your needs and to set the context of your research. Look up your keywords in the appropriate titles in the library's Reference collection (such as encyclopedias and dictionaries) and in other sources such as our catalog of books, periodical databases, and Internet search engines. Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings. You may find it necessary to adjust the focus of your topic in light of the resources available to you.

Step 3: Locate materials

With the direction of your research now clear to you, you can begin locating material on your topic. There are a number of places you can look for information:

If you are looking for books, do a subject search in One Search . A Keyword search can be performed if the subject search doesn't yield enough information. Print or write down the citation information (author, title,etc.) and the location (call number and collection) of the item(s). Note the circulation status. When you locate the book on the shelf, look at the books located nearby; similar items are always shelved in the same area. The Aleph catalog also indexes the library's audio-visual holdings.

Use the library's  electronic periodical databases  to find magazine and newspaper articles. Choose the databases and formats best suited to your particular topic; ask at the librarian at the Reference Desk if you need help figuring out which database best meets your needs. Many of the articles in the databases are available in full-text format.

Use search engines ( Google ,  Yahoo , etc.) and subject directories to locate materials on the Internet. Check the  Internet Resources  section of the NHCC Library web site for helpful subject links.

Step 4: Evaluate your sources

See the  CARS Checklist for Information Quality   for tips on evaluating the authority and quality of the information you have located. Your instructor expects that you will provide credible, truthful, and reliable information and you have every right to expect that the sources you use are providing the same. This step is especially important when using Internet resources, many of which are regarded as less than reliable.

Step 5: Make notes

Consult the resources you have chosen and note the information that will be useful in your paper. Be sure to document all the sources you consult, even if you there is a chance you may not use that particular source. The author, title, publisher, URL, and other information will be needed later when creating a bibliography.

Step 6: Write your paper

Begin by organizing the information you have collected. The next step is the rough draft, wherein you get your ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step will help you organize your ideas and determine the form your final paper will take. After this, you will revise the draft as many times as you think necessary to create a final product to turn in to your instructor.

Step 7: Cite your sources properly

Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.

Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes: it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references. The  MLA  and the  APA  Styles are two popular citation formats.

Failure to cite your sources properly is plagiarism. Plagiarism is avoidable!

Step 8: Proofread

The final step in the process is to proofread the paper you have created. Read through the text and check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Make sure the sources you used are cited properly. Make sure the message that you want to get across to the reader has been thoroughly stated.

Additional research tips:

• Work from the general to the specific -- find background information first, then use more specific sources.
• Don't forget print sources -- many times print materials are more easily accessed and every bit as helpful as online resources.
• The library has books on the topic of writing research papers at call number area LB 2369.
• If you have questions about the assignment, ask your instructor.
• If you have any questions about finding information in the library, ask the librarian.

Contact Information

Craig larson.

Librarian 763-424-0733 [email protected] Zoom:  myzoom   Available by appointment

Get Started

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

3 The research process

In Chapter 1, we saw that scientific research is the process of acquiring scientific knowledge using the scientific method. But how is such research conducted? This chapter delves into the process of scientific research, and the assumptions and outcomes of the research process.

Paradigms of social research

Our design and conduct of research is shaped by our mental models, or frames of reference that we use to organise our reasoning and observations. These mental models or frames (belief systems) are called paradigms . The word ‘paradigm’ was popularised by Thomas Kuhn (1962) [1] in his book The structure of scientific r evolutions , where he examined the history of the natural sciences to identify patterns of activities that shape the progress of science. Similar ideas are applicable to social sciences as well, where a social reality can be viewed by different people in different ways, which may constrain their thinking and reasoning about the observed phenomenon. For instance, conservatives and liberals tend to have very different perceptions of the role of government in people’s lives, and hence, have different opinions on how to solve social problems. Conservatives may believe that lowering taxes is the best way to stimulate a stagnant economy because it increases people’s disposable income and spending, which in turn expands business output and employment. In contrast, liberals may believe that governments should invest more directly in job creation programs such as public works and infrastructure projects, which will increase employment and people’s ability to consume and drive the economy. Likewise, Western societies place greater emphasis on individual rights, such as one’s right to privacy, right of free speech, and right to bear arms. In contrast, Asian societies tend to balance the rights of individuals against the rights of families, organisations, and the government, and therefore tend to be more communal and less individualistic in their policies. Such differences in perspective often lead Westerners to criticise Asian governments for being autocratic, while Asians criticise Western societies for being greedy, having high crime rates, and creating a ‘cult of the individual’. Our personal paradigms are like ‘coloured glasses’ that govern how we view the world and how we structure our thoughts about what we see in the world.

Paradigms are often hard to recognise, because they are implicit, assumed, and taken for granted. However, recognising these paradigms is key to making sense of and reconciling differences in people’s perceptions of the same social phenomenon. For instance, why do liberals believe that the best way to improve secondary education is to hire more teachers, while conservatives believe that privatising education (using such means as school vouchers) is more effective in achieving the same goal? Conservatives place more faith in competitive markets (i.e., in free competition between schools competing for education dollars), while liberals believe more in labour (i.e., in having more teachers and schools). Likewise, in social science research, to understand why a certain technology was successfully implemented in one organisation, but failed miserably in another, a researcher looking at the world through a ‘rational lens’ will look for rational explanations of the problem, such as inadequate technology or poor fit between technology and the task context where it is being utilised. Another researcher looking at the same problem through a ‘social lens’ may seek out social deficiencies such as inadequate user training or lack of management support. Those seeing it through a ‘political lens’ will look for instances of organisational politics that may subvert the technology implementation process. Hence, subconscious paradigms often constrain the concepts that researchers attempt to measure, their observations, and their subsequent interpretations of a phenomenon. However, given the complex nature of social phenomena, it is possible that all of the above paradigms are partially correct, and that a fuller understanding of the problem may require an understanding and application of multiple paradigms.

Two popular paradigms today among social science researchers are positivism and post-positivism. Positivism , based on the works of French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857), was the dominant scientific paradigm until the mid-twentieth century. It holds that science or knowledge creation should be restricted to what can be observed and measured. Positivism tends to rely exclusively on theories that can be directly tested. Though positivism was originally an attempt to separate scientific inquiry from religion (where the precepts could not be objectively observed), positivism led to empiricism or a blind faith in observed data and a rejection of any attempt to extend or reason beyond observable facts. Since human thoughts and emotions could not be directly measured, they were not considered to be legitimate topics for scientific research. Frustrations with the strictly empirical nature of positivist philosophy led to the development of post-positivism (or postmodernism) during the mid-late twentieth century. Post-positivism argues that one can make reasonable inferences about a phenomenon by combining empirical observations with logical reasoning. Post-positivists view science as not certain but probabilistic (i.e., based on many contingencies), and often seek to explore these contingencies to understand social reality better. The post-positivist camp has further fragmented into subjectivists , who view the world as a subjective construction of our subjective minds rather than as an objective reality, and critical realists , who believe that there is an external reality that is independent of a person’s thinking but we can never know such reality with any degree of certainty.

Burrell and Morgan (1979), [2] in their seminal book Sociological p aradigms and organizational a nalysis , suggested that the way social science researchers view and study social phenomena is shaped by two fundamental sets of philosophical assumptions: ontology and epistemology. Ontology refers to our assumptions about how we see the world (e.g., does the world consist mostly of social order or constant change?). Epistemology refers to our assumptions about the best way to study the world (e.g., should we use an objective or subjective approach to study social reality?). Using these two sets of assumptions, we can categorise social science research as belonging to one of four categories (see Figure 3.1).

If researchers view the world as consisting mostly of social order (ontology) and hence seek to study patterns of ordered events or behaviours, and believe that the best way to study such a world is using an objective approach (epistemology) that is independent of the person conducting the observation or interpretation, such as by using standardised data collection tools like surveys, then they are adopting a paradigm of functionalism . However, if they believe that the best way to study social order is though the subjective interpretation of participants, such as by interviewing different participants and reconciling differences among their responses using their own subjective perspectives, then they are employing an interpretivism paradigm. If researchers believe that the world consists of radical change and seek to understand or enact change using an objectivist approach, then they are employing a radical structuralism paradigm. If they wish to understand social change using the subjective perspectives of the participants involved, then they are following a radical humanism paradigm.

To date, the majority of social science research has emulated the natural sciences, and followed the functionalist paradigm. Functionalists believe that social order or patterns can be understood in terms of their functional components, and therefore attempt to break down a problem into small components and studying one or more components in detail using objectivist techniques such as surveys and experimental research. However, with the emergence of post-positivist thinking, a small but growing number of social science researchers are attempting to understand social order using subjectivist techniques such as interviews and ethnographic studies. Radical humanism and radical structuralism continues to represent a negligible proportion of social science research, because scientists are primarily concerned with understanding generalisable patterns of behaviour, events, or phenomena, rather than idiosyncratic or changing events. Nevertheless, if you wish to study social change, such as why democratic movements are increasingly emerging in Middle Eastern countries, or why this movement was successful in Tunisia, took a longer path to success in Libya, and is still not successful in Syria, then perhaps radical humanism is the right approach for such a study. Social and organisational phenomena generally consist of elements of both order and change. For instance, organisational success depends on formalised business processes, work procedures, and job responsibilities, while being simultaneously constrained by a constantly changing mix of competitors, competing products, suppliers, and customer base in the business environment. Hence, a holistic and more complete understanding of social phenomena such as why some organisations are more successful than others, requires an appreciation and application of a multi-paradigmatic approach to research.

Overview of the research process

So how do our mental paradigms shape social science research? At its core, all scientific research is an iterative process of observation, rationalisation, and validation. In the observation phase, we observe a natural or social phenomenon, event, or behaviour that interests us. In the rationalisation phase, we try to make sense of the observed phenomenon, event, or behaviour by logically connecting the different pieces of the puzzle that we observe, which in some cases, may lead to the construction of a theory. Finally, in the validation phase, we test our theories using a scientific method through a process of data collection and analysis, and in doing so, possibly modify or extend our initial theory. However, research designs vary based on whether the researcher starts at observation and attempts to rationalise the observations (inductive research), or whether the researcher starts at an ex ante rationalisation or a theory and attempts to validate the theory (deductive research). Hence, the observation-rationalisation-validation cycle is very similar to the induction-deduction cycle of research discussed in Chapter 1.

Most traditional research tends to be deductive and functionalistic in nature. Figure 3.2 provides a schematic view of such a research project. This figure depicts a series of activities to be performed in functionalist research, categorised into three phases: exploration, research design, and research execution. Note that this generalised design is not a roadmap or flowchart for all research. It applies only to functionalistic research, and it can and should be modified to fit the needs of a specific project.

The first phase of research is exploration . This phase includes exploring and selecting research questions for further investigation, examining the published literature in the area of inquiry to understand the current state of knowledge in that area, and identifying theories that may help answer the research questions of interest.

The first step in the exploration phase is identifying one or more research questions dealing with a specific behaviour, event, or phenomena of interest. Research questions are specific questions about a behaviour, event, or phenomena of interest that you wish to seek answers for in your research. Examples include determining which factors motivate consumers to purchase goods and services online without knowing the vendors of these goods or services, how can we make high school students more creative, and why some people commit terrorist acts. Research questions can delve into issues of what, why, how, when, and so forth. More interesting research questions are those that appeal to a broader population (e.g., ‘how can firms innovate?’ is a more interesting research question than ‘how can Chinese firms innovate in the service-sector?’), address real and complex problems (in contrast to hypothetical or ‘toy’ problems), and where the answers are not obvious. Narrowly focused research questions (often with a binary yes/no answer) tend to be less useful and less interesting and less suited to capturing the subtle nuances of social phenomena. Uninteresting research questions generally lead to uninteresting and unpublishable research findings.

The next step is to conduct a literature review of the domain of interest. The purpose of a literature review is three-fold: one, to survey the current state of knowledge in the area of inquiry, two, to identify key authors, articles, theories, and findings in that area, and three, to identify gaps in knowledge in that research area. Literature review is commonly done today using computerised keyword searches in online databases. Keywords can be combined using Boolean operators such as ‘and’ and ‘or’ to narrow down or expand the search results. Once a shortlist of relevant articles is generated from the keyword search, the researcher must then manually browse through each article, or at least its abstract, to determine the suitability of that article for a detailed review. Literature reviews should be reasonably complete, and not restricted to a few journals, a few years, or a specific methodology. Reviewed articles may be summarised in the form of tables, and can be further structured using organising frameworks such as a concept matrix. A well-conducted literature review should indicate whether the initial research questions have already been addressed in the literature (which would obviate the need to study them again), whether there are newer or more interesting research questions available, and whether the original research questions should be modified or changed in light of the findings of the literature review. The review can also provide some intuitions or potential answers to the questions of interest and/or help identify theories that have previously been used to address similar questions.

Since functionalist (deductive) research involves theory-testing, the third step is to identify one or more theories can help address the desired research questions. While the literature review may uncover a wide range of concepts or constructs potentially related to the phenomenon of interest, a theory will help identify which of these constructs is logically relevant to the target phenomenon and how. Forgoing theories may result in measuring a wide range of less relevant, marginally relevant, or irrelevant constructs, while also minimising the chances of obtaining results that are meaningful and not by pure chance. In functionalist research, theories can be used as the logical basis for postulating hypotheses for empirical testing. Obviously, not all theories are well-suited for studying all social phenomena. Theories must be carefully selected based on their fit with the target problem and the extent to which their assumptions are consistent with that of the target problem. We will examine theories and the process of theorising in detail in the next chapter.

The next phase in the research process is research design . This process is concerned with creating a blueprint of the actions to take in order to satisfactorily answer the research questions identified in the exploration phase. This includes selecting a research method, operationalising constructs of interest, and devising an appropriate sampling strategy.

Operationalisation is the process of designing precise measures for abstract theoretical constructs. This is a major problem in social science research, given that many of the constructs, such as prejudice, alienation, and liberalism are hard to define, let alone measure accurately. Operationalisation starts with specifying an ‘operational definition’ (or ‘conceptualization’) of the constructs of interest. Next, the researcher can search the literature to see if there are existing pre-validated measures matching their operational definition that can be used directly or modified to measure their constructs of interest. If such measures are not available or if existing measures are poor or reflect a different conceptualisation than that intended by the researcher, new instruments may have to be designed for measuring those constructs. This means specifying exactly how exactly the desired construct will be measured (e.g., how many items, what items, and so forth). This can easily be a long and laborious process, with multiple rounds of pre-tests and modifications before the newly designed instrument can be accepted as ‘scientifically valid’. We will discuss operationalisation of constructs in a future chapter on measurement.

Simultaneously with operationalisation, the researcher must also decide what research method they wish to employ for collecting data to address their research questions of interest. Such methods may include quantitative methods such as experiments or survey research or qualitative methods such as case research or action research, or possibly a combination of both. If an experiment is desired, then what is the experimental design? If this is a survey, do you plan a mail survey, telephone survey, web survey, or a combination? For complex, uncertain, and multifaceted social phenomena, multi-method approaches may be more suitable, which may help leverage the unique strengths of each research method and generate insights that may not be obtained using a single method.

Researchers must also carefully choose the target population from which they wish to collect data, and a sampling strategy to select a sample from that population. For instance, should they survey individuals or firms or workgroups within firms? What types of individuals or firms do they wish to target? Sampling strategy is closely related to the unit of analysis in a research problem. While selecting a sample, reasonable care should be taken to avoid a biased sample (e.g., sample based on convenience) that may generate biased observations. Sampling is covered in depth in a later chapter.

At this stage, it is often a good idea to write a research proposal detailing all of the decisions made in the preceding stages of the research process and the rationale behind each decision. This multi-part proposal should address what research questions you wish to study and why, the prior state of knowledge in this area, theories you wish to employ along with hypotheses to be tested, how you intend to measure constructs, what research method is to be employed and why, and desired sampling strategy. Funding agencies typically require such a proposal in order to select the best proposals for funding. Even if funding is not sought for a research project, a proposal may serve as a useful vehicle for seeking feedback from other researchers and identifying potential problems with the research project (e.g., whether some important constructs were missing from the study) before starting data collection. This initial feedback is invaluable because it is often too late to correct critical problems after data is collected in a research study.

Having decided who to study (subjects), what to measure (concepts), and how to collect data (research method), the researcher is now ready to proceed to the research execution phase. This includes pilot testing the measurement instruments, data collection, and data analysis.

Pilot testing is an often overlooked but extremely important part of the research process. It helps detect potential problems in your research design and/or instrumentation (e.g., whether the questions asked are intelligible to the targeted sample), and to ensure that the measurement instruments used in the study are reliable and valid measures of the constructs of interest. The pilot sample is usually a small subset of the target population. After successful pilot testing, the researcher may then proceed with data collection using the sampled population. The data collected may be quantitative or qualitative, depending on the research method employed.

Following data collection, the data is analysed and interpreted for the purpose of drawing conclusions regarding the research questions of interest. Depending on the type of data collected (quantitative or qualitative), data analysis may be quantitative (e.g., employ statistical techniques such as regression or structural equation modelling) or qualitative (e.g., coding or content analysis).

The final phase of research involves preparing the final research report documenting the entire research process and its findings in the form of a research paper, dissertation, or monograph. This report should outline in detail all the choices made during the research process (e.g., theory used, constructs selected, measures used, research methods, sampling, etc.) and why, as well as the outcomes of each phase of the research process. The research process must be described in sufficient detail so as to allow other researchers to replicate your study, test the findings, or assess whether the inferences derived are scientifically acceptable. Of course, having a ready research proposal will greatly simplify and quicken the process of writing the finished report. Note that research is of no value unless the research process and outcomes are documented for future generations—such documentation is essential for the incremental progress of science.

Common mistakes in research

The research process is fraught with problems and pitfalls, and novice researchers often find, after investing substantial amounts of time and effort into a research project, that their research questions were not sufficiently answered, or that the findings were not interesting enough, or that the research was not of ‘acceptable’ scientific quality. Such problems typically result in research papers being rejected by journals. Some of the more frequent mistakes are described below.

Insufficiently motivated research questions. Often times, we choose our ‘pet’ problems that are interesting to us but not to the scientific community at large, i.e., it does not generate new knowledge or insight about the phenomenon being investigated. Because the research process involves a significant investment of time and effort on the researcher’s part, the researcher must be certain—and be able to convince others—that the research questions they seek to answer deal with real—and not hypothetical—problems that affect a substantial portion of a population and have not been adequately addressed in prior research.

Pursuing research fads. Another common mistake is pursuing ‘popular’ topics with limited shelf life. A typical example is studying technologies or practices that are popular today. Because research takes several years to complete and publish, it is possible that popular interest in these fads may die down by the time the research is completed and submitted for publication. A better strategy may be to study ‘timeless’ topics that have always persisted through the years.

Unresearchable problems. Some research problems may not be answered adequately based on observed evidence alone, or using currently accepted methods and procedures. Such problems are best avoided. However, some unresearchable, ambiguously defined problems may be modified or fine tuned into well-defined and useful researchable problems.

Favoured research methods. Many researchers have a tendency to recast a research problem so that it is amenable to their favourite research method (e.g., survey research). This is an unfortunate trend. Research methods should be chosen to best fit a research problem, and not the other way around.

Blind data mining. Some researchers have the tendency to collect data first (using instruments that are already available), and then figure out what to do with it. Note that data collection is only one step in a long and elaborate process of planning, designing, and executing research. In fact, a series of other activities are needed in a research process prior to data collection. If researchers jump into data collection without such elaborate planning, the data collected will likely be irrelevant, imperfect, or useless, and their data collection efforts may be entirely wasted. An abundance of data cannot make up for deficits in research planning and design, and particularly, for the lack of interesting research questions.

• Kuhn, T. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ↵
• Burrell, G. & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and organisational analysis: elements of the sociology of corporate life . London: Heinemann Educational. ↵

Social Science Research: Principles, Methods and Practices (Revised edition) Copyright © 2019 by Anol Bhattacherjee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Program Management

5 steps in the research process overview, step 1 – locating and defining issues or problems, step 2 – designing the research project, the research design involves the following steps:, step 3 – collecting data, data collection techniques can include:, step 4 – interpreting research data, analysis steps, step 5 – report research findings, research reporting formats:, typical formal research report format, acqnotes tutorial, research process lessons learned, qualitative research in the research process, acqlinks and references:, leave a reply.

The 5 Steps of the Research Process | Helpfull

Knowing how each of the 5 phases of the research process work in tandem helps keep your project on track.

What is the Research Process?

The research process outlines the key steps taken in order to complete a thorough and procedurally sound research project. Knowing how each of the 5 phases of the research process work in tandem helps keep the project on track.

The first step of the research process identifies the problem or topic that is going to be studied. From there, the proceeding steps take the researcher through various models and methodologies designed to bring about quality, valid data.

The 5 Steps of the Research Process

The research process can be broken down into 5 simple and clearly defined stages. Understanding how these steps flow will enable you to generate stronger results; make sure to review them before you develop your methodology. It will save you a lot of time and frustration down the line.

• Defining the Problem

This is where you state the issue. In the form of a hypothesis, researchers make a judgement about the world around them; trying to either improve an existing condition, streamline a process, or probe a question for deeper thought. 

A good research problem should seek to find answers for a clear and specific issue. Issues like:

“Do our customers have difficulty purchasing our product from our website?” or 

“Will changing our brand logo design improve customer favorability?” 

The more issues one question seeks to address, the less likely you are to collect quality research data.

Remember to keep your problem specific and concise. You can always run more tests if you need to address multiple research questions. This keeps your data organized, and is the best practice for ensuring the integrity of your results.

• Designing your Research Project

The next step in your research process is to develop a framework. This can involve creating a research plan, or developing a step-by-step methodology for how you plan to approach your research. These outlines will frame your work as you progress through the actual testing process; ensuring you’re getting all of the critical information you need to properly develop your data.

Generally, designing a research project involves completing many of these objective-driven activities:

• Researching primary and secondary sources
• Defining the scope of your research project
• Selecting the right tools and applications for conducting and analyzing research
• Designing surveys and questionnaires
• Choose a target audience for your research
• Plan for data analysis
• Create a research deadline

Once your research project has been clearly defined and your audience has been selected, you’re ready to begin testing.

• Collecting the Data

This is where your research study officially begins. The data collection process is a crucial step in providing the information you need to address your research question. It begins with defining the concepts that will be researched; what happens next are the research collection steps you outlined in the previous step. Oftentimes, researchers will invite participants to engage in their tests. These tests can be something as simple as a survey, or require activities as lengthy and complex as a one-on-one interview, or a user experience test.

Researchers will sometimes choose to passively observe a case, instead of actively involving themselves in a phenomenon. This type of observational study is useful in cases where researchers are resource-limited, or want to learn more about events that have happened in the past.

Remember to stick to the processes you’ve outlined in step 2, and you’re well on your way to success. 

Data analysis begins when all results have been collected and the testing process is complete. This can often be the most lengthy and labor-intensive part of the research process. It requires careful thought and attention be paid to following the data analysis plan developed in step 2; as well as making accommodations to the plan where necessary.

After the data set has been properly reviewed, researchers measure their results against previous experiments and data sets - trying to establish a statistical significance. 

• Data Visualization and Reporting

The final and perhaps most vital part of your research process involves taking your data and making it accessible to non-researchers. For the most part, you should have already synthesized your data into an answer that either rejects or supports your initial hypothesis. This conclusion can take the form of a blanket generalization, a new formula, or a recommendation for actions to take.

The way you choose to report your findings can have a tremendous impact on how your results are received. Scientific reports are often published in formal science journals as peer-reviewed studies; whereas business research may be reported in a video or presentation format. Whenever you encounter a snag in your research process, remember to: plan ahead, get advice from your fellow researchers, and stick to your research plan.

About Author

Send Your First Survey Today!

Set up and begin receiving results within minutes. Sign up for free, no contract required.

Helpfull is the easiest way to get feedback from thousands of people in minutes. Our online focus group platform provides a pool of qualified panelists to give you their real detailed opinions helping you make better, more informed decisions.

Research to Action

The Global Guide to Research Impact

Social Media

Framing challenges

Five Broad Stages of Research

By Dennis Wesley 04/11/2020

Research is a systematic inquiry of knowledge that usually involves the collection, compilation, and publication of coherent data. It aims to build on established lines of inquiry or develop new realms of study. The latter does not necessarily involve a complete break from established lines of inquiry. More often than not, it involves uncovering a unique perspective of an existing body of work.

Research requires meticulous work, and one can broadly break it down into five stages for ease of understanding.

1.The Exploratory Stage

This is the first stage of the process. I call this exploratory since the researcher is likely still uncertain about the topic. It involves active looking-out. Interestingly, the research topic can stem from anywhere and take different forms. Researchers can be inspired by news articles, books, documentaries, movies, debates, discussions, online forums, social media, or build on existing ideas or work. This stage is all about keeping oneself open to eccentricities and searching for a fascinating idea.

2. The Narrowing Down Stage

The researcher has done enough groundwork in the exploratory stage to identify the tentative research subject. In this second stage, the broad research area has to be narrowed down to something more specific. From the joy of ‘reading around’ the subject, the researcher will now have to somewhat ruthlessly filter their choices to reflect their specific topic. There can be little deviation or experimentation beyond this stage. The researcher will have to study the specific topic in-depth, and ideally bring out new, unexplored, or under-researched themes.

3. The Revisiting Stage

This stage not only follows naturally from the earlier stage but also should ideally take place simultaneously. Nonetheless, I’ve mentioned this distinctively for better clarity. Now that the researcher has chosen their topic, they need to be sure they know the recent trends and developments in the field. This is called the ‘ pre-emption check ’ and can be done by performing smart keyword searches online and in journal databases specific to one’s topic – the classic ‘literature search’. With the power of the internet today, researchers can reach further afield and identify other researchers or partners working in the same field with whom they might collaborate. The researcher may be disappointed to discover at this stage that their topic is redundant or does not add any value after all, so further work would be futile. This stage is the researcher’s opportunity to change and modify their topic to ensure that it is meaningful to the specific body of work.

4. The Writing Stage

This is not only important but also a very difficult part of research. The volume of data has to be compiled and presented in an interesting, comprehensible, and persuasive manner. Although it is essential to be vigilant and careful with our writing, excess caution can also be disruptive. It is a mistake to assume that there is no room for passion in academic writing. Ensuring proper formatting and good grammar are especially challenging and demand much effort.

If you are feeling uncertain about writing (or writing in the language that you are required to write in, which may not be your first language), it pays to invest some time trying out and using online writing tools to simplify this process. If you intend to publish in a particular publication, make sure you familiarise yourself with the House Style of that publication before you start. If necessary, you may need to hire an editor to help you. Naturally, it’s vital to avoid plagiarism and ensure the integrity of your research, and one way to do this is to ensure that you are fully and correctly citing any sources that you’ve used – including your own published work .

5. The Review Stage

Review is a crucial stage and one that is not always done as thoroughly as it should be. After months of grueling work, it is understandably difficult (impossible even) for researchers to review and reread their work as if they are a neutral reader. It’s difficult after being immersed in the subject to see and consider flaws and amendments. This is when an external peer reviewer is of great help. I usually share my final draft with friends and peers who have good subject knowledge and language skills. This ensures that the work is scrutinised from multiple perspectives, and the feedback helps fill the leaks and strengthens the final output.

The whole research process is an emancipating and self-realising process for a researcher. It is a knowledge pilgrimage where the researcher is ideally better off at the end. That is one of the reasons why research has to be undertaken with utmost sincerity: the researcher is after all satisfying their own intellectual quest and writing for the greater good simultaneously. In other words, the researcher is accountable to both themselves and the world at large.

Contribute Write a blog post, post a job or event, recommend a resource

Partner with Us Are you an institution looking to increase your impact?

Most Recent Posts

• Nothing about us without us
• Youth-focused initiatives: GAGE programme
• Impact to Implementation: measurement, partnerships and storytelling
• Africa Evidence Week 2024
• “Nothing about us without us”: Youth inclusion in research

The latest #R2AImpactPractitioners post features an article by Karen Bell and Mark Reed on the Tree of Participation (ToP) model, a groundbreaking framework designed to enhance inclusive decision-making. By identifying 12 key factors and 7 contextual elements, ToP empowers marginalized groups and ensures processes that are inclusive, accountable, and balanced in power dynamics. The model uses a tree metaphor to illustrate its phases: roots (pre-process), branches (process), and leaves (post-process), all interconnected within their context. Discover more by following the #R2Aimpactpractitioners link in our linktree 👉🔗

Do you use AI in your work? AI is increasingly present in all our lives, but how can we use it effectively to enhance research practice? Earlier this year Inés Arangüena explored this question in a two part series. Follow the link in our bio to read more. https://ow.ly/IV0R50SH5tI #AI

🌟 This week, #R2ARecommends this webinar on demystifying evaluation practice, produced by the Global Evaluation Initiative. 🌟 🔗Follow the #R2ARecommends link in our linktree to find out more! #Evaluation #Webinar #InclusiveCommunication #GEI #GlobalEval

Research To Action (R2A) is a learning platform for anyone interested in maximising the impact of research and capturing evidence of impact.

The site publishes practical resources on a range of topics including research uptake, communications, policy influence and monitoring and evaluation. It captures the experiences of practitioners and researchers working on these topics and facilitates conversations between this global community through a range of social media platforms.

R2A is produced by a small editorial team, led by CommsConsult . We welcome suggestions for and contributions to the site.

Subscribe to our newsletter!

Our contributors

Browse all authors

Friends and partners

• Global Development Network (GDN)
• Institute of Development Studies (IDS)
• International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie)
• On Think Tanks
• Politics & Ideas
• Research for Development (R4D)
• Research Impact

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

11.2 Steps in Developing a Research Proposal

Learning objectives.

• Identify the steps in developing a research proposal.
• Choose a topic and formulate a research question and working thesis.
• Develop a research proposal.

Writing a good research paper takes time, thought, and effort. Although this assignment is challenging, it is manageable. Focusing on one step at a time will help you develop a thoughtful, informative, well-supported research paper.

Your first step is to choose a topic and then to develop research questions, a working thesis, and a written research proposal. Set aside adequate time for this part of the process. Fully exploring ideas will help you build a solid foundation for your paper.

Choosing a Topic

When you choose a topic for a research paper, you are making a major commitment. Your choice will help determine whether you enjoy the lengthy process of research and writing—and whether your final paper fulfills the assignment requirements. If you choose your topic hastily, you may later find it difficult to work with your topic. By taking your time and choosing carefully, you can ensure that this assignment is not only challenging but also rewarding.

Writers understand the importance of choosing a topic that fulfills the assignment requirements and fits the assignment’s purpose and audience. (For more information about purpose and audience, see Chapter 6 “Writing Paragraphs: Separating Ideas and Shaping Content” .) Choosing a topic that interests you is also crucial. You instructor may provide a list of suggested topics or ask that you develop a topic on your own. In either case, try to identify topics that genuinely interest you.

After identifying potential topic ideas, you will need to evaluate your ideas and choose one topic to pursue. Will you be able to find enough information about the topic? Can you develop a paper about this topic that presents and supports your original ideas? Is the topic too broad or too narrow for the scope of the assignment? If so, can you modify it so it is more manageable? You will ask these questions during this preliminary phase of the research process.

Identifying Potential Topics

Sometimes, your instructor may provide a list of suggested topics. If so, you may benefit from identifying several possibilities before committing to one idea. It is important to know how to narrow down your ideas into a concise, manageable thesis. You may also use the list as a starting point to help you identify additional, related topics. Discussing your ideas with your instructor will help ensure that you choose a manageable topic that fits the requirements of the assignment.

In this chapter, you will follow a writer named Jorge, who is studying health care administration, as he prepares a research paper. You will also plan, research, and draft your own research paper.

Jorge was assigned to write a research paper on health and the media for an introductory course in health care. Although a general topic was selected for the students, Jorge had to decide which specific issues interested him. He brainstormed a list of possibilities.

If you are writing a research paper for a specialized course, look back through your notes and course activities. Identify reading assignments and class discussions that especially engaged you. Doing so can help you identify topics to pursue.

• Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) in the news
• Sexual education programs
• Hollywood and eating disorders
• Americans’ access to public health information
• Media portrayal of health care reform bill
• Depictions of drugs on television
• The effect of the Internet on mental health
• Popularized diets (such as low-carbohydrate diets)
• Fear of pandemics (bird flu, HINI, SARS)
• Electronic entertainment and obesity
• Advertisements for prescription drugs
• Public education and disease prevention

Set a timer for five minutes. Use brainstorming or idea mapping to create a list of topics you would be interested in researching for a paper about the influence of the Internet on social networking. Do you closely follow the media coverage of a particular website, such as Twitter? Would you like to learn more about a certain industry, such as online dating? Which social networking sites do you and your friends use? List as many ideas related to this topic as you can.

Narrowing Your Topic

Once you have a list of potential topics, you will need to choose one as the focus of your essay. You will also need to narrow your topic. Most writers find that the topics they listed during brainstorming or idea mapping are broad—too broad for the scope of the assignment. Working with an overly broad topic, such as sexual education programs or popularized diets, can be frustrating and overwhelming. Each topic has so many facets that it would be impossible to cover them all in a college research paper. However, more specific choices, such as the pros and cons of sexual education in kids’ television programs or the physical effects of the South Beach diet, are specific enough to write about without being too narrow to sustain an entire research paper.

A good research paper provides focused, in-depth information and analysis. If your topic is too broad, you will find it difficult to do more than skim the surface when you research it and write about it. Narrowing your focus is essential to making your topic manageable. To narrow your focus, explore your topic in writing, conduct preliminary research, and discuss both the topic and the research with others.

Exploring Your Topic in Writing

“How am I supposed to narrow my topic when I haven’t even begun researching yet?” In fact, you may already know more than you realize. Review your list and identify your top two or three topics. Set aside some time to explore each one through freewriting. (For more information about freewriting, see Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” .) Simply taking the time to focus on your topic may yield fresh angles.

Jorge knew that he was especially interested in the topic of diet fads, but he also knew that it was much too broad for his assignment. He used freewriting to explore his thoughts so he could narrow his topic. Read Jorge’s ideas.

Conducting Preliminary Research

Another way writers may focus a topic is to conduct preliminary research . Like freewriting, exploratory reading can help you identify interesting angles. Surfing the web and browsing through newspaper and magazine articles are good ways to start. Find out what people are saying about your topic on blogs and online discussion groups. Discussing your topic with others can also inspire you. Talk about your ideas with your classmates, your friends, or your instructor.

Jorge’s freewriting exercise helped him realize that the assigned topic of health and the media intersected with a few of his interests—diet, nutrition, and obesity. Preliminary online research and discussions with his classmates strengthened his impression that many people are confused or misled by media coverage of these subjects.

Jorge decided to focus his paper on a topic that had garnered a great deal of media attention—low-carbohydrate diets. He wanted to find out whether low-carbohydrate diets were as effective as their proponents claimed.

Writing at Work

At work, you may need to research a topic quickly to find general information. This information can be useful in understanding trends in a given industry or generating competition. For example, a company may research a competitor’s prices and use the information when pricing their own product. You may find it useful to skim a variety of reliable sources and take notes on your findings.

The reliability of online sources varies greatly. In this exploratory phase of your research, you do not need to evaluate sources as closely as you will later. However, use common sense as you refine your paper topic. If you read a fascinating blog comment that gives you a new idea for your paper, be sure to check out other, more reliable sources as well to make sure the idea is worth pursuing.

Review the list of topics you created in Note 11.18 “Exercise 1” and identify two or three topics you would like to explore further. For each of these topics, spend five to ten minutes writing about the topic without stopping. Then review your writing to identify possible areas of focus.

Set aside time to conduct preliminary research about your potential topics. Then choose a topic to pursue for your research paper.

Collaboration

Please share your topic list with a classmate. Select one or two topics on his or her list that you would like to learn more about and return it to him or her. Discuss why you found the topics interesting, and learn which of your topics your classmate selected and why.

A Plan for Research

Your freewriting and preliminary research have helped you choose a focused, manageable topic for your research paper. To work with your topic successfully, you will need to determine what exactly you want to learn about it—and later, what you want to say about it. Before you begin conducting in-depth research, you will further define your focus by developing a research question , a working thesis, and a research proposal.

Formulating a Research Question

In forming a research question, you are setting a goal for your research. Your main research question should be substantial enough to form the guiding principle of your paper—but focused enough to guide your research. A strong research question requires you not only to find information but also to put together different pieces of information, interpret and analyze them, and figure out what you think. As you consider potential research questions, ask yourself whether they would be too hard or too easy to answer.

To determine your research question, review the freewriting you completed earlier. Skim through books, articles, and websites and list the questions you have. (You may wish to use the 5WH strategy to help you formulate questions. See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” for more information about 5WH questions.) Include simple, factual questions and more complex questions that would require analysis and interpretation. Determine your main question—the primary focus of your paper—and several subquestions that you will need to research to answer your main question.

Here are the research questions Jorge will use to focus his research. Notice that his main research question has no obvious, straightforward answer. Jorge will need to research his subquestions, which address narrower topics, to answer his main question.

Using the topic you selected in Note 11.24 “Exercise 2” , write your main research question and at least four to five subquestions. Check that your main research question is appropriately complex for your assignment.

Constructing a Working ThesIs

A working thesis concisely states a writer’s initial answer to the main research question. It does not merely state a fact or present a subjective opinion. Instead, it expresses a debatable idea or claim that you hope to prove through additional research. Your working thesis is called a working thesis for a reason—it is subject to change. As you learn more about your topic, you may change your thinking in light of your research findings. Let your working thesis serve as a guide to your research, but do not be afraid to modify it based on what you learn.

Jorge began his research with a strong point of view based on his preliminary writing and research. Read his working thesis statement, which presents the point he will argue. Notice how it states Jorge’s tentative answer to his research question.

One way to determine your working thesis is to consider how you would complete sentences such as I believe or My opinion is . However, keep in mind that academic writing generally does not use first-person pronouns. These statements are useful starting points, but formal research papers use an objective voice.

Write a working thesis statement that presents your preliminary answer to the research question you wrote in Note 11.27 “Exercise 3” . Check that your working thesis statement presents an idea or claim that could be supported or refuted by evidence from research.

Creating a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a brief document—no more than one typed page—that summarizes the preliminary work you have completed. Your purpose in writing it is to formalize your plan for research and present it to your instructor for feedback. In your research proposal, you will present your main research question, related subquestions, and working thesis. You will also briefly discuss the value of researching this topic and indicate how you plan to gather information.

When Jorge began drafting his research proposal, he realized that he had already created most of the pieces he needed. However, he knew he also had to explain how his research would be relevant to other future health care professionals. In addition, he wanted to form a general plan for doing the research and identifying potentially useful sources. Read Jorge’s research proposal.

Before you begin a new project at work, you may have to develop a project summary document that states the purpose of the project, explains why it would be a wise use of company resources, and briefly outlines the steps involved in completing the project. This type of document is similar to a research proposal. Both documents define and limit a project, explain its value, discuss how to proceed, and identify what resources you will use.

Writing Your Own Research Proposal

Now you may write your own research proposal, if you have not done so already. Follow the guidelines provided in this lesson.

Key Takeaways

• Developing a research proposal involves the following preliminary steps: identifying potential ideas, choosing ideas to explore further, choosing and narrowing a topic, formulating a research question, and developing a working thesis.
• A good topic for a research paper interests the writer and fulfills the requirements of the assignment.
• Defining and narrowing a topic helps writers conduct focused, in-depth research.
• Writers conduct preliminary research to identify possible topics and research questions and to develop a working thesis.
• A good research question interests readers, is neither too broad nor too narrow, and has no obvious answer.
• A good working thesis expresses a debatable idea or claim that can be supported with evidence from research.
• Writers create a research proposal to present their topic, main research question, subquestions, and working thesis to an instructor for approval or feedback.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

• Research Guides

6 Stages of Research

• 6: Evaluation
• 1: Task Definition
• 2: Information Seeking
• 3: Location & Access
• 4: Use of Information
• 5: Synthesis
• Find More Help
• About Forsyth Library

Ask a Librarian

Browse our FAQ, Chat Live with a Librarian, Call, Text, Email, or Make an Appointment.

We are here to help!

The purpose of this step is to evaluate your own work .

Your professor assigns you a research paper because they want you to learn about a topic, but also because they want you to learn how to think. Research papers and projects not only teach you how to find a good answer to a question when you are out in the real world, they also teach you how to weigh conflicting evidence, organize your thoughts, and combine personal experience, world view, and evidence in a way that allows you to be proud of and believe in your own answer. For this reason, reflection on the process is a key component to actually learning about how to write a research paper. 

Reread your paper

• Does your argument make sense?
• Did you support your claims with evidence?
• Did any section seem unnecessary to your argument?
• Did it feel like there were sections missing?
• What do you like about your paper?

Think about your research process

• Did you give yourself enough time to find good resources?
• Did you have to switch up your keywords at any point?
• Did you have trouble going back and finding the articles you were citing?
• What could you have done differently to make this process better?
• What did you do well?
• << Previous: 5: Synthesis
• Next: Find More Help >>
• Last Updated: Aug 20, 2024 11:14 AM
• URL: https://fhsuguides.fhsu.edu/6stages

Transcription Service for Your Academic Paper

Start Transcription now

Editing & Proofreading for Your Research Paper

Get it proofread now

Online Printing & Binding with Free Express Delivery

Configure binding now

• Academic essay overview
• The writing process
• Structuring academic essays
• Types of academic essays
• Academic writing overview
• Sentence structure
• Academic writing process
• Improving your academic writing
• Titles and headings
• APA style overview
• APA citation & referencing
• APA structure & sections
• Citation & referencing
• Structure and sections
• APA examples overview
• Commonly used citations
• Other examples
• British English vs. American English
• Chicago style overview
• Chicago citation & referencing
• Chicago structure & sections
• Chicago style examples
• Citing sources overview
• Citation format
• Citation examples
• College essay overview
• Application
• How to write a college essay
• Types of college essays
• Commonly confused words
• Definitions
• Dissertation overview
• Dissertation structure & sections
• Dissertation writing process
• Graduate school overview
• Application & admission
• Study abroad
• Master degree
• Harvard referencing overview
• Language rules overview
• Grammatical rules & structures
• Parts of speech
• Punctuation
• Methodology overview
• Analyzing data
• Experiments
• Observations
• Inductive vs. Deductive
• Qualitative vs. Quantitative
• Types of validity
• Types of reliability
• Sampling methods
• Theories & Concepts
• Types of research studies
• Types of variables
• MLA style overview
• MLA examples
• MLA citation & referencing
• MLA structure & sections
• Plagiarism overview
• Plagiarism checker
• Types of plagiarism
• Printing production overview
• Research bias overview
• Types of research bias
• Example sections
• Types of research papers
• Research process overview
• Problem statement
• Research proposal
• Research topic
• Statistics overview
• Levels of measurment
• Frequency distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Measures of variability
• Hypothesis testing
• Parameters & test statistics
• Types of distributions
• Correlation
• Effect size
• Hypothesis testing assumptions
• Types of ANOVAs
• Types of chi-square
• Statistical data
• Statistical models
• Spelling mistakes
• Tips overview
• Academic writing tips
• Dissertation tips
• Sources tips
• Working with sources overview
• Evaluating sources
• Finding sources
• Including sources
• Types of sources

Your Step to Success

Transcription Service for Your Paper

Printing & Binding with 3D Live Preview

Research Process – The 5 Stages of Your Research

How do you like this article cancel reply.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Research is the creative and systematic work done to increase knowledge on a particular topic or phenomenon. It involves multiple steps such as defining a research question, conducting a literature review, collecting data, analyzing results, and drawing conclusions to contribute to the existing body of knowledge. This post discusses the entire research process and everything you should know about it.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Research process – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Research process
• 3 Step 1 of the research process: Choosing a topic
• 4 Step 2 of the research process: Identify a problem
• 5 Step 3 of the research process: Research question
• 6 Step 4 of the research process: Research design
• 7 Step 5 of the research process: Research proposal
• 8 Overview of all research process articles

Research process – In a Nutshell

• The research process involves the critical steps between choosing a topic and presenting it for approval.
• It is the first process of starting a research project.
• The research processes include selecting a topic, problem identification, research question, research design formulation, and writing a proposal.

Definition: Research process

This process involves the steps of conducting research work to get effective or desired results from your project. It entails selecting the topic, conducting problem research, developing a research design, and establishing a proposal.

Printing Your Thesis With BachelorPrint

• High-quality bindings with customizable embossing
• 3D live preview to check your work before ordering
• Free express delivery

Configure your binding now!

to the print shop

Step 1 of the research process: Choosing a topic

Choosing a topic for your research is not as easy as you may assume, especially if you have not done it before. For instance, you must become well-versed in the material surrounding the topic, the possible research topics , and if there is room for more knowledge. Furthermore, choosing a topic for your research process may take a while and involve the methods below.

Brainstorming ideas

You can come up with a research topic by brainstorming ideas. For instance, you can find a field of interest or classes where you want to choose your idea. However, you may have already thought of a topic, like when applying to graduate school. However, even with an existing topic idea, you still need to write a statement of purpose. The purpose of brainstorming ideas is to choose a specific topic.

Familiarize yourself with your topic

Once you have landed on the topic you want to write about; the next step is to familiarize yourself with it. You can get a good sense of the chosen topic by reviewing existing literature. While reading about the topic, taking notes, and identifying problem areas, debates, and questions would be wise. This helps you find a specific niche for your research.

Considering the practicalities

The next part of choosing a topic is considering the practicalities. For instance, you should consider the factors below:

• The requirements of your program
• The time you have to conduct the research and submit your report
• The resources you will need to research the particular topic

Step 2 of the research process: Identify a problem

Consider the following elements when identifying a research problem .

Theoretical and practical problems

A well-identified research problem will help the researcher accomplish all the vital phases of the research process, like selecting objectives and research methodology and making your project manageable. There are two types of problems in research: practical and theoretical .

Practical research focuses on processes that are not working properly. Examples of practical research problems are:

• Performance/ productivity issues in an organization
• Processes that need improvement in an institution
• Areas of concern in a field

On the other hand, theoretical research is associated with unexplored phenomena. For example:

• A context that has not been studied closely (like long-term effects of radiation from Wi-Fi)
• A contradiction between various perspectives (like the difference between racism and colorism)
• A correlation that is not well-understood (like the link between Vitamin D deficiency and cardiovascular health)

Writing a problem statement

A problem statement is a precise description of the issues your research project will address. It is crucial for finding and implementing effective solutions in a research project. Additionally, a problem statement helps you contextualize and understand the implication of your research problem. An effective problem statement should:

• Put the problem in context
• Describe the precise problem
• Show the relevance of the problem
• Set objectives

Step 3 of the research process: Research question

A research question aims to help you get perspectives on what you should focus on when conducting research for your project.

A strong research question should be, focused, researchable, feasible, specific, complex, and relevant. Other types of research require a conceptual framework and testable hypotheses before coming up with research questions.

Step 4 of the research process: Research design

A research design is an approach for answering your research questions using empirical data. A research design aims to ensure that our methods match your project’s aims. It also ensures that you use the right methods for data analysis. Creating a research design entails the following steps:

When creating a research design, you must consider primary or secondary data and qualitative or quantitative methods. Your choice will influence your entire research design.

Step 5 of the research process: Research proposal

Finally, you must write a research proposal through which you present your objectives, content, and plan. The proposal will demonstrate the relevance of your study and should include a problem statement, research objectives, questions, and methodology.

Additionally, your research proposal needs a literature review section that shows that you have researched and understood your topic. It also shows that you are not repeating what others have said or done.

You must present the research proposal to your professor or instructor for approval before conducting the study.

Overview of all research process articles

• Research question examples
• Problem statement example
• Research problem
• Relevance of research

What are the five stages of the research process?

The five stages are choosing a topic, identifying a problem, formulating a research process, creating a research design, and writing a research proposal.

What is the best way to choose a topic for your research process?

There are many methods for choosing a topic for your research process. The best ones are brainstorming ideas, familiarizing yourself with your topic, and considering the practicalities of your options.

What is the difference between choosing a research topic and identifying a problem?

The difference is that you can choose a topic in a general area while identifying a problem helps you focus your research on a specific subject in your topic.

What is the value of the research process?

The research process helps you get effective results from your project. It also helps you design your project.

Extremely satisfied, excellent deal with delivery in less than 24h. The print...

We use cookies on our website. Some of them are essential, while others help us to improve this website and your experience.

• External Media

Individual Privacy Preferences

Cookie Details Privacy Policy Imprint

Here you will find an overview of all cookies used. You can give your consent to whole categories or display further information and select certain cookies.

Accept all Save

Essential cookies enable basic functions and are necessary for the proper function of the website.

Show Cookie Information Hide Cookie Information

Statistics cookies collect information anonymously. This information helps us to understand how our visitors use our website.

Content from video platforms and social media platforms is blocked by default. If External Media cookies are accepted, access to those contents no longer requires manual consent.

Privacy Policy Imprint

The Seven Steps of the Research Process

Research, as a tool for progress, satisfies mankind’s curiosity to lots of questions. Whether you are a high school or college student, you have to take research subject for you to be able to receive your diploma. To ease your burden in doing research, here are the seven steps in the research process:

1. Identification of a research problem

A good research always starts with a good problem. You can observe people or things, visit places, read print materials, or consult experts to find the research problem that is right for you. The research problem guides you in formulating the hypothesis and interpretation of your findings so that you can formulate the right conclusion. A good research problem is important because it is the basis of all subsequent research activities you are going to undertake. Factors like area of interest, availability of fund, socio-economic significance of the study, and the safety measures to be undertaken should be considered in finding a good research problem.

2. Formulation of Hypothesis

After finding your research problem, the next step is to formulate your own hypothesis. A hypothesis is a theoretical statement in solving a logical relationship between variables. Do not be afraid if your hypothesis proves to be incorrect after the experimentation because it is only considered as an educated guess. Always remember that when you formulate a hypothesis, it should be based on the research problem being solved.

3. Review of Related Literature

A research problem is vague at first. To give you a vivid picture of the whole research, you shall read various publications or surf the internet to become aware of the previous works already done. In doing so, it could spur an idea that can be the subject of your investigation. The review of related literature can be taken from science books, magazines, journals, newspapers, or even in the internet.

4. Preparation of Research Design

A research design is the blueprint of the research you are going to undertake. It serves as the work plan of the whole study not only because it entails the resources needed in conducting the research but also the ways these resources are utilized.

5. Actual experimentation

Actual experimentation is an implementation of the research design. In actual experimentation, you have to conduct an experiment to prove the validity of the hypothesis you have formulated. Actual experimentation includes the methodology that you have followed in doing your research. The methodology should be carefully planned prior to the actual experimentation to ensure the validity and accuracy of the result.

6. Results and Discussion

This is the heart of the research process because this is part where the findings of the research can be found. You can use table (not the table in your kitchen) and graph to interpret the results of your research.

7. Formulation of Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusion is a statement where you will present the solution to the proposed problem based on the findings of the investigation. They are tied up to the questions investigated. Your conclusion will show whether or not your experiment worked. It should answer your hypothesis and research problem. In your concluding statement you can also infer on the possible benefits to society that your results might present. You can state any plans you might have to continue working on other aspects related to your area of study. We must remember that recommendations are based on conclusions and conclusions are based on findings

Conducting research is a tiresome task because it is a year-round activity. You have to be committed to become successful in making a good research which would benefit not only you but of everyone. The willingness in you in making future researches should always be there because doing research without your ‘heart’ and ‘mind’ on it is a burden on your part. Always enjoy doing it. Enjoy the ride. The more that you enjoy doing the task, the more that you ease the burden in conducting this difficult endeavor. Never hesitate to ask questions. Asking questions from other people who is aware of your research topic would help you arrive at the correct conclusions. Now that you have finally learned the steps in the research process, you can now start doing one. Good luck!

Mark Kevin Gabriel Santos

Mark Kevin G. Santos is a licensed teacher. He is a science enthusiast. He placed 7th during the September 2012 Licensure Examination for Teachers – Secondary Level. He is currently teaching at Tabacao National High School in Talavera, Nueva Ecija.

4 thoughts on “The Seven Steps of the Research Process”

I’m satisfied with the explanation. Thanks to the author

Are steps same as stage’s

this is very useful and informative article. it has given deep explanation the steps of research process in a simple way. thank you teacher.

Hello teacher. May I know when was this article published? I would like to cite your work. Thank you.

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Can't find what you're looking for.

We are here to help - please use the search box below.

• U.S. Locations
• UMGC Europe
• Learn Online
• Find Answers
• 855-655-8682
• Current Students

Online Guide to Writing and Research

Assessing your writing, explore more of umgc.

• Online Guide to Writing

The Research Stage

Strong writing begins with the admission that one has a lot to learn.  Research  helps to remedy this situation. However, keep in mind that research is as much about  exploration  as it is about learning. Often, as we begin the research process, we do not even know what questions to ask, or we discover other questions that are more important than our initial questions.

Your Research Goals

As you work through the research stage, your goals should be to hone your research question, develop your thesis, and gather evidence for your supporting points. Try to allow your research to inspire brainstorming and note-taking. Explore and play with ideas as you learn about your topic. Finally, you should ensure you have performed an adequate survey of the available sources and that you have kept orderly and complete notes. When you have finished your research, you should be able to answer “yes” to the following questions.

Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.

Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

By using our website you agree to our use of cookies. Learn more about how we use cookies by reading our  Privacy Policy .

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

THE MAIN STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

2021, UNCAF UNIVERSITY

The planning of how the research will be done, when to do what, who to do what, and what might be derived from the research are all well spelt out in the research method stage. Then data collection stage is the research proposal implementation stage and the data analysis and reporting stages are the research process consolidations and termination points respectively. The stages mentioned above might be applied from simple to complex approaches depending on the nature of the research.

Related Papers

Abdiel Jazer Gaffud

Journal of Xidian University

Rahat Sabah

Background: Research process and data analysis has been studied widely in academic and business surrounding since its starting point but the most students do not care about the book learning of concept, need and direction of the research. To move the new area of exploration in every fields of life, the student need to acquire/develop awareness about recognition, description and solutions of the problems regarding decision making process. The aim of this study is to review the process of research and steps involved in data analysis. This study teaches how to select a research design, how to make conceptual framework, and how to plan analysis of data .This study guides to understand the evaluation of assumption of research, assess the fitness of model and interpretation of variables. This study provides proper knowledge about research plans and statistical software's such as AMOS, SPSS and EViews, which help the student and researchers to integrate the methods in all area of research process so that, they could successfully complete their research projects and articles. Purpose of the Research: The purpose of this study is to provide the familiarity and necessary skills for the students and researchers in completing their research project and decision making process .The main objective of this study is to put emphasis on the need of learning research process for the student of developing nations and help the students, managers, researchers and, policy makers to learn how to conduct research and prepare reports or present suggestions to solve the problems and improve the performance of their related filed. Design/Methodology/Approach: This is a literature based review study and articles and case studies have been reviewed for this study. Finding: This study gives emphasize the need of learning the process of research. A good student always think about all the problems present in him/her Society and look into all alternates than try to give best solution of these problems. This study give emphasizes to follow the research ethics though out our research work and help the students and researchers about how to explain the problem, how to define the purposes of the research, how to identify the variables and relate them with the objectives of the results as well as it teach how to collect and analyze the data to produce valuable suggestions from the results of your research work. Implications/Originality/Value: It is concluded that without learning an appropriate research mythology and data analysis, a student could not write a research project successfully and a manger may damage the performance of his/her organization by taking wrong decision. So this study motivate the reader to conduct research before decision making process, .it stress that

Wendy Bowles

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (Basis in the Management and Business Process)

Boyke Hatman

Research method is a method or scientific technique to obtain data with specific purposes and uses. The scientific means or techniques in question are where research activities are carried out based on scientific characteristics. This is a set of rules, activities, and procedures used by the perpetrators. The methodology is also a theoretical analysis of a method or method. Research is a systematic investigation to increase knowledge, as well as systematic and organized efforts to investigate certain problems that require answers. The nature of research can be understood by studying various aspects that encourage research to do it properly. Every person has a different motivation, including influenced by their goals and profession. Motivation and research objectives in general are basically the same, namely research is a reflection of the desire of people who always try to know something. The desire to acquire and develop knowledge is a basic human need which is generally a motivation to conduct research. The validity of research data can be obtained by using valid instruments, using appropriate and adequate amounts of data sources, as well as correct data collection and analysis methods. To obtain reliable data, the instrument must be reliable and the research carried out repeatedly. Furthermore, to obtain objective data, the number of sample data sources approaches the population.Each study has specific goals and uses. In general, there are three types of research objectives, namely the nature of discovery, verification and development. The finding means that the data obtained from research is truly new data that has not been previously known.

Kamrul Hasan

Research Process and Stages in Social Sciences

yavuz ercan Gul

In this study, it is aimed to provide detailed information about the process of scientific research in social sciences, especially for graduate students who are new to scientific research. For this purpose, the processes of determining the research topic, writing the research problem, literature review in scientific research are discussed. The starting point of the research is the idea that it will provide convenience to those who are new to the scientific research process. Determining the topic in scientific research and producing new and original ideas about that topic depends on the analytical thinking skills of the researcher. After determining the subject, t h e r e are important steps that the researcher should pay attention to in the process of defining the problem. Because the research problem starts with the interest in the subject and is at the centre of the research. Asking the right questions helps the researcher to find the right answer. Another important step that should be considered in scientific research is the review of the literature. Because the introduction of the new depends on a good knowledge of the old. For this reason, it is not right to start the research without scanning the literature correctly.

Mohamed Benhima

The current paper is a report on the reseach process as was tackled in Kothari C.R (2004). Research Methodology Methods and Techniques. 2nd edition. New Age International Publisher.

Asmatullah Ghayasi

andrea azures

• Identify the interest • Study the interest • Identify possible interesting dimension or problem in the area of interest • Formulate the initial research question in response to the identified dimension or problem in the area of interest • Make an initial research to gain further understanding of the initial research question • Incorporate new findings to the initial research question • Assess whether the research question remains relevant to the area of interest by studying the current state of literature All research inquiry starts from a simple identification of an area on which someone is interested in. A student researcher could be interested in the current state of information and communication technology, educational system, career tracks, use of social media, effects of personal issues on academic performance and impact of social background on education opportunities to name a few. Interests are either developed through life path, innate (such as inclination to music and other performing arts) or ideologically acquired. The identification of interest as the first stage of research inquiry is only reasonable since demands of the process requires undivided commitment and human nature has it that we struggle doing things when it is outside our area of interest.

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

melaku emayneh

Sadman Sakib

Muhammad Maqbool

Helena Lovasz-Bukvova

Asian Journal of Advanced Research and Reports

forman erwin Siagian

collins wetiatia

Catherine N . Mwai

Scholarly Communication and the Publish or Perish Pressures of Academia A volume in the Advances in Knowledge Acquisition, Transfer, and Management (AKATM) Book Series

Dr. Naresh A . Babariya , Alka V. Gohel

Saeed Anwar

Fred Ntedika Mvumbi

Maddy Thompson

Bontle Kanyane

NMSU Business Outlook

Jeremy Sierra , Michael R Hyman

Xochitl Ortiz

Aksha Memon

stephenson Nkurikiyimana

WILBERT M G A N G A MTESSIGWA

MD Ashikur Rahman

Dr. Awais H. Gillani

Bhimashankar Sanga

Sonika Jain, PhD

Raphael Sena

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Your Article Library

Steps involved in the process of social research: 11 steps.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

This article throws light on the eleven important steps involved in the process of social research, i.e, (1) Formulation of Research Problem, (2) Review of Related Literature, (3) Formulation of Hypotheses, (4) Working Out Research Design, (5) Defining the Universe of Study, (6) Determining Sampling Design, (7) Administering the tools of Data Collection and Others.

Step 1# Formulation of Research Problem:

In real terms research begins with a problem which needs solution. Such a perception on the part of the researcher, first of all, falls within the general area of interest indicating to locate the problem either in the quest of some intellectual pursuit or for some practical concern, such as finding out a practical solution to a problem, evaluation of a programme in the light of new facts, gathering of relevant facts for social planning or even for policy making.

While selecting a problem for research, the Social Scientists are likely to be influenced by their own personal values as well as the prevalent social conditions. As scientists differ with regard to their values and societies differ in respect of their preference of different spheres, the choice of topics in social research vary widely.

As the general topic fails to provide the ability to examine the relevance of data, adopt the methods or to organize them, the need for formulation of a specific problem is always felt. This makes the goal of the researcher clear-cut. It not only guides the researcher in exploration, but also progressively sharpens the focus of questions by narrowing down the coverage like a pin­point. For example, if the general topic is compared with the base of a pyramid, the specific topic may resemble the apex of it.

In any case, formulation of a problem, arising out of theoretical situation or practical concern, is not an easy task, as it appears to be. In real terms it is a herculean task, so much so that even a scientist of the stature of Charles Darwin has gone to the length of saying that “Looking back, I think it was more difficult to see what the problems were than to solve them.”

As a problem involves some difficulty experienced by the investigator, the formulation of the problem should make its various components explicit in such a manner that it will justify the saying that “a problem well put is half solved” R.K. Merton has identified three important questions as the three principal components involved in the process of formulation of a problem in the field of research in soft sciences:

(i) What one wants’ to know?

(ii) Why one wants to seek answers to those particular questions? and

(iii) What may be the possible answers to the originating questions?

These three questions correspond to the components of the originating questions, the rationale and the specifying questions respectively.

There are at least three types of originating questions:

(i) Originating questions calling for discovering a particular body of social facts,

(ii) Originating questions directing attention to the research for uniformities between classes of variables, and

(iii) Questions addressing to a variety of institutional spheres.

As regards the rationale component in the progressive formulation of a problem, the statement of reasons pertaining to the tenability of a question is made. It also seeks to justify the answers’ contribution to theoretical or practical concerns. The fundamental requirement of a rationale is to widen the base of scientifically consequential question and to eschew the scientifically trivial ones. R.K Merton holds the view that “the rationale states the case for question in the court of scientific opinion.”

The theoretical rationale attempts to justify the contribution, likely to be made by the answers to questions, in terms of the enlargement of the scope of the prevalent ideas or concepts or theory. It may also throw light on the observed inconsistencies in existing ideas and examine the nature of inconsistencies in terms of its spuriousness or reality. On the other hand, the practical rationale acts as a pointer to justify as to how the answers to the research questions will bring about certain desired practical values. However, a question raised for the practical concern may also have its bearings on the theoretical system.

The component of specifying questions in the process of formulating a research problem aims at transforming the originating questions into a series of observations in a particular concrete situation, necessitating collection of empirical data, so as to seek possible answers to the originating questions in terms that satisfy the rationale fruitfully.

Step 2# Review of Related Literature:

Since an effective research is based on past knowledge, an investigator must always take advantage of the knowledge which have been preserved or accumulated earlier. It not only helps the researcher in avoiding duplication and formulating useful hypothesis, but also provides him with the evidence that he is familiar with what is already known and what is still unknown and untested in the field.

Review of related literature implies the analysis of the summary of the writings of recognized authorities and the earlier researches in the particular area. According to J.W. Best practically all human knowledge can be found in books and libraries. Unlike other animals…man builds upon the accumulated and recorded knowledge of the past.

In the words of C.V. Good “the keys to the vast store house of published literature may open doors to sources of significant problems and explanatory hypothesis and provide helpful orientation for definition of the problem, background for selection of procedure and comparative data so interpretation of results.”

The essentiality of the review of literature remains in the fact that it provides the researcher with an indication of the direction, updates information relating to researcher’s own problem, avoids the replication of the study of findings, provides the scope for analogy and formulation of hypothesis.

The main objectives of review of related literature are:

(i) To provide theories, ideas, explanations or hypotheses, which are likely to be helpful in the formulation of research problem?

(ii) To avoid overlapping studies,

(iii) To be a fertile source for formulating hypothesis,

(iv) To suggest the methods of data collection, procedures, to explore the sources of data and statistical techniques appropriate to the solution of the problem,

(v) To gather comparative data and findings of earlier researches which are of use in the interpretation of data and analysis of results?

(vi) To enable the investigator to gain expertise in his area of interest, and

(vii) To keep the researcher abreast of the most recent development in his area of activity.

In order to survey the relevant literature, the investigator should follow the following principles:

(i) At the outset, he should endeavor to obtain an overall view from the general source comprising those written materials which are more likely to provide the meaning and nature of the concepts and variables within the theoretical system.

(ii) Thereafter, the researcher should embark upon reviewing the empirical researches conducted in the concerned field. At this stage we make use the Handbook of Research, International Abstracts, etc.

(iii) The researcher must review the library material in a thorough and systematic manner.

(iv) He should take care to record the references with complete bibliographic data.

The main sources of literature which are of immense use for the researcher are books and text books; periodicals; encyclopedias; hand books, yearbooks and guides; abstracts; dissertations and theses; newspapers etc.

Step 3# Formulation of Hypotheses :

The next step in the process of research is the formulation of a tentative explanation of the problem in the form of a proposition wherever feasible. This tentative explanation or assumption or proposition refers to a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables and its tenability remains to be tested.

For formulating the hypothesis the researcher gathers information from several sources, such as existing theories, previous reports of research concerning analogous problems, information from knowledgeable persons, researcher’s own beliefs and insights. However, all studies do not begin with clearly formulated hypothesis.

Some are hypothesis testing studies and some others are hypothesis formulating studies. The exploratory studies are called hypothesis formulating studies because such researches end up with formulation of hypothesis. On the contrary, the hypothesis testing researches begin with clearly formulated hypothesis.

Notwithstanding the formulation of hypothesis at this level, the investigator needs to state the operational definitions of the concepts in order to translate the formal definitions, conveying the nature of the phenomenon, into observable referents.

In developing hypothesis, sociologists attempt to explain or account for the relationship between two or more variables. A variable is a measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions. For example, income, religion, occupation and gender can all be variables in a study.

If one variable is hypothesized to cause or influence another one, social scientists call the first variable as the independent variable and the second is termed the dependent variable. A correlation exists when change in one variable coincides with a change in the other. Correlations are an indication that causality may be present: they do not necessarily indicate causation.

Step 4# Working Out Research Design:

After formulating the research problem, reviewing the related literature and formulating hypothesis, wherever feasible, the researcher reaches the stage of embarking upon working out a design of study as he is guided by the maxim that “work must be planned, if it is to lead to discoveries”. A research design is the general blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data incorporating what the researcher will have to perform from the formulating the tentative generalizations and their operational definitions to final analysis of data.

By providing answers to various questions and acting as a standard and guidepost, it helps in carrying out research validly, objectively, accurately and economically and thereby ensures against its failure. Research designs vary according to the research purposes as well as from the point of view of realizable working procedure.

As regards the research purposes, broadly speaking, there are four categories:

(i) Exploration,

(ii) Description,

(iii) Diagnosis and

(iv) Experimentation.

From the view point of realizable working procedure there are four parts of research design:

(i) Sampling design, describing the different sampling methods to be used for selection of units for study,

(ii) Observational design, describing the way in which the observations are to be made,

(iii) Statistical design, dealing with the statistical techniques to be applied in the analysis and interpretation of data, and

(iv) Operational design, dealing with the specific techniques by which the entire operation of research is to be carried out. Thus it incorporates all the three designs mentioned above, such as the sampling, statistical and observational designs.

Step 5# Defining the Universe of Study :

The universe of study comprises all the items or individuals under consideration in any field of inquiry. In statistical terms, a ‘universe’ or ‘population’ refers to the aggregate of individuals or units from which a ‘sample’ is drawn and to which the results and analysis are to apply. The researcher may distinguish between the target population and survey population so as to clearly define the universe of study. The target population is that population for which the results of research are required.

On the contrary, the survey population implies those items or individuals which are actually included in the sampling frame from which the sample is drawn. However, in most sociological purposes such a distinction is not deemed to be significant. In any case, a complete population must be very explicitly defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent and time.

Step 6# Determining Sampling Design:

As in practice a complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘universe’ is not possible under many circumstances, due to the requirement of a great deal of time, money and energy; the researcher embarks upon deciding the way of a selecting a representative sample which is popularly known as the sample design. It is a definite plan chalked out prior to actual collection of data for obtaining a sample from the universe. The sample must be representative and adequate.

Broadly speaking there are three types of samples, such as:

(i) Probability samples

(ii) Samples based on purposive or subjective or judgement sampling, and

(iii) Samples based on mixed sampling. Probability samples are drawn from the universe according to some laws of chance, based on scientific technique, in which each unit in the population has got some definite pre-assigned probability of being selected in the sample.

For a sample based on purposive or subjective or judgement sampling, units are drawn deliberately or purposely depending upon the objectives of investigation so as include only those important items which represent the universe truly. Units selected for a mixed sample are selected partly according to some probability laws and partly according to a fixed sampling rule which does not insist upon the use of chance. Some of the important types of sampling are: Simple random sampling. Complex random sampling, Stratified random sampling. Cluster and area sampling, haphazard or convenience sampling, quota sampling, judgement sampling etc.

Step 7# Administering the Tools of Data Collection:

Adequate and appropriate data are required for any standard research work. The data may differ considerably keeping in view the financial aspect, time and other resources available to the researcher. The researcher, while collecting data takes into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy. That apart his own ability and experience also counts much in the collection of required data.

Secondary data are collected from books, journals, newspaper, reports of the earlier studies etc., whereas primary data are to be collected either through experiment or through survey. For examining the facts through hypothesis, the researcher, takes recourse to experiment for observing some quantitative measurements.

But, for the purpose of a survey, data may be gathered by observation, personal interviews, telephonic interviews, mailing of questionnaires and through schedules. For any particular survey he may administer one or more than one of the above methods, depending on the nature of study.

Step 8# Analysis of Data:

After completion of the collection of data, the researcher embarks upon the analysis of these data. This involves a number of operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation. Thereafter statistical inferences are drawn.

All these operations are very closely related to one another. At the outset, the researcher classifies the raw data into some usable categories on the basis of some purposes. At this stage coding operations is also done so as to transform the categories of data into symbols in order to make them amenable to be tabulated and counted. The researcher may also induct editing in order to improve the quality of data for coding.

Thereafter, in the post-coding stage, the classified data are put in the form of tables as a part of technical procedure either manually or through mechanical devices such as computers. Computers are generally used in large enquiries for the dual purposes of saving time and for making the study of large number of variables possible. While analyzing data, the researcher applies various well defined statistical formulae for the computation of percentages, coefficients, tests of significance, so as to determine with what validity data can indicate any conclusion.

Step 9# Testing of Hypotheses :

Sociological studies do not always generate data that confirm the original hypothesis. In many instance, a hypothesis is refuted and researchers must reformulate their conclusions. In behavioural sciences it is not possible to test several hypotheses directly. The social scientist can only test the research hypotheses by establishing some kind of sample of behaviour in order to observe it directly.

On the basis of these observable incidents, he determines whether or not those are consistent with the hypothesis so as to deduce their logical consequences. Thus an indirect test of the proposed hypothesis can only be made.

The research hypothesis is the prediction derived from the theory under test. It provides simply an inconclusive test. Actually a stronger test of logic is formed when a null hypothesis is rejected. The null hypothesis is a hypothesis of no difference, the rejection of which results in the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is the operational statement of the researcher’s research hypothesis. In behavioural science research the rejection or acceptance of a null hypothesis is based on 0.05 or .01 alpha level of significance.

The statisticians have developed various tests like chi-square test, t-test, F-test for the purpose of testing the hypothesis. In the studies, where no hypotheses are there to begin with, the generalizations will serve the basis of formulation of hypothesis which may be tested by subsequent researcher in future.

Step 10# Generalization and Interpretation :

After the hypothesis is tested and found valid, it becomes possible on the part of researcher to reach the stage of generalization, which may be construed to be the real value of research. This is only possible in case of hypothesis-testing studies. But in the hypothesis formulating studies where the researcher has no hypothesis to begin with, he may seek to interpret his findings. In other words, he may seek to explain the findings of his research on the basis of some theoretical framework, which may probably raise some new questions for further researches.

Step 11# Reporting the Research :

Research report is the end product of a research activity which gives an account of a long journey on the path of finding a new knowledge or modified knowledge. Writing a research report is a technical task as it requires not only skill on the part of the researcher but also considerable effort, patience and penetration, an overall approach to the problem, data and analysis along with grasp over language and greater objectivity, all springing from considerable thought.

The purposes of research report are:

i. transmission of knowledge;

ii. presentation of findings,

iii. examining the validity of the generalization, and

iv. Inspiration for further research.

The outline of a report comprises:

(i) The preliminaries incorporating the title page, foreword or preface, acknowledge­ments; list of tables, charts or illustrations; and table of contents.

(ii) Contents of the reports which covers the introductory part of research reports which should not only contain purpose of the study, statement of the problem, hypothesis and operational definition of the concepts but also should contain a description of the agency, personnel and other aspects of research.

This part of research also covers:

(a) The study design;

(b) The universe and the organisation of sampling procedures;

(c) Methods, tools and techniques employed for collection of data as well as analysis and presentation of findings;

(iii) The reference material consisting, the bibliography, appendices, glossary of terms and index.

Related Articles:

• Top 5 Phases of Research Process – Explained!
• 5 Steps Involved in Process of Personnel Research

Comments are closed.

• Queen's University Library
• Research Guides

Canadian Legal Research Manual

• Introduction
• Tips (Before You Start)
• Topic Definition
• Exploratory Research
• In-Depth Secondary Sources
• Legislation
• Finalize Research
• Legal Research Checklist
• Interactive: Legal Research Checklist
• Introduction to Secondary Sources
• Legal Encyclopedias
• Textbooks, Treatises, and Other Books
• Journal Literature
• Legal Dictionaries & Words and Phrases
• Non-Traditional Secondary Sources
• How Does GenAI Work?
• Creating Prompts for Legal GenAI
• Critically Assessing AI-generated Content
• Using and Citing AI-generated Content
• Introduction to Legislation
• The Legislative Process
• How Laws are Published
• Researching Bills
• Researching Statutes
• Researching Regulations
• Noting Up Legislation
• Introduction to Case Law
• How Cases are Published
• Finding a Known Case
• Finding Cases on a Topic
• Noting Up Case Law
• Introduction to English Law
• Secondary Sources
• English Legislation
• English Case Law
• English Legal Research Guides
• Introduction to American Law
• US Federal and State Legislation
• American Case Law
• American Legal Research Guides
• Introduction to International Law
• Primary Sources
• International Legal Research Guides
• Introduction to Foreign Law
• Foreign Legal Research Guides
• Canadian Legal Research Guides
• Indigenous Legal Research Guides
• Empirical Legal Research Guides
• Other Legal Research Methods
• Citation Style Guides

Case Law Research Stage

At this point in the process, you are likely to have at least one case citation (a "Known Case") on your research topic from one of the following:

• From your assigning lawyer/instructor or your introductory sources in the Exploratory Research Stage ,
• From secondary sources you found in the In-Depth Secondary Sources Stage ,
• Or from noting up the applicable legislation in the Legislation Stage . 

In the Case Law Research Stage, if possible, you will start your research with those cases that you have already identified:

• Locate and Assess Known Cases
• Note Up Known Cases
• Conduct Supplementary Case Law Searches

1. Locate and Assess Known Cases

First, locate any known cases on a legal research service like CanLII, Westlaw, or Lexis; or from the courts themselves.

►See  Finding Known Cases  for more information about how to locate cases.

Then, evaluate each case's utility for your particular research problem:

• Is it legally relevant to your research?
• What is the court level?
• Is it binding, persuasive, or neither?

►See  Canada's Court System  for more information on the hierarchy of the courts.

Read the cases carefully, making note of how your particular legal concepts are articulated. As you read, you will develop a better sense of how your concepts will emerge in a case and refine your search strategy. Make note of:

• Synonyms, related words, and phrase variations that capture your legal concepts. Adjust your keyword list to reflect these new terms, or add syntax (see our Search Syntax Tutorial ) to capture variations.
• Subject classifications or other finding tools that can help you find additional cases on this legal topic.
• Citations to other potentially relevant primary or secondary sources.

The next step is to note up these cases.

2. Note Up Known Cases

Once you've determined a case is useful and relevant for your research purposes, you need to note it up.

Noting up is a two part process:

• Check the case history to see the ruling in your target case has been modified or overruled on appeal by a higher court.
• Look at how subsequent cases have treated your target case.

This is a process you must do for every case you rely on in your research. The second step may also point you towards additional relevant case law that you can use in your research. 

►See Noting Up Case Law for more information on how to complete this step.

3. Supplementary Case Law Searches

After reading and assessing the cases you discovered in earlier stages of your research, you will likely still need to conduct additional case law research.

This is especially true if your initial cases were discovered via traditional secondary sources, since the publication process means most books and articles may not reflect the most current state of the law.

You will need to address this gap by finding more recent case law on your own. Your known cases may have already provided you with an entry point to additional and/or more recent case law. For example, from:

• Finding cases that have been cited by  your known case. 
• Noting up your known case to find additional relevant cases that have cited your known case.
• Finding secondary sources that discuss your known case and provide additional references to relevant case law. 
• Finding subject classifications that have been assigned to your known case and can be used to find additional cases.

These are all starting points to conducting a more in-depth case law search. You can also start from scratch by conducting a case law keyword search, or use keywords in combination with the above strategies.

►See Finding Cases on a Topic for more information. 

• << Previous: Legislation
• Next: Finalize Research >>

Stages in Legal Research

• Last Updated: Aug 20, 2024 11:10 AM
• Subjects: Law
• Tags: case law , common law , law , legal research , legal skills , legislation , regulations , statutes

• Open access
• Published: 24 August 2024

Technical efficiency and its determinants in health service delivery of public health centers in East Wollega Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia: Two-stage data envelope analysis

• Edosa Tesfaye Geta 1 ,
• Dufera Rikitu Terefa 1 ,
• Adisu Tafari Shama 1 ,
• Adisu Ewunetu Desisa 1 ,
• Wase Benti Hailu 1 ,
• Wolkite Olani 1 ,
• Melese Chego Cheme 1 &
• Matiyos Lema 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  980 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Priority-setting becomes more difficult for decision-makers when the demand for health services and health care resources rises. Despite the fact that the Ethiopian healthcare system places a strong focus on the efficient utilization and allocation of health care resources, studies of efficiency in healthcare facilities have been very limited. Hence, the study aimed to evaluate efficiency and its determinants in public health centers.

A cross-sectional study was conducted in the East Wollega zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Ethiopian fiscal year of 2021–2022 data was collected from August 01–30, 2022 and 34 health centers (decision-making units) were included in the analysis. Data envelope analysis was used to analyze the technical efficiency. A Tobit regression model was used to identify determinants of efficiency, declaring the statistical significance level at P  < 0.05, using 95% confidence interval.

The overall efficiency score was estimated to be 0.47 (95% CI = 0.36–0.57). Out of 34 health centers, only 3 (8.82%) of them were technically efficient, with an efficiency score of 1 and 31 (91.2%) were scale-inefficient, with an average score of 0.54. A majority, 30 (88.2%) of inefficient health centers exhibited increasing return scales. The technical efficiency of urban health centers was (β = -0.35, 95% CI: -0.54, -0.07) and affected health centers’ catchment areas by armed conflicts declined (β = -0.21, 95% CI: -0.39, -0.03) by 35% and 21%, respectively. Providing in-service training for healthcare providers increased the efficiency by 27%; 95% CI, β = 0.27(0.05–0.49).

Conclusions

Only one out of ten health centers was technically efficient, indicating that nine out of ten were scale-inefficient and utilized nearly half of the healthcare resources inefficiently, despite the fact that they could potentially reduce their inputs nearly by half while still maintaining the same level of outputs. The location of health centers and armed conflict incidents significantly declined the efficiency scores, whereas in-service training improved the efficiency. Therefore, the government and health sector should work on the efficient utilization of healthcare resources, resolving armed conflicts, organizing training opportunities, and taking into account the locations of the healthcare facilities during resource allocation.

Peer Review reports

The physical relationship between resources used (inputs) and outputs is referred to as technical efficiency (TE). A technically efficient position is reached when a set of inputs yields the maximum improvement in outputs [ 1 ]. Therefore, as it serves as a tool to achieve better health, health care can be viewed as an intermediate good, and efficiency is the study of the relationship between final health outcomes (lifes saved, life years gained, or quality-adjusted life years) and resource inputs (costs in the form of labor, capital, or equipment) [ 2 ].

Efficiency is a quality of performance that is evaluated by comparing the financial worth of the inputs, the resources utilized to produce a certain output and the output itself, which is a component of the health care system. Either maximizing output for a given set of inputs or minimising inputs required to produce a given output would make a primary health care (PHC) facility efficient. Technical efficiency is the minimum amount of resources required to produce a given output. Wastage or inefficiencies occur when resources are used more than is required to produce a given level of output [ 3 ].

According to the WHO, in order to make progress towards universal health coverage (UHC), more funding for healthcare is required as well as greater value for that funding. According to the 2010 Report, 20–40% of all resources used for health care are wasted [ 4 ]. In most countries, a sizable share of total spending goes into the health sector. Therefore, decision-makers and health administrators should place a high priority on improving the efficiency of health systems [ 5 ].

Efficient utilization of healthcare resources has a significant impact on the delivery of health services. It leads to better access to health services and improves their quality by optimizing the use of resources. Healthcare systems can reduce wait times, increase the number of patients served, and enhance the overall patient experience. When resources are used efficiently, it can result in cost savings for healthcare systems, which allows for the reallocation of funds to other areas in need, potentially expanding services or investing in new technologies [ 6 ].

Also, efficient use of healthcare resources can contribute to better health outcomes. For example, proper management of medical supplies can ensure that patients receive the necessary treatments without delay, leading to improved recovery rates, and it is key to the sustainability of health services by ensuring that healthcare systems can continue to provide care without exhausting financial or material resources [ 6 , 7 ].

Furthermore, proper resource allocation can help to reduce disparities in healthcare delivery by ensuring that resources are distributed based on need so that healthcare systems can work towards providing equitable care to all populations. Efficient resource utilization contributes to the resilience of health systems, enabling them to respond effectively to emergencies, such as pandemics or natural disasters, without compromising the quality of care [ 8 ].

One of the quality dimensions emphasized in strategegy of Ethiopian health sector transformation plan (HSTP) is the theme around excellence in quality improvement and assurance, which is a component of Ethiopia's National Health Financing Strategy (2015–2035), has been providing healthcare in a way that optimizes resource utilization and minimizes wastage [ 9 ]. The majority of efficiency evaluations of Ethiopia's health system have been conducted on a worldwide scale, evaluating various nations' relative levels of efficiency.

Spending on public health nearly doubled between 1995 and 2011. One of the fastest-growing economies, the gross domestic product (GDP) increased by 9% real on average between 1999 and 2012 [ 5 ]. As a result, the whole government budget was able to triple within the same time period (at constant 2010 prices), which resulted in additional funding for health [ 10 ].

External resources also rose from 1995 to 2011 from US$6 million to US$836 million (in constant 2012 dollar) [ 11 ]. The development of the health sector, particularly primary care, was dependent on this ongoing external financing, with external funding accounting for half of primary care spending in 2011 [ 12 ]. Over the past 20 years, Ethiopia's health system has experienced exceptional growth, especially at the primary care level. Prior to 2005, hospitals and urban areas received a disproportionate share of public health spending [ 13 ].

It is becoming more and more necessary for decision-makers to manage the demand for healthcare services and the available resources while striking a balance with competing goals from other sectors. As PHC enters a new transformative phase, beginning with the Health Sector Transformation Plan (HSTP), plans call for increased resource utilization efficiency. Over the course of the subsequent five years (2015/2016–2019/2020), Ethiopia planned to achieve UHC by strengthening the implementation of the nutrition programme and expanding PHC coverage to everyone through improved access to basic curative and preventative health care services [ 9 , 14 ].

Increasing efficiency in the health sector is one way to create financial space for health, and this might potentially free up even more resources to be used for delivering high-quality healthcare [ 15 ]. While there was a considerable emphasis on more efficient resource allocation and utilization during the Health Care and Financing Strategy (1998–2015) in Ethiopia, problems with health institutions' efficient utilization of resources persisted during this time [ 10 ]. Ethiopia is one of the least efficient countries in health system in the world which was ranked 169 th out of 191 countries [ 16 ].

Although maximising health care outputs requires evaluating the technical efficiency of health facilities in providing medical care, there is the lack of studies of this kind carried out across this country. Although the primary focus of health care reforms in Ethiopia is the efficient allocation and utilization of resources within the health system, there is a lack of studies on the efficiency of the country's primary health care system that could identify contributing factors, including incidents of armed conflict within the catchment population of the healthcare facilities, that may impact the efficiency level of these health care facilities. As a result, in the current study, the factors that might have an impact on the technical efficiency of the health centers were categorized into three categories: factors related to the environment, factors related to the health care facilities, and factors related to the health care providers (Fig.  1 ).

Conceptual framework for technical efficiency of health centers in East Wollega zone, Oromia regional state, Ethiopia, 2022

In addition, the annual report of the East Wollega zonal health department for the Ethiopian fiscal year (EFY) 2021 and 2022 indicated that the performance of the health care facilities in the zone was low compared to other administrative zones of the region, Oromia Regional State. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate technical efficiency and its determinants in the public health centers in East Wollega Zones, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia.

Methods and materials

Study settings and design.

The study was carried out in public health care facilities, health centers found in East Wollega Zone, Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. The zone's capital city, Nekemte, is located around 330 kms from Addis Ababa, the capital of the country. The East Wollega Zone is located in the western part of the country, Ethiopia. Data for the EFY of July 2021 to June 2022 was retrospectively collected from August 1–30, 2022.

Data envelope analysis conceptual framework

A two-stage data envelope analysis (DEA) was employed in the current study. The two widely used DEA models, Banker, Charnes, and Cooper (BCC) and Charnes, Cooper, and Rhodes (CCR), were used to determine the technical efficiency (TE), pure technical efficiency (PTE), and scale efficiency (SE) scores for individual health centers which were considered as decision-making units (DMUs) in the first stage of the methodological framework. The overall technical efficiency (OTE) for the DMUs was determined using the CCR model, which assumed constant returns-to-scale (CRS), strong disposability of inputs and outputs, and convexity of the production possibility set. This efficiency value ranges from 0 to 1. Since the aim was to use the least amount of inputs with the same level of production in health centers, it is important to note that the model used input–output oriented approach. In general, this model evaluated the health centers' capabilities to produce a particular quantity of output with the least amount of inputs or, alternatively, the highest level of output that can be produced with the same amount of input. Overall, this model measured the ability of the health centers to produce a given level of output using the minimum amount of input, or alternatively, the maximum amount of output using a given amount of input, using the following formula: yrj : amount of output r from health centre  j , xij  : amount of input i to health centre j, ur: weight given to output; r , vi: weight given to input. i , n: number of health centers; s: number of outputs; m: number of inputs [ 17 , 18 ].

Constant returns to scale (CRS) were measured using the CCR model. The CCR model measuresd the health centre's ability to produce the expected amount of output from a given amount of input using the formula;

The BCC model was used to measure the variable returns to scale (VRS). When there are variations in output production levels and a proportionate increase in all inputs, this model works well for evaluating the PTE of health centers. The equation in use is:

In the methodological framework of the second stage, the OTE scores estimated from the first stage was regeressed using a Tobit regression model. This was to identify determinants of the technical efficiency scores of the primary health care facilities, which included factors related to health centers, health care providers, and the environment. The coefficients (β) of the independent factors indicated their direction of influence on the dependent variable, which was the OTE score. The model used has been expressed below [ 19 ].

Where γ i * is the limited dependent variable, which represented the technical efficiency score, γ i is the observed dependent (censored) variable, x i is the vector of independent variables (factors related to health centers, health care providers, and the environment). β 0 represented intercept (constant) whereas β 1 , β 2 and β 3 were the parameters of the independent variables (coefficients), ε i was a disturbance term assumed to be independently and normally distributed with zero mean and constant variance σ; and i = 1, 2,…n, (n is the number of observations, n  = 34 health centers).

Study variables

Input variables.

The input variables comprised financial resources (salary and incentives) and human resources (number of administrative staffs, clinical and midwife nurses, laboratory technicians and technologists, pharmacy technicians and pharmacists, public health officers, general physicians, and other health care professionals, as well as other non-clinical staffs).

Output variables

Output variables comprised the number of women who had 4 visits of antenatal care (4ANC), number of deliveries, number of mothers who received postnatal care (PNC), number of women who had family planning visits, number of children who received full immunization, number of children aged 6–59 months who received vitamin A supplements, number of clients counseled and tested for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), number of HIV patients who had follow-up care, number of patients diagnosed for TB, number of TB patients who had follow-up care and complete their treatment, number of outpatients who visited the health facilities for other general health services.

Depedent variable

Overall technical efficiency scores of the health centers.

Independent variables

The explanatory variables used in the Tobit regression model were the location of the health centers, accessibility of the health centers to transportation services, support from non-governmental organisations (NGOs), armed conflict incidents in the catchment areas, adequate electricity and water supply, in-service health care provider training, availability of diagnostic services (laboratory services), availability of adequate drug supply, room arrangements for proximity between related services, and marking the rooms with the number and type of services they provide.

Study health facilities

Public health centers in the districts of the East Wollega Zone were the study facilities. In the context of the Ethiopian health care system, a health center is a health facility within the primary health care system that provides promotive, preventive, curative, and rehabilitative outpatient care, including basic laboratory and pharmacy services. This health facility typically has a capacity of 10 beds for emergency and delivery services. Health centers serve as referral centers for health posts and provide supportive supervision for health extension workers (HEWs). It is expected that one health center provides services to a population of 15,000–25,000 within its designated catchment area. There were 17 districts and 67 public health centers in the zone. Nine districts (50%) and thirty-four health centers (50%) were included in the analysis.

Data collection instrument and technique

Data collection was conducted using the document review checklist, which was developed after the review of the Ethiopian standard related to the requirements for health care facilities. Data for the EFY of July 2021 to June 2022 was retrospectively collected. The contents of the document review checklist (data collection instrument) included inputs, outputs, and factors related to health centers, the environment, and health care providers.

Data analysis

Initially, STATA 14 was used to compute descriptive statistics for each input and output variable. For each input and output variable, the mean, standard deviation (SD), minimum and maximum values were presented. Next, MaxDEA7 ( http://maxdea.com ) was used to compute the technical efficiency, pure technical efficiency, scale efficiency scores, and input reduction and/or output increases.

The efficiency of the health centers below the efficiency frontier was measured in terms of their distance from the frontier. If the technical efficiency (TE) score closes to 0, it indicates that the health center is technically inefficient because its production lies below the stochastic frontier. The higher the value of the TE score, the closer the unit’s performance is to the frontier. The TE scores typically fall within the range of 0 to 1. A score of 0 usually indicates that the health care facilities (DMUs) were completely inefficient in health service delivery, whereas a score of 1 suggests that the health care facilities operated at maximum efficiency in health service delivery. In this case, the efficiency scores between these two extremes represent varying levels of the health center's performance in health service delivery. As the TE score moves from 0 to 1, it reflects the health centers’ progress toward optimal resource utilization and efficient performance of the health care facilities in health service delivery [ 20 ]. In comparison to their counterparts, health centers that implemented the best practice frontier were considered technically efficient, with an efficiency score of 1; (100% efficient), and the health centers were said to be efficient if they utilized their resources optimally, and there was no scope for increasing the outputs without increasing the amount of inputs used. The higher the score, the more efficient a health center is. Those health centers with a TE score estimated to be 1 were considered efficient, whereas those with a TE score of < 1 were considered inefficient. This means that the health centers did not utilize their resources efficiently, resulting in wastage of resources and suboptimal outputs.

In the second stage, the estimated overall technical efficiency scores obtained from the DEA were considered as the dependent variable and regressed against the set of independent variables (Fig.  1 ) namely healthcare facility-related, healthcare provider-related and environment-related factors. Finally, the statistical significance level was declared at P  < 0.05 using the 95% confidence interval (CI).

Inputs used and outputs produced

A total of 34 DMUs were included in the study, and from these DMUs, input and output data were collected based on the data from July 1, 2021, to June 30, 2022 of one EFY. For the purpose of analysis, the input variables were categorized into financial resources and human resources, while maternal and child health (MCH), delivery, and general outpatient service were considered as output variables (Table  1 ).

Efficiency of the health centers

Efficient decision units in the DEA efficiency analysis model were defined relative to less efficient units, not absolute. The DMUs in our case were health centers. The estimating technique evaluated an individual health center’s efficiency by comparing its performance with a group of other efficient health centers. A health center’s efficiency reference set was the efficient health center that was used to evaluate the other health centers. The reasons behind the classification of an inefficient health centers as inefficient units were demonstrated by the efficient reference set's performance across the evaluation dimensions (Table  2 ).

Out of 34 health centers, only 3(8.82%) of them were technically efficient, and almost all 31(91.18%) were inefficient. On average, the OTE of the all 34 health centers was estimated to be 0.47, 95% CI = (0.36, 0.57). The OTE scores of the health centers varied greatly, from the lowest of 0.0003 to the highest of 1, implying that most of the health centers were using more resources to produce output than what other health centers with comparable resource levels were producing.

Scale-inefficient health centers had efficiency scores ranging from 0.0004 to 0.99. Thirty-one (91.2%) scale-inefficient health centers had an average score of 0.54; indicating that these health centers might, on average reduce 46% of their resources while maintaining the same amount of outputs. With a scale efficiency of 100%, three of the healthcare facilities (8.82%) had the highest efficiency score for their particular input–output mix.

Regarding PTE scores, 8(23.53%) of the health centers were efficient, and the average score was 0.77 ± 0.18. The return scales (RTS) of 1(2.94%), 3(8.82%), and 31(88.22%) health centers were decreasing return scales (DRS), constant return scales (CRS), and increasing return scales (IRS), respectively.

Determinants of overall technical efficiency

In this study, the Tobit regression model was used to identify the determinants of the technical efficiency of the health centers. As a dependent variable, the health facility's technical efficiency score was calculated from the DEA; Tobit regression was subsequently carried out (Table  3 ).

The location of the health centers, armed conflict incidents in the catchment areas of the health centers, and in-service training of the healthcare providers working in healthcare facicilities significantly influenced the technical efficiency scores of the health centers. Accordingly, the OTE of those health centers that were found in urban areas of the districts declined by 35%, 95% CI, β = -0.35(-0.54, -0.07) compared to the health centers found in rural areas of the districts. Similarly, the OTE of the health centers with catchment areas faced armed conflict incidents declined by 21%, 95% CI, β = -0.21 (-0.39, -0.03) compared to those health centers’ catchment areas that did not face the problem.

However, the in-service training of the health care providers who were working in the study healthcare facilities significantly improved the technical efficiency scores of the health centers. As a result, the OTE of the health centers in which their health care providers received adequate in-service training increased by 27%, 95% CI, β = 0.27 (0.05, 0.49).

The current study evaluated the technical efficiency of the health centers and identified the determinants of their efficiency. As a result, only one health center out of every 10 health centers operated efficiently, meaning that about 90% of health centers were inefficient. The average PTE score was 77%, which purely reflected the health centers’ managerial performance to organize inputs. This indicated that the health centers exhibited a 33% failure of managerial performance to organize the available health care resources. The ratio of OTE to PTE or CRS to VRS provided the SE scores. Accordingly, the majority of the DMUs, 88.22%, exhibited IRS that could expand their scale of efficiency without additional inputs, whereas only about 2% exhibited DRS that should scale down its scale of operation in order to operate at the most productive scale size (MPSS). Incontrst to this, the study conducted in China showed that more than half of the health care facilities operated at a DRS meaning that again in efficiency could be achieved only through downsizing the scale of operation in nearly 60% of the provinces [ 21 ].

In the study, the technical inefficiency of the health centers was significantly higher than the technical inefficiency findings of the study conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa countries (SSA): 65% of public health centers in Ghana [ 22 ], 59% in Pujehun district of Sierra Leone [ 23 ], 56% of public health centers in Kenya [ 24 ], and 50% of public health centers in Jimma Zone of Ethiopia [ 25 ] were technically inefficient. Similary, the systematic review study conducted in SSA showed that less than 40% of the studied health facilities were technically efficient in SSA countries [ 26 ]. These substantial discrepancies could be due to the armed conflict incidents in the catchment areas of the study health centers. This is supported by evidence that almost half of catchment areas of the studiy health centers experienced such conflicts.

The efficiency scores of the health centers varied significantly, from the lowest of 0.0003 to the highest of 1, indicating that some health centers were using more resources to produce output than other health centers with comparable amounts of resources. While only about one out of ten health centers had a scale efficiency of 100%, indicating that they had the most productive size for the particular input–output mix, in contrast to this, nine out of ten health centers were technically inefficient with 54% scale efficiency, implying they might reduce their healthcare resources almost by half while maintaining the same quantity of outputs (health services). This efficiency score was lower when compared to the efficiency score of health care facilities in Afghanstan, which showed the average efficiency score of health facilities was 0.74, when only 8.1% of the health care facilities had efficiency scores of 1(100% efficient) [ 27 ].

In the present study, the inefficiency level of health care facilities was high, which may have had an impact on the delivery of health care services. Different studies showed that the delivery of healthcare services is greatly impacted by the efficient use of healthcare resources [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. and despite the scarcity of health care resources in the health sector, in most low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), the inefficiency of the sector persists [ 28 ].

Once more, the study identified determinants of the technical efficiency of the health centers. As a result, the efficiency score of those health centers that were located in the urban areas of the study districts declined by one-third. This finding in lines with the study conducted in SSA countries, showed that the location of health care facilities is significantly associated with the technical efficiency of the facilities [ 26 ]. Similarly, the study conducted in Europe showed that, despite performing similarly in the efficiency dimensions, a number of rural healthcare care facilities were found to be the best performers compared to urban health facilities [ 29 ]. Also, the study conducted in China revealed that the average technical efficiency of urban primary healthcare institutions fluctuated from 63.3% to 67.1%, which was lower than that of rural facilities (75.8–82.2%) from 2009 to 2019 [ 30 ].

The availability of different public and private health facilities in urban areas, such as public hospitals and private clinics, might contribute to the fact that rural health centers were significantly more efficient compared to those health centers found in the urban areas of the study districts. Patients might opt for these health facilities rather than public health centers in urban areas. In contrast to this, in rural areas, such options were not available. Again, these health facilities, the public and private health facilities might share the same catchment areas in urban areas, which could impact their health care utilization, resulting in under-utilization and lower outputs (the number of patients and clients who utilized the health services from the health facilities).

Similarly, the armed conflict incidents in the catchment areas of the health centers had a significant impact on the technical efficiency of the health centers. Accordingly, the efficiency of the health centers that of the catchment areas experienced armed conflicts declined by one-fifth compared to the health centers that of the catchment area did not experience such conflicts.

In the same way, the study conducted in Syria showed that the utilization of routine health services, such as ANC and outpatient consultations were negatively correlated with conflict incidents [ 31 ]; a study in Cameroon revealed that the population's utilization of healthcare services declined during the armed conflict [ 32 ]; a study in Nigeria showed that living in a conflict-affected area significantly decreases the likelihood of using healthcare services [ 33 ].

This could be due to the fact that healthcare providers in areas affected by violence may face many obstacles. They first encounter health system limitations: lack of medicines, medical supplies, healthcare workers, and financial resources are all consequences of conflict, which also harms health and the infrastructure that supports it. Additionally, it adds to the load already placed on health services. Second, access to communities in need of health care by both these populations and health personnel is made more challenging by armed conflict [ 33 ].

Furthermore, in-service training of the health care providers significantly improved the efficiency of the health centers. In the current study, the efficiency scores of health centers that of the health care providers had adequate in-service training increased by one-fourth compared to those health centers that of the staffs had inadequate in-service training. Similar to this, a scoping review study in LMICs revealed that combined and multidimensional training interventions could aid in enhancing the knowledge, competencies, and abilities of healthcare professionals in data administration and health care delivery [ 34 ].

Limitatations of the study

This study thoroughly evaluated the technical efficiency level of public health centers in delivering health services by using an input–output-oriented DEA model. Additionally, it pinpointed the determinants of technical efficiency in these health centers using a Tobit regression analysis. However, this technical efficiency analysis report in this study was based on the inputs and outputs data for the 2021–2022 EFY. Much might have been changed since 2021–2022 EFY. The findings aimed to bring attention to the potential advantages of this particular type of efficiency study rather than to provide blind guidance for decision-making in health care system. Due to a lack of data, the study did not include spending on drugs, non-pharmaceutical supplies, and other non-wage expenditures among the inputs. The DEA model only measures efficiency relative to best practice within the health center samples. Thus, any change in any type and number of health facilities and varibales included in the analysis can result in the different findings.

Policy implication of the study

In the current study, it was found that 90% of health centers were operating below scale efficiency, leading to the wastage of nearly half of the healthcare resources. This inefficiency likely had detrimental effects on healthcare service delivery. The findings suggest that merely allocating resources is insufficient for enhancing facility efficiency. Instead, a dual approach is necessary. This includes addressing enabling factors such as providing in-service training opportunities for healthcare providers and considering the strategic location of healthcare facilities. Simultaneously, it is imperative to mitigate disabling factors, like the incidents of armed conflicts within the catchment areas of these health care facilities. Implementing these measures at all levels could significantly improve the efficiency of health care facilities in healthcare deliveries.

Only one out of ten health centers operated with technical efficiency, indicating that approximately nine out of ten health centers used nearly half of the healthcare resources inefficiently. This is despite the fact that they could potentially reduce their inputs by nearly half while still maintaining the same level of output. The location of health centers and the armed conflict incidents in the catchment areas of the health centers significantly declined the efficiency scores of the health centers, whereas in-service training of the health care providers significantly increased the efficiency of the health centers.

Therefore, we strongly recommend the government and the health sector to focus on improving the health service delivery in the health centers by making efficient utilization of the health care resources, resolving armed conflicts with concerned bodies, organizing training opportunities for health care providers, and taking into account the rural and urban locations of the healthcare facilities when allocating resources for the healthcare facilities.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Pa S. David JT. Definitions of efficiency. BMJ. 1999;318:1136.

Article   Google Scholar  

Mooney G, Russell EM, Weir RD. Choices for health care: a practical introduction to the economics of health care provision. London: Macmillian; 1986.

Book   Google Scholar  

Mann C, Dessie E, Adugna M, Berman P. Measuring efficiency of public health centers in Ethiopia. Harvard T.H. Boston, Massachusetts and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Chan School of Public Health and Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Health; 2016.

Google Scholar  

World Health Organization, Yip, Winnie & Hafez, Reem. Improving health system efficiency: reforms for improving the efficiency of health systems: lessons from 10 country cases. World Health Organization; ‎2015. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/185989 .

Heredia-Ortiz E. Data for efficiency: a tool for assessing health systems’ resource use efficiency. Bethesda, MD: Health Finance & Governance Project, Abt Associates Inc; 2013.

Walters JK, Sharma A, Malica E, et al. Supporting efficiency improvement in public health systems: a rapid evidence synthesis. BMC Health Serv Res. 2022;22:293. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-022-07694-z .

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Queen Elizabeth E, Jane Osareme O, Evangel Chinyere A, Opeoluwa A, Ifeoma Pamela O, Andrew ID. The impact of electronic health records on healthcare delivery and patient outcomes: a review. World J Adv Res Rev. 2023;21(2):451–60.

Bastani P, Mohammadpour M, Samadbeik M, et al. Factors influencing access and utilization of health services among older people during the COVID − 19 pandemic: a scoping review. Arch Public Health. 2021;79:190. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-021-00719-9 .

FMOH. Health Sector Transformation Plan (2015/16 - 2019/20). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Health; 2015.

lebachew A, Yusuf Y, Mann C, Berman P, FMOH. Ethiopia’s Progress in Health Financing and the Contribution of the 1998 Health Care and Financing Strategy in Ethiopia. Resource Tracking and Management Project. Boston and Addis Ababa: Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health; Breakthrough International Consultancy, PLC; and Ethiopian Federal Ministry of Health; 2015.

Alebachew A, Hatt L, Kukla M. Monitoring and Evaluating Progress towards Universal Health Coverage in Ethiopia. PLoS Med. 2014;11(9):e1001696. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001696 .

Berman P, Mann C, Ricculli ML. Financing Ethiopia’s Primary Care to 2035: A Model Projecting Resource Mobilization and Costs. Boston: Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health; 2015.

World Bank. Ethiopia: Public Expenditure Review, Volume 1. Main Report. Public expenditure review (PER);. © Washington, DC; 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/14967 . License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE). Growth and Transformation Plan II (GTP II) (2015/16–2019/20). Vol. I. Addis Ababa; 2016.

Powell-Jackson T, Hanson K, McIntyre D. Fiscal space for health: a review of the literature. London, United Kingdom and Cape Town, South Africa: Working Paper 1; 2012.

Evans DB, Tandon A, Murray CJL, Lauer JA. The comparative efficiency of National of Health Systems in producing health: An analysis of 191 countries. World Health Organization. 2000;29(29):1–36. Available from: http://www.who.int/healthinfo/paper29.pdf .

Coelli TJ. A Guide to DEAP Version 2.1: a data envelopment analysis (Computer) Program. Centers for Efficiency and Productivity Analysis (CEPA) Working papers, No. 08/96.

Charnes A, Cooper WW, Seiford LM, Tone K. Data envelopment analysis: theory. Data envelopment analysis: a comprehensive text with models applications, references and DEA-solver software. 2nd ed. Dordrecht: Academic Publishers; 1994. p. 1–490.

Carson RT, Sun Y. The Tobit model with a non-zero threshold. Econometr J. 2007;10(1):1–15.

Wang D, Du K, Zhang N. Measuring technical efficiency and total factor productivity change with undesirable outputs in Stata. Stata J: Promot Commun Stat Stata. 2022;22(1):103–24.

Chai P, Zhang Y, Zhou M, et al. Technical and scale efficiency of provincial health systems in China: a bootstrapping data envelopment analysis. BMJ Open. 2019;9:e027539. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-027539 .

Akazili J, Adjuik M. Using data envelopment analysis to measure the extent of technical efficiency of public health centers in Ghana. Health Hum Rights. 2008. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472–698X/8/11.

Renner A, Kirigia JM, Zere E, Barry SP, Kirigia DG, Kamara C, et al. Technical efficiency of peripheral health units in Pujehun district of Sierra Leone: a DEA application. BMC Health Serv Res. 2005;5:77.

Kirigia JM, Emrouznejad A, Sambo LG, Munguti N, Liambila W. Using data envelopment analysis to measure the technical efficiency of public health centers in Kenya. J Med Syst. 2004;28(2):155–66.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Bobo FT, Woldie M, Muluemebet Wordofa MA, Tsega G, Agago TA, Wolde-Michael K, Ibrahim N, Yesuf EA. Technical efficiency of public health centers in three districts in Ethiopia: two-stage data envelopment analysis. BMC Res Notes. 2018;11:465. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-018-3580-6 .

Tesleem KB, Indres M. Assessing the Efficiency of Health-care Facilities in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review. Health Services Research and Managerial Epidemiology. 2020;7:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/2333392820919604 .

Farhad F, Khwaja S, Abo F, Said A, Mohammad Z, Sinai I, Wu Z.  Efficiency analysis of primary healthcare facilities in Afghanistan. Cost Eff Res Alloc. 2022;20:24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12962-022-00357-0 .

de Siqueira Filha NT, Li J, Phillips-Howard PA, et al. The economics of healthcare access: a scoping review on the economic impact of healthcare access for vulnerable urban populations in low- and middle-income countries. Int J Equity Health. 2022;21:191. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-022-01804-3 .

Javier GL, Emilio M. Rural vs urban hospital performance in a ‘competitive’ public health service. Soc Sci Med. 2010;71:1131-e1140.

Zhou J, Peng R, Chang Y, Liu Z, Gao S, Zhao C, Li Y, Feng Q, Qin X. Analyzing the efficiency of Chinese primary healthcare institutions using the Malmquist-DEA approach: evidence from urban and rural areas. Front Public Health. 2023;11:1073552. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1073552 .

Abdulkarim E, Yasser AA, Hasan A, Francesco C. The impact of armed conflict on utilisation of health services in north-west Syria: an observational study. BMC Confl Health. 2021;15:91. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-021-00429-7 .

Eposi CH, Chia EJ, Benjamin MK. Health services utilisation before and during an armed conflict; experiences from the Southwest Region of Cameroon. Open Public Health J. 2020;13:547–54. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874944502013010547 .

Alice D. Hard to Reach: Providing Healthcare in Armed Conflict. International Peace Institute. Issue Brief; 2018. Available at: https://www.ipinst.org/2019/01/providing-healthcare-in-armed-conflict-nigeria .

Edward N, Eunice T, George B. Pre- and in-service training of health care workers on immunization data management in LMICs: a scoping review. BMC Hum Res Health. 2019;17:92. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-019-0437-6 .

Download references

Acknowledgements

Our special thanks go to Wollega University and study health facilities.

We received no financial supports to be disclosed.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Public Health, Institute of Health Sciences, Wollega University, Nekemte, Oromia, Ethiopia

Edosa Tesfaye Geta, Dufera Rikitu Terefa, Adisu Tafari Shama, Adisu Ewunetu Desisa, Wase Benti Hailu, Wolkite Olani, Melese Chego Cheme & Matiyos Lema

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors participated in developing the study concept and design of the study. ET. contributed to data analysis, interpretation, report writing, manuscript preparation and acted as the corresponding author. DR, AT, A E, WB, WO, MC, and ML contributed to developing the data collection tools, data collection supervision, data entry to statistical software and report writing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Edosa Tesfaye Geta .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Wollega University's research ethical guidelines were adhered to carry out this study. The research ethics review committee (RERC) of Wollega University granted the ethical clearance number WURD-202–44/22 . A formal letter from the East Wollega Zonal Health Department was taken and given to the district health offices. The objective of the study was clearly communicated to all study health center directors and the required informed consent was obtained from all the study health centers. The study health centers’ confidentially was maintained. The codes from DMU001 to DMU034 were used in place of health facility identification in the data collection checklists. Each document of electronic and paper data was stored in a secure area. The research team was the only one with access to the data that was collected, and data sharing will be done in accordance with the ethical and legal guidelines.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Geta, E.T., Terefa, D.R., Shama, A.T. et al. Technical efficiency and its determinants in health service delivery of public health centers in East Wollega Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia: Two-stage data envelope analysis. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 980 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11431-z

Download citation

Received : 10 November 2023

Accepted : 12 August 2024

Published : 24 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11431-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Health centers
• Health service delivery
• Technical efficiency

BMC Health Services Research

ISSN: 1472-6963

• General enquiries: [email protected]

Request an appointment   Clinical Trials   Give Now

Ginny L. Clements Breast Cancer Research Institute

Celebrating the prolific work of the Partnership for Native American Cancer Prevention

NACP thrives at reducing cancer burden, increasing health equity and expanding Native American investigator numbers 

More than 20 years ago, researchers from the University of Arizona Cancer Center and Northern Arizona University joined forces to build a dream program for Native Americans—one that reduces their cancer burden, increases cancer health equity and expands the number of Native American cancer investigators through research and community engagement.   

Originally named the Native American Cancer Research Partnership and later renamed as the Partnership for Native American Cancer Prevention , their program has been growing since 2002 under continuous funding by the National Cancer Institute’s Comprehensive Partnerships to Advance Cancer Health Equity.   

Yet, despite the program’s inroads, American Indian and Alaska Native students are still the single most underrepresented racial group in population size in the biomedical and health sciences, according to a recent publication from NACP researchers. NACP’s work defies this statistic, having invested in 367 Native American trainees, while 237 students earned 341 degrees during the program’s existence. They reached trainees from 45 tribal nations, including 12 of the 22 federally recognized tribes in Arizona and at least 33 other tribal nations beyond Arizona.  

“I'm old enough to remember when we could count on maybe two hands the number of native researchers that we had, and just to know that that number has really grown is exciting,” said Francine C. Gachupin, PhD, MPH, professor in the University of Arizona College of Medicine – Tucson, Department of Family and Community Medicine. “To know that we have a program that has contributed in some way to the success and the ability of these Native American researchers to do their work validates why we have a program like NACP.”  

Now for the first time, both NACP principal investigators are also Native American: Gachupin, who is a tribal member of the Pueblo of Jemez in New Mexico and Regents Professor Jani Ingram , who is Diné, commonly known as Navajo, in analytical and environmental chemistry at NAU.  

“I think a large bulk of the credit goes to the National Cancer Institute for making this mechanism available over time,” Gachupin said. “I think NACP demonstrates that you really do need to have continued support to see outcomes that take a lot longer than you would think. NACP is now in our 20th year, and that's how long it's taken for us to see our students matriculate from an undergraduate level to an early-stage investigator level.”  

Gachupin said that working together while in Tucson and Flagstaff, more than 250 miles apart, requires a strong team with extraordinary communication skills.  

“We are in constant communication to make sure that we're all on the same page with any major decisions,” Gachupin said. “We are a big team, yet we respect each other's experiences and expertise and make sure we gather everybody's input to optimize the direction of NACP.”  

Changing cancer outcomes for Native Americans  

Gachupin said that cancer health disparities are very real for Native American people. They are diagnosed at much later stages, their five-year cancer survival rate is not as positive, and they tend to get diagnosed at much younger ages.  

“Through different publications and all that we're learning, we're hoping that we give credence to these disparities as we make recommendations for addressing them,” Gachupin said.  

Ingram said that it is critical for NACP to work in partnership with the Native American communities to understand their concerns and develop projects and programs together with those communities so they can be successful.   

“Our Native American communities have unique characteristics, so approaches that may work for other communities may not necessarily work for the communities we serve,” Ingram said.  

Training researchers  

NACP also works with research teams who are new to working with tribal communities.   

“Doing research with tribal communities is very different than doing research with any other community because tribes are sovereign, meaning that they set their own rules and regulations for how things are to happen,” Gachupin said. “Many investigators have never encountered that the tribes own the data. They have always worked in an institution where the institution owns the data, and so it's a very different dynamic.”  

Gachupin said that training researchers in how to conduct research with a nation that sets its own parameters, called memorandums of understanding, requires a steep learning curve for many investigators. NACP invests in long-term training of research teams. As their work grows based on their experience working with communities, they learn to modify and adapt their research to benefit nations.  

“These projects really do allow us to help mentor these research teams to understand what it means to do respectful, transparent, beneficial research with tribal communities,” Gachupin said.  

Training students  

In 2021, the National Science Foundation ranked the University of Arizona first nationally for doctoral degrees awarded to Native Americans. NACP leaders believe that building a successful environment for Native American students starts with a personal invitation through networking, institutional databases and instructor referrals.  

“Many of these students are away from home for their first time. They don't know anyone, and they don't know the systems. Everything's so expensive, and so it really is very intimidating,” Gachupin said. “Just knowing that somebody cares about them makes all the difference. And we have an extraordinarily strong referral network at both NAU and U of A.”  

Gachupin said that the University of Arizona has a Native American Student Association, and in health sciences, there are programs specific to nursing, pharmacy, medical and public health students.   

“There are these social networks so they can be part of a group that has commonalities, that they can not only study with, but also do things together with, and so we try to get them in touch with these different resources, including financial aid and housing,” Gachupin said. “We work very closely with a lot of these resources to make sure that students aren't falling through the cracks.”  

Tyrel Terrill Yazzie , a Navajo student, who graduated with his master’s from the University of Arizona, participated in the Postbaccalaureate Research Education Program called PREP@UAZ.  

“I think NACP is important because of the resources and community support it provides to Native American students,” he said. “My mentor, Dr. Ronald Heimark , assisted me with advice on what educational opportunities to consider and helped me gain skills within the laboratory. Dr. Margaret Briehl , Dr. Dirk De Heer , NACP NAU Research Education core lead, and Jennifer Daw , Navajo, NACP pre-doctoral student, assisted me with advice and support, which helped me navigate throughout the semester.”  

Developing early-stage health care leaders  

To continue to guide their careers after graduation, NACP has a resource called GUIDeS, which stands for Guiding U54 Investigator Development to Sustainability for investigators and junior investigators.  

In GUIDeS, investigators are mentored through a rigorous process of designing a cancer research project and identifying potential funding opportunities. They participate in grant development workshops, mentorship, biostatistics support services, and training in time management and research communication skills.  

Postdoctoral researcher  Nicole Jimenez , PhD,  BIO5 Institute   postdoctoral research associate in the Herbs-Kralovetz lab and department of obstetrics and gynecology, said her mentor and principal investigator suggested she meet with the GUIDeS group who would support her aspirations to pursue cancer research with a focus on health equity.  

“My participation in writing accountability groups and GUIDeS has been invaluable to my career development but also fosters building lasting relationships with research and community members who have similar research and societal interests,” Jimenez said.   

Melissa Herbst-Kralovetz , PhD, professor of basic medical sciences in the  University of Arizona College of Medicine – Phoenix  and director of the Translational Women’s Health Research Program on the medical campus, is also one of the multiple principal investigators of NACP from the Cancer Center.  

“ Dr. Herbst-Kralovetz has been instrumental in my career development during my postdoctoral training,” Jimenez said. “I have also had close collaborative relationships with Drs. Naomi Lee and Greg Caporaso at Northern Arizona University and Dr. David Garcia at University of Arizona – Tucson. Being mentored by different faculty from other Arizona institutions has been enlightening as I begin the next phase of my academic career.”  

Early-stage health care leader Jennifer Erdrich , MD, MPH, Turtle Mountain Chippewa, is one of five Native American oncologists in the United States, and a surgeon with ties to NACP. Last year, Erdrich was awarded a $1.3 million Mentored Clinical Scientist Research Career Development Award from the National Cancer Institute to study the effectiveness of lifestyle interventions in Native American patients with obesity-related solid tumor cancers who are preparing for surgery.  

Erdrich is a U of A Cancer Center member, assistant professor in the U of A College of Medicine – Tucson Department of Surgery and surgical oncologist in the Division of General Surgery who specializes in melanoma, sarcoma, and breast cancers. She also provides general surgical oncology care to tribal populations throughout Southern Arizona.   

“When she's doing her clinical practice, she's doing surgery on cancer, but then in her research time, she's working out in tribal communities, starting research projects trying to promote a healthy lifestyle—to really prevent risk for cancer and other chronic diseases,” Gachupin said.   

Another important early-stage leader is Jonathan Credo , MD, PhD, Navajo, who was mentored through NACP for 14 years and attended both NAU and the University of Arizona. He is in his post-graduate year in internal medicine and psychiatry residency at the University of California, Davis School of Medicine.   

Gachupin said that Credo is interested in environmental exposures to cancer risks and is a provider who takes time to work in the field or in a community to address NACP’s topic areas for Native Americans.  

“I think NACP is important because it provides an opportunity for Native American and Alaska Native students to excel and be exposed to opportunities that they otherwise probably would not have,” Credo said. “Not only that, NACP provides support and environment that allows students to grow as well as a safe space. NACP and Dr. Ingram quite literally gave me the opportunity of a lifetime and gave me my life.”  

Ryan Stiffarm , a San Carlos Apache student who was an undergraduate and received his Master of Science degree at the University of Arizona, was recently admitted to University of Arizona College of Medicine -– Tucson Medical School to become a physician. He started with NACP four years ago.   

“I think it is important to expose Indigenous students to lab bench research, especially when that research topic directly affects those students and their families,” Stiffarm said. “My mentor, Dr. Ron Heimark, NACP U of A GUIDeS core lead, led me through lab protocols step-by-step. He also gave me confidence to know that I could run these experiments independently. Dr. Jennifer Bea , NACP U of A Research Education core lead and Dr. Margaret Briehl , former NACP U of A contact multiple principal investigator, also held weekly sessions with NACP students for professional development and to learn more about how specific cancers affect Indigenous populations. They were all integral in my journey.”  

Developing subsequent leaders  

For the NACP leadership team, strategically discovering leadership successors and mentoring them into these leadership roles is another key to success.  

“We call it shadowing,” Gachupin said. “We're identifying people who are going to take over some of these leadership roles in the future. That allows them to really learn and to be in a safe space where what they're contributing is valued, but they don't have the pressure of being the voice that's going to speak on the issue.”  

Ingram said that mentorship is critical for folks at all levels. She spends many hours working with NACP students, staff and faculty.   

“I was mentored through NACP in research, student activities and leadership which was so very helpful for my development as a leader for NACP,” said Ingram. “It is wonderful to have mentors that are available to help you throughout your career—not just for a short amount of time.”  

In 2012, Bea , PhD, Cancer Prevention and Control Program co-leader, and Shared Resources director, Behavioral Measurement and Interventions , associate professor in Health Promotion Sciences, started at NACP by working on a pilot program in collaboration with de Heer , PhD, MPH, associate professor in the NAU Department of Physical Therapy and Athletic Training.  

“Working with NACP provided me with a large number of faculty mentors and community advisers across the state,” Bea said. “I specifically wanted to develop greater cultural competency and wrote it into my career development plan.”  

Bea said that NACP provided room for her to grow into community-engaged research when her background was in bench work and clinical research.   

“I gained a deep appreciation for cancer health disparities and continue to work in that vein today,” Bea said. “It also sparked a passion for diversifying the workforce to enable higher quality and culturally relevant care and research in our underserved communities.”   

The NACP team submitted a competitive renewal and are awaiting word on continued funding. All are hopeful that NCI will continue to invest in this important and impactful program. The team said they are appreciative of the ongoing institutional support received from both U of A and NAU over the years.