what is a literature map in research

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How to Create a Literature Map

How to create a literature map. The Literature Map helps researchers review literature for gaps and points of impact. They are useful in both academic and industry related research projects to help gain traction and market interest.

Book a seat for our upcoming Literature Mapping Webinar Workshop

Learn More about Literature Mapping

Research projects usually start with a Literature Review which involves using tools such as search engines ( e.g. google scholar) and document management and reference systems (e.g. Endnote and Mandalay).

The literature review will attempt to create a space for the research project that has not been covered or is yet to be developed.

Literature Mapping uses graphical methods to plot your literature in a graphical format. There are many types of graphical method from mind mapping to infographic formats.

See our Research Gate Forum where leading experts have discussed the various graphical literature tools from Mind Maps through to Quiqqa and other methods.

Dr Jonathan Drane has developed a unique but simple literature mapping method which streamlines your literature review and helps you refine your topic and its place in the literature universe.

‘In our method we prefer to use a ‘cards on desktop’ graphical logic.  It uses cards (like the icons on your desktop) and allocates identifiers to the cards including different colours as well as other key information points. Think of each card as if it was a library card which is also linked back to the actual publication it refers to’. Dr Jonathan Drane

In the method there is also an X-Y axis to allow for key concept themes to be pinned to the axis. From there each card is positioned based on its alignment to the theme. In the chart below this method is applied to City Growth Dynamics themes from Dr Drane’s doctorate.

‘ As I spent weeks in the literature mapping phase of my doctorate I realised that it was made clearer by using graphical representation of the various themes and concepts.’ Dr Jonathan Drane

An example of his literature map system is shown above which is extracted from Dr Drane’s Doctorate .

Impact and Strategic Importance

Research occurs in a huge range of endeavours from academic research to competitive analysis, market and corporate strategy. A central activity in these is to make sure you know what the current literature, articles and books are in the relevant strategic arena.

The use of literature review is essential to maintaining a strategic advantage and identifying the gaps in the theory or in corporate offerings.

We recommed that you take some time out and attend our upcoming webinar on this topic . Whether you are an academic or a business person or government researcher, this is important.

We look forward to seeing you at this webinar.

Dr Jonathan Drane

Download this article and other related resources (free).

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Other readings and links:

Link to Jonathan’s Research Gate page page on Literature Mapping

Link to Jonathan’s Doctorate

3 Innovative Literature Mapping Tools for Citation Maps 

In the ever-evolving landscape of academic research, navigating through vast amounts of literature can be daunting. Enter innovative literature mapping tools, packed with unique features.

They simplify and revolutionise the way researchers interact with scientific literature, enhancing the efficiency and depth of literature reviews.

Let’s dive into how these tools are reshaping the approach to academic research.

Innovative Literature Mapping Tools

What Is A Literature Mapping Tool?

A citation mapping tool is a game-changer. Think of it as a detective tool that uncovers the intricate web of connections within scientific literature.

These tools visualise citation relationships, creating a citation map or literature map that guides you through the complex maze of scholarly papers.

One popular example is Inciteful, offering innovative literature mapping tools that not only track citation links but also analyse the context of the citation, revealing direct citation relationships and co-citation networks.

Imagine you have a ‘seed paper,’ a starting point in your literature review. A literature mapping tool then take this seed paper and branch out, finding papers:

• That cite it (direct citation relationships) or
• Those that share a thematic connection (co-citation). 

This forms a citation tree or network, showing you not just one paper but a cluster of similar papers, interconnected by their citation relationships.

More modern citation mapping tool also integrated AI. They not only map out citation relationships but also delve into the citation context or sentiment, offering a richer, more nuanced understanding of how papers are interconnected. 

Litmaps is a cutting-edge citation mapping tool that offers a unique approach to visualising the connections in scientific literature.

It’s designed to simplify and enhance the process of conducting a literature review, especially for researchers looking to map out the citation landscape of a specific topic.

At its core, Litmaps lets you visualise citation relationships in a dynamic, interactive manner. It works by creating a literature map that shows how different papers are connected through citations. 

You start with a ‘seed paper,’ and Litmaps builds a citation network around it, by:

• Identifying seminal papers,
• similar papers, and 
• Other papers that cite your chosen article.

This is particularly helpful for understanding the context and development of research in a given field.

One of the key features of Litmaps is its ability to create a citation tree. This tree not only shows direct citation relationships but also highlights co-citations. This gives you a deeper insight into how ideas and research are interconnected.

In terms of visualisation, Litmaps excels. It uses a similarity graph, not just a standard citation graph, to display connections.

This means you’re seeing a more nuanced representation of the literature, based on the similarity metric of papers, rather than just citation counts.

Litmaps also allows for a high level of customisation. You can filter papers based on:

• The number of citations,
• Publication date, and even
• Specific keywords.

This makes it a highly flexible tool for conducting systematic reviews and meta-analysis.

Litmaps also have a more user-friendly interface, and additional features like tracking the latest papers on a specific topic or a random set of systematic reviews.

Inciteful is an innovative literature mapping tool that stands out in the field of academic research for its unique approach to visualizing citation networks.

This tool is designed to make the process of literature review more intuitive and insightful, especially for researchers and scholars delving into new or complex fields.

When you use Inciteful, you start by selecting a ‘seed paper’. From this single paper, Inciteful creates a citation network, branching out to reveal not only papers that cite your chosen article but also those that are contextually related through co-citation and citation relationships.

This forms a comprehensive citation map, allowing you to see how various research pieces interconnect.

A standout feature of Inciteful is its visualization capabilities. The tool presents a citation graph, where each node represents a paper, and connecting lines indicate citation links.

This visualization helps you grasp the structure of scientific discourse in a field, revealing seminal papers, emerging trends, and key authors. You can then filter and sort papers based on keywords, number of citations, or publication date.

Inciteful isn’t just about numbers of citations; it delves deeper. The tool analyzes the context of citations, bringing to light the sentiment and relevance of each citation relationship.

This adds an extra layer of depth to your literature review, offering insights that go beyond traditional citation counting. Inciteful Incorporates metadata from various sources like:

• Google Scholar,
• Web of Science, and
• Microsoft Academic

Inciteful also ensures that its citation network is rich and current. The tool also supports importing bibliographic data in BibTeX format, making it flexible and adaptable to various research needs.

This makes Inciteful not just a powerful research tool but also a highly customizable one, suited for everything from quick overviews to in-depth systematic reviews.

Connected Papers

Connected Papers is a cool literature mapping tool that offers researchers and scholars an intuitive way to explore the citation network of a specific paper or topic.

It stands out compared to the other mapping tools for its user-friendly design and effective visualisation techniques.

Connected Papers takes a ‘seed paper’ of your choice, then generates a citation graph based on the seed paper, producing a visual network that displays how this paper is connected to others through direct citations and co-citations.

This network reveals the most relevant papers, showing you the ‘big picture’ of research trends and developments related to your topic.

The citation graph in Connected Papers isn’t just a simple map; it’s a detailed visualisation tool. Each node represents a paper, and the lines between them indicate citation relationships.

This visualisation allows you to easily identify:

• Research papers,
• Citations, and even 
• Emerging trends in the field.

You can see at a glance which papers are most cited and how they interlink, providing a comprehensive overview of the scientific landscape.

Connected Papers uses metadata and bibliographic information from databases like Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Microsoft Academic. This ensures that the citation network you’re exploring is both extensive and up-to-date.

It also supports importing data in BibTeX format, making it versatile for different research needs.

This tool is particularly valuable for researchers who are looking to map out the landscape of a new or complex field. It helps in identifying related papers that might not be immediately obvious, providing a deeper understanding of the subject matter.

Literature Review Made Easy, With Citation Map Tools

Litmaps, Inciteful, and Connected Papers represent the forefront of academic research tools, each bringing a unique approach to literature mapping.

They empower researchers with advanced visualisation, comprehensive citation networks, and user-friendly interfaces, making literature reviews more efficient and insightful.

As the landscape of scientific research continues to grow, these tools are invaluable allies in navigating and understanding the complex web of academic knowledge.

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

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• Research Guides

Literature Review: A Self-Guided Tutorial

Using concept maps.

• Literature Reviews: A Recap
• Peer Review
• Reading the Literature
• Developing Research Questions
• Considering Strong Opinions
• 2. Review discipline styles
• Super Searching
• Finding the Full Text
• Citation Searching This link opens in a new window
• When to stop searching
• Citation Management
• Annotating Articles Tip
• 5. Critically analyze and evaluate
• How to Review the Literature
• Using a Synthesis Matrix
• 7. Write literature review

Concept maps or mind maps visually represent relationships of different concepts. In research, they can help you make connections between ideas. You can use them as you are formulating your research question, as you are reading a complex text, and when you are creating a literature review. See the video and examples below.

How to Create a Concept Map

Credit: Penn State Libraries ( CC-BY ) Run Time: 3:13

• Bubbl.us Free version allows 3 mind maps, image export, and sharing.
• MindMeister Free version allows 3 mind maps, sharing, collaborating, and importing. No image-based exporting.

Mind Map of a Text Example

Credit: Austin Kleon. A map I drew of John Berger’s Ways of Seeing in 2008. Tumblr post. April 14, 2016. http://tumblr.austinkleon.com/post/142802684061#notes

Literature Review Mind Map Example

This example shows the different aspects of the author's literature review with citations to scholars who have written about those aspects.

Credit: Clancy Ratliff, Dissertation: Literature Review. Culturecat: Rhetoric and Feminism [blog]. 2 October 2005. http://culturecat.net/node/955 .

• << Previous: Reading the Literature
• Next: 1. Identify the question >>
• Last Updated: Jul 30, 2024 4:12 PM
• URL: https://libguides.williams.edu/literature-review

Literature Review Example

A literature review is a summary of the existing knowledge and research on a particular subject. by identifying gaps in the literature, it provides a foundation for future research. as such, it’s a crucial first step in any research project..

What is a literature review?

A literature review serves several purposes:

• identifies knowledge gaps
• evaluates the quality of existing research
• provides a foundation for newly presented research

Looking at existing examples of literature reviews is beneficial to get a clear understanding of what they entail. Find examples of a literature review by using an academic search engine (e.g. Google Scholar). As a starting point, search for your keyword or topic along with the term "literature review".

Example of literature review

Identify the research question or topic, making it as narrow as possible. In this example of a literature review, we review the anxiolytic (anti-anxiety) activity of Piper methysticum , or Kava .

Let's walk through the steps in the process with this literature review example.

Define the research question

First, identify the research question or topic, making it as narrow as possible. In this literature review example, we're examining the effects of urbanization on the migration of birds.

Search for relevant literature

Searching for relevant studies is arguably the most important aspect of the literature review.

Start by identifying keywords and phrases related to the topic and use them to search academic journals and databases ( Google Scholar , BASE , PubMed , etc.). For our example, you might start with "the effects of urbanization on bird migration", but after researching the field, discover that other terms like "avian migration" and "avian populations" are more commonly used.

Search for your keywords in Litmaps to find some initial articles to explore the field from. You can then use Litmaps to find additinal sources and curate a whole library of literature on your topic.

Search for your keywords in Litmaps, and select a starting article. This will return a visualization containing suggestions for relevant articles on your literature review topic. Review these to start curating your library.

Evaluate the sources

Evaluate the relevance and quality of the sources found by reading abstracts of the most relevant articles. Additionally, consider the publication venue, year of publication and other salient measures to identify the reliability and relevance of the source.

Read and analyze the sources

Take notes on the key findings, methodologies, and theoretical frameworks used in the studies.

Use a research-friendly note-taking software, like Obsidian , that provide #tags to keep track of key concepts.

Organize the literature

Organize the literature according to themes, subtopics, or categories, which will help outline the layout of the literature review.

Tag keywords using a tool like Obsidian to help organize papers into subtopics for the review.

Write the literature review

Summarize and synthesize the findings from the sources analyzed. Start with an introduction that defines the research question, followed by the themes, subtopics, or categories identified. After that, provide a discussion or conclusion that addresses any gaps in the literature to motivate future research. Lastly, edit and revise your review to ensure it is well-structured, clear, and concise. The example below is from a review paper, which includes a table comparing the different sources evaluated. Such tables can be useful if you are conducting a comprehensive review.

If you're conducting a comprehensive review, you can include a table of sources reviewed in your process, like the one above from this publication .

Cite and reference the sources

Lastly, cite and reference the sources used in the literature review. Consider any referencing style requirements of the institution or journal you're submitting to. APA is the most common. However, you may need to familiarize yourself with other citation styles such as MLA, Chicago, or MHRA depending on your venue. See the image below for a literature review example APA of references. To cite references you've saved in Litmaps, you can move your saved articles from Litmaps to a reference manager (i.e. Zotero, Mendeley, EndNote, etc.) and then export their bibliography from there. Here's how to export articles from Litmaps.

Use a reference manager tool like Zotero to easily export which makes them easy to manage, like in this APA literature review example.

A successful literature review tells a brief story about the topic at hand and leaves the reader a clear notion of what has been covered. Most importantly, a literature review addresses any gaps in the field and frames newly presented research. Understand the key steps and look at literature review examples in order to create a high quality review.

Header image Forest & Kim Starr, used under Creative Commons BY 3.0

How to Create a Literature Map

Amanda petrona.

Literature maps use graphic techniques of shaping and grouping written information into categories for a research project, presentation or learning exercise. The process of mapping helps the mind visualize relationships and connections from any type of literature such as works with artistic merit or a body of reviewed texts for technology and business studies or for the social, behavioral and physical sciences.

Explore this article

• Basic and Advanced Techniques
• Maps for Teaching and Learning
• Maps for Artistic Works
• Maps for Academic Research

1 Basic and Advanced Techniques

Literature maps or charts use geometric shapes such as circles and boxes connected with lines or arrows. Simple maps start with a central circle or square and connect sections of information to other boxes or circles with radiating lines that spread out in all directions. This type of simple mapping provides the basic strategy for all types of advanced mapping . More complex maps have multiple centralized areas that overlap, interconnect and use a top-down organization or a continuum with the information in hierarchies or parallel connections. Organic schemes that resemble trees, waves and other intricate designs are another way to make literature maps.

2 Maps for Teaching and Learning

Educators use literature mapping to teach young students about many subjects. For instance, students learn about characterization by writing a character’s name in a circle in the middle of a piece of paper. The teacher then guides students to add information they've observed or the narrator has described about the character’s speech and behaviors in boxes or other circles connected to the central area. This type of interactive learning project is useful for all fictional elements, such as setting, point-of-view, themes, conflicts, resolutions and consequences, tone or mood and atmosphere. Teachers also lead students in mapping exercises for the ideals and values found in historical texts and biographies.

3 Maps for Artistic Works

Adult students of literature, film and music use mapping to study a favorite musician, film or novelist for a presentation or discussion group or as a visual to include with a research paper or blog. Gnod.com provides interactive mapping applications that group artists according to genre and style. This mapping strategy shows how to make a map that helps viewers think about audience appeal and provides a way to make a list of potential works for a research mapping project. Mapping organizes works with closely related themes, such as what the story, song or film has to say about love, friendship or death. Another way to organize a more complex map of artistic works is to show the parallels or contrasts in themes, genres and styles.

4 Maps for Academic Research

Undergraduate and graduate college students use literature maps to organize and synthesize the literature reviewed for a research paper, thesis or dissertation. For example, a business or technology student can study how enterprises recruit and select employees and how the use of the Internet affects this process. The Research Observatory shows how to map the literature reviewed for this project into key concepts and reference texts numerically. This type of mapping saves space and allows some texts to be listed in different categories.

• 1 University of the West of England: Research Observatory: Literature Mapping
• 2 University of Michigan:The Record: Technology Meets Literature As Students Map a Classic Novel; Sheryl James

About the Author

A native of New Orleans, Amanda Petrona holds a Bachelor of Science in anthropology/social psychology and Master of Arts in English. She taught writing, research and literature at LSU Baton Rouge. Petrona founded Wild Spirit Louisiana, an organic farm, nature conservatory, and education center for sustainable and holistic living.

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Formulating a Research Topic

by Evan Kramer

Motivation and scope

As master’s and PhD students, we all aspire to conduct quality research. The question many of us are faced with is: how do we formulate a research topic that is well poised for performing quality research? Research topics are meant to encompass the majority or entirety of our work during our graduate career and, when well-defined, can result in opportunities to publish several high-impact academic papers. The effort required to formulate a well-defined research topic is significant, but necessary to avoid running into unforeseen challenges during your PhD. This blog post discusses the concepts that should be considered for anyone looking to define their research topic. While students have varying degrees of autonomy in shaping their research due to funding constraints and advisor expectations, the concepts discussed in this blog post account for these facets and can serve as a framework for any situation.

Overview diagram of a framework for formulating a well-defined research topic.

What is quality research?

Quality research is independent , important , and unique .

This definition identifies a set of requirements that a research topic must meet. These requirements will be discussed in more detail to orient the research topic formulation process.

Independent – Independent research can be conducted entirely by you without assistance from outside sources. While you should actively seek collaborations with others to boost the reach of your work, will you be able to complete your research objectives without relying on resources provided by others? Framing your research topic and objectives in this manner gives you protection to flakey collaborators and will keep you on track to graduate on time. For example, something you may want to avoid is crafting a research topic around the usage of one particular data set maintained by a private company. While initial collaboration talks may go smoothly, you don’t want your ability to pursue your research project in the hands of someone else!

Important – Important research makes a contribution towards answering a specific question, or a gap in knowledge, among a research community that has been posed by several scholars. You may ask yourself: if you carry out your research to completion, will your contributions answer outstanding questions posed by multiple scholars in your research community? Note that the question your work addresses may not be explicitly posed in the literature, but identifying common limitations can help formulate a gap in knowledge that you can work towards filling. Aligning your research objectives with specific and commonly posed questions can increase the chance of your work being cited by other scholars and integrated into practices in industry. 

Unique – Unique research makes a first-of-its-kind contribution. There are several ways in which your research can be unique. For example, uniqueness may be assumed if you contribute the first work to a completely unanswered question in your field. Alternatively, you may make a unique contribution to a question that has already been addressed by approaching it in a new way. Knowledge of your chosen field’s state of the art and previous foundations is useful when checking the uniqueness of your work, which can only be verified by thorough literature review. Regardless of the way your research is unique, it is important to identify the uniqueness of your work within the context of existing work in related areas.

With these three research topic characteristics in mind, the following presents a high level path to formulating your well-defined research topic.

A framework for formulating a well-defined research topic

1. look inwards.

Based on previous experiences in coursework, internships, and extracurricular activities, create a two-column list. The first column lists research fields you found interesting. The second column lists ideas that align with your personal motivations for pursuing a career in STEM research. An example of this list may look like the following:

2. Read Widely

Given the two-column lists you created, start familiarizing yourself with the current state of the art. Starting with articles in popular science media outlets can be effective for initial cursory surveys. Any articles that pique your interest should be followed by deeper dives into related literature in Google Scholar. It is likely that several of the topics in the left column of your list get crossed off quickly when you realize they no longer interest you. Continue this process until a subset of around three areas remains. Your two-column list may then look like this:

Note that the right hand column remains unchanged. You very likely will not be able to address all of your personal motivations for pursuing STEM research in your eventual research topic, but now is when you can start connecting topics you find interesting to research applications that personally motivate you. 

3. Consider funding and lab focus areas

While the research topic definition process should be approached predominantly with your own interests in mind, at this stage, it is important to consider where your funding is coming from. Typically, there will be specific fields your research must overlap with based on your funding source. Schedule a discussion with your advisor to share your topic definition process so far and ask if there are topics you should add to your list based on research group and funding requirements. Based on this discussion, add a third column to the list you’ve created that describes the necessary areas of overlap for your research.

4. Continue reading and form a research statement

At this point you are trying to iterate on combinations identified in your three-column list. You can begin to formulate an overarching research statement from these combinations. Research statements generally have the form “To…by…while…”. This sentence structure explicitly identifies what you are trying to accomplish, how you will accomplish it, and which constraints you will account for. A possible research statement could be defined with one entry from each column, or you may be able to create a topic with multiple entries from each column. In this blog’s example list, a research statement could be the following:

To enable efficient natural disaster response for remote communities by developing an AI-powered rapid response scheduling algorithm for a remote sensing satellite while accounting for limitations to satellite operations imposed by the space environment .

5. Iterate and keep track of your work

You may create a few iterations of overarching research statements like this. As you continue to read focused areas in the literature, formulate a focus area Venn Diagram. By allocating articles in your literature search to portions of the diagram, you can stay organized and keep track of the work you’re doing. For the example statement above, your Venn Diagram could look like this:

Venn diagram of research topic focus areas. The most relevant literature review items can be added to each region of the diagram to track and organize your efforts.

At this point, you are well on your way to formalizing your research topic. The formalization step involves writing research questions, drafting objective statements, and identifying your research contributions. AeroAstro Communications Lab fellows can help you with these next steps through one-on-one appointments !

• Open access
• Published: 14 August 2024

Mapping ultra-processed foods (UPFs) in India: a formative research study

• Suparna Ghosh-Jerath   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2229-4455 1   na1 ,
• Neha Khandpur 2   na1 ,
• Gaurika Kumar 3 ,
• Sahiba Kohli 1 ,
• Meenu Singh 3 ,
• Inderdeep Kaur Bhamra 3 ,
• Fernanda H Marrocos-Leite 4 &
• K Srinath Reddy 3  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  2212 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Increased consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) which have additives such as artificial colours, flavours and are usually high in salt, sugar, fats and specific preservatives, are associated with diet-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs). In India, there are no standard criteria for identifying UPFs using a classification system based on extent and purpose of industrial processing. Scientific literature on dietary intake of foods among Indian consumers classifies foods as unhealthy based on presence of excessive amounts of specific nutrients which makes it difficult to distinguish UPFs from other commercially available processed foods.

A literature review followed by an online grocery retailer scan for food label reading was conducted to map the types of UPFs in Indian food market and scrutinize their ingredient list for the presence of ultra-processed ingredients. All UPFs identified were randomly listed and then grouped into categories, followed by saliency analysis to understand preferred UPFs by consumers. Indian UPF categories were then finalized to inform a UPF screener.

A lack of application of a uniform definition for UPFs in India was observed; hence descriptors such as junk-foods , fast-foods , ready-to-eat foods , instant-foods , processed-foods , packaged-foods , high-fat-sugar-and-salt foods were used for denoting UPFs. After initial scanning of such foods reported in literature based on standard definition of UPFs, an online grocery retailer scan of food labels for 375 brands (atleast 3 brands for each food item) confirmed 81 food items as UPFs. A range of packaged traditional recipes were also found to have UPF ingredients. Twenty three categories of UPFs were then developed and subjected to saliency analysis. Breads, chips and sugar-sweetened beverages (e.g. sodas and cold-drinks) were the most preferred UPFs while frozen ready-to-eat/cook foods (e.g. chicken nuggets and frozen kebabs) were least preferred.

India needs to systematically apply a food classification system and define Indian food categories based on the level of industrial processing. Mapping of UPFs is the first step towards development of a quick screener that would generate UPF consumption data to inform clear policy guidelines and regulations around UPFs and address their impact on NCDs.

Peer Review reports

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are one of the leading causes of premature morbidity and mortality resulting in over 7 out of 10 deaths worldwide [ 1 ]. Mortality due to NCDs has been on the rise in India, increasing from 37.9% of all deaths in 1990 to 61.8% in 2016 [ 2 , 3 ]. Overweight/obesity have been identified as a contributing factor [ 4 ]. The recent national-level data shows an increase of 25% in the prevalence of overweight and obesity among Indian men and women over 14–15 years and 3% among children under five years [ 5 , 6 ]. Due to their thin fat phenotype, Indian infants and children, who comprise almost one quarter of the total population, are predisposed to obesity [ 7 , 8 ]. These risk factors are further amplified by changing food environments and behavioural variables such as tobacco, alcohol, drug use and low physical activity [ 9 ]. Exposure to unhealthy food environments in genetically predisposed children, along with other behavioural risk factors, increases their risk of developing obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases (DR-NCDs) in the long term [ 10 ].

The rapidly changing food environment is characterized by diets transitioning from minimally-processed staple foods (such as pulses and whole cereals) high in vitamins, minerals and fibre to refined, processed and ultra-processed foods (UPFs) [ 11 ]. The Indian population is exposed to a wide variety of UPFs which are hyper-palatable, packaged, convenient, affordable and have a long shelf life, such as sugar-sweetened beverages, chips, biscuits and bread, and ready-to-eat/ ready-to-cook (RTC) meals [ 12 ]. The sales data of UPFs in India demonstrates an exponential increase, from USD 0.9 billion in 2006 to USD 37.9 billion in 2019 [ 13 ]. This growth indicates a notable expansion of these food products in the market, coupled with widespread advertising efforts that specifically target vulnerable populations, including children and youth [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Consumer demand for UPFs has increased due to higher disposable incomes, nuclear families, single-member households, and less availability of time for housework [ 19 , 20 ]. UPFs have penetrated the rural boundaries of the country and are likely making their way into households of diverse geographic and socio-economic attributes [ 21 , 22 ].

The Nova food classification system categorizes foods based on the purpose and the level of processing and includes four categories: (i) unprocessed/ minimally processed foods, (ii) processed culinary ingredients, (iii) processed foods, and (iv) ultra-processed foods [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 ]. UPFs are a category of food that undergo a series of industrial processes like extrusion and moulding, and have presence of classes of additives whose function is to make the final product palatable or more appealing, such as flavours, flavour enhancers, colours, emulsifiers, thickeners, sweeteners, etc. Although not unique to UPF, they also include additives that prolong the product duration and protect original properties or prevent proliferation of microorganisms [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 ]. In addition to this, several of these products are high in saturated fats or trans-fats, added sugars, and salt and low in dietary fibre, various micronutrients and other bioactive compounds [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ].

Overconsumption of UPFs has been associated with higher body mass index (BMI), obesity, type-2 diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and certain types of cancers [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. Given the diversity in UPFs, there is a need to systematically map the range of UPFs accessed by the Indian population. This is an important first step to understanding their potential role in contributing to the NCD burden in India and in developing strategies to encourage the substitution of the most frequently consumed UPFs to healthier alternatives. Identifying specific UPF categories could also help inform the development of dietary assessment instruments like food frequency questionnaires (FFQ) and screeners.

The present study aimed at: (i) mapping the specific categories of UPFs accessed and consumed in India, (ii) assessing the ingredient composition of these products, (iii) ranking the UPFs by consumer preference, and (iv) developing a list of categories of UPFs commonly consumed in India. For this, a secondary review of available literature complemented by an online grocery retailer scan and a saliency analysis were conducted between April 2021 and February 2022 (Fig.  1 ).

Flow chart briefly explaining the 3 steps of methodology

Step 1. The literature review was conducted to map and identify the various types of UPFs accessed, consumed, preferred and/ or purchased (as reported behaviours) in India. This review included published cross-sectional and observational research studies that used surveys, focus group discussions and interviews to elicit reported behaviours across different population groups and regions in India. International and national survey reports on UPF food intake and purchase among Indian population were also included in the review. Articles for review were identified from two electronic databases (NLM NCBI and Google Scholar). To ensure the search captured the diversity of UPFs, search terms included proxy descriptors identified in Indian policy documents [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 ], including: junk food* , fast food* , modern food* , westernized food* , ultra-processed food* , UPF* , convenience food* , ready-to-eat food* , ready-to-eat snack* , ready-to-cook food* , instant food* , frozen food* , canned food* , tinned food* , processed food* , packaged food* , high fat , sugar and salt food* and HFSS*. The literature search and data extraction was conducted by two authors (MS and GK).

To be eligible for the review, studies needed to: (i) include UPFs or their proxy descriptors, with examples of products, (ii) be conducted in either rural and/or urban areas of India, (iii) be published in the English language, between January 2012 and December 2022. This time frame was chosen to capture the high growth in UPFs sales during this decade [ 45 , 46 ]. Review articles, and publications that did not define the food category studied or did not cite any examples of foods were excluded.

Data from eligible articles were extracted in MS-Excel to record key variables on UPFs or their proxy descriptors with examples, location of the study (national/specific state), geographical area (urban/rural), sample size, sampling method, study participants’ age (years) and dietary data collection tools such as 24 h dietary recalls, FFQ, interviews and structured questionnaires (Additional file 1 ). A free list of UPF foods and beverages identified from the reviewed studies, was developed.

Step 2. An online grocery retailer scan for extracting detailed information on the UPFs identified in Step 1, was also conducted. The objective was to review and scrutinize the ingredient list provided in the food labels and to confirm that the food item qualified as UPFs. For this online scan, three researchers (GK, IKB, MS) reviewed the online grocery websites of the largest grocery retailers in India - Big Basket, Grofers, and Amazon [ 47 ]. Individual foods and beverages from Step 1, were checked for their ingredient composition and the presence of additives. This activity was guided by the FAO document ‘Ultra-processed foods, diet quality, and health using the Nova classification system’ [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 ] and the expertise of the co-authors (NK and FHML). Food items were specifically scrutinized for the use of additives (flavours, flavour enhancers, colours, emulsifiers, emulsifying salts, artificial sweeteners, thickeners, foaming, anti-foaming, bulking, carbonating, gelling and glazing agents), specific ingredients such as industrially derived sugars (fructose, invert sugar, maltodextrin, dextrose, lactose, high fructose corn syrup, fruit juice concentrates), modified oils (hydrogenated fats, interesterified fats), extracted proteins (hydrolysed proteins, soy protein isolate, gluten, casein, whey protein, mechanically separated meat) [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 48 ]. All food items were assessed for at least three different brands and if a majority of the items (2 out of 3) qualified as UPFs, the product category was confirmed as UPF. The free-list of UPFs identified from the literature and confirmed through label reading using the online grocery retailer scan were then categorized on the basis of the primary ingredient of their composition and/or functionality of the product. A 23 category UPF list was developed at the end of Step 2.

Step 3. The confirmed UPF categories (23 categories), were then subjected to a saliency analysis, conducted by two authors (GK, MS). Saliency is a statistical accounting of items for rank and frequency of mention, across all respondents within a given domain. For example, the colour chosen most often from a free list of ten colours by a study population is referred to as the most salient [ 49 ]. The saliency test indicators included the commonly accessed, consumed, preferred and/or purchased (collectively referred to as ‘preferred’ in this paper to identify the common UPF categories accessed by the Indian consumers). These categories were limited to the food items that were confirmed as UPFs in Step 2. For example, if a study used “junk food” as a descriptor of UPFs and included freshly prepared savouries like “samosa/kachori” along with chips and soft drinks, we included data for only chips and soft drinks for the purpose of saliency analysis. The UPFs were then sorted from the most to the least preferred UPFs (Additional file 2 ). The steps and formulas [ 49 ] used to calculate composite salience scores for each UPF category have been illustrated in Fig.  2 . The UPF categories were classified per consumer preference, to the composite salience score cut-offs, defined after dividing the distribution of the composite salience scores obtained into tertiles as follows: (i) ≥ 0.61 as frequently preferred, (ii) 0.61 − 0.51 as infrequently preferred, and (iii) < 0.51 as rarely preferred UPFs.

Saliency analysis method for free-listed UPF categories

The literature search and study selection process of Step 1 is illustrated in Fig.  3 . A total of 23 research articles that matched the inclusion criteria were included in the final review. An overview of the extracted variables is provided in Additional File 1 . These studies were conducted in both rural (5 out of 23) and urban areas (17 out of 23), in different regions of the country, among a diverse population aged between 9 and 69 years (Table  1 ). Table  2 provides the outcome of the literature review with proxy descriptors along with the food items listed under them. These foods were verified as UPFs and non-UPFs.

Flow diagram reporting the screening and selection of studies reporting consumption and availability of UPFs in India

The online grocery retailer scan, label readings of 375 packaged foods were completed (atleast 3 brands per product) and 81 of those food products qualified as UPFs. Several of the packaged Indian traditional foods and snacks such as bottled and packaged pickles, namkeens (cereal and pulse-based extruded snacks), papads , frozen non-vegetarian meals and snacks, and frozen RTE meals (like rajmah curry and rice, biryani , dal makhni , etc.) had UPF ingredients and additives in their formulation that qualified them as UPFs (Table  3 ). Food products such as RTE breakfast cereals (e.g. poha , upma , etc.), RTE Indian curries (e.g. paneer makhani , butter chicken, etc.), Indian RTE bread (e.g. thepla , paratha , etc.), RTC mixes (e.g. idli mix, dal vada mix, etc.) also qualified as UPFs. However, some RTE traditional meals such as RTE biryani , RTE rajmah curry with rice, RTE kadhi pakoda with rice were not categorized as UPFs as these did not include UPF ingredients.

Consumer preferences for the confirmed UPF food categories identified above, were assessed using saliency scores. Table  4 lists these categories and shows the order of preference based on the saliency scores. The last column in the table indicates ‘frequently’, ‘infrequently’ or ‘rarely’ preferred UPFs by consumers in India. The frequently preferred UPFs were breads, chips and other extruded snacks (such as potato chips, cheese balls, puff corns, etc.) and sugar-sweetened beverages (such as cold drinks, diet coke, sodas, and energy drinks. The three rarely preferred UPFs were margarine and frozen/ packaged vegetarian and non-vegetarian snacks and meals (such as stuffed/plain parantha , naan , palak paneer , rajma , cutlets, fish/seafood snacks, salami, and sausages).

The present study aimed to identify the specific categories of UPFs accessed in India and rank them by consumer preference using a literature review, an online grocery retailer scan and saliency analysis. We found 23 categories of UPFs accessed by Indian consumers. After analysing the ingredient list of UPFs, we found that product formulation of several traditional Indian foods has transitioned from being processed to ultra-processed category with the use of industrially processed ingredients and presence of additives such as artificial colours, flavour enhancers, anti-caking agents. These ultra-processed versions of traditional foods even though have similar nutrient composition to home-prepared meals, are increasingly consumed, displacing home-cooked meals, and substituting staples. While the health effects of this displacement from minimally processed food ingredients to UPFs is an area of on-going research, we have growing evidence that UPF dietary patterns are linked to poor health outcomes [ 23 , 69 ]. It is crucial to track reformulation of traditional recipes to ultra-processed convenience foods especially since traditional meals are thought to be healthier [ 70 ]. The increasing market of ultra-processed traditional Indian recipes with poor nutritional profile needs more scrutiny and research.

Saliency analysis identified the preferred UPFs among the Indian population with breads, chips and sugar-sweetened beverages being the most preferred UPFs and frozen non-vegetarian snacks being the least preferred. This finding is consistent with the sales trends reported by Euromonitor International in 2020, which has also highlighted a substantial contribution of similar categories of packaged foods, such as bakery items, biscuits, packaged dairy products, savory snacks, and sauces and condiments [ 46 ]. Further, saliency analysis also indicates the preference of Indian consumers towards UPFs such as fruit-based preserves, cookies and biscuits, Indian sweet mixes, sauces and pickles, instant noodles/soups/ pasta and savoury puff rolls. Studies from other low and middle-income countries (LMICs) demonstrates similar trends in preference (consumption of UPFs and contribution to percentage of total calories) towards packaged confectioneries, savoury snacks, deep-fried foods, biscuits, candy/ chocolate, savoury snacks, canned red and luncheon meats, pre-fried French fries, mayonnaise, ketchup, fast-food such as sandwiches and pizzas, chips and salty snacks (including tortillas and pretzels), sweets and sweetened beverages and sausages (including canned) [ 71 , 72 ].

Our results also suggest a benefit of utilizing a classification system based on processing. Currently several UPFs are being captured by proxy descriptors like junk foods, fast foods, convenience foods, instant foods, packaged foods, etc. This limits comparability with other studies, monitoring the preference for and consumption of these products by the population, developing targeted interventions, tracking product reformulation and other regulatory measures to control exposure of these foods to vulnerable age groups through food advertising, etc. [ 73 ]. Using UPFs more consistently in studies reporting unhealthy food consumption pattern in India will help with global comparisons and in also elucidating the health effects of these foods. Additionally, as per the packaged food sales data from 2015-19, the Indian UPF market is slowly expanding with increasing sales of RTE meals, savoury snacks, processed fruits, vegetables, meats and other packaged foods [ 46 ]. The Nova food classification system can serve this purpose and may be explored as an option for categorization of foods by regulatory authorities. This classification system is used to assess dietary patterns in several high and middle-income countries [ 23 , 70 ]. Food based dietary guidelines of several countries such as Brazil, Uruguay, Ecuador, Peru and Israel have utilized Nova classification system to inform their dietary recommendations [ 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 ].

The present paper identified only a limited number of Indian studies which were primarily reported from 2 geographical regions. More such surveys on the consumption of UPFs are desirable to identify common regional UPFs. In the Indian context, several UPFs are indigenously produced by local retailers apart from the huge market share of nationally known branded UPFs [ 79 ]. These locally accessible UPFs have greater penetration into the local markets.

The categories of UPFs in India developed in the present study after due validation can be developed into a UPF consumption screener. This tool can be used for monitoring the UPF consumption in India and can address critical gap in scientific literature. This information on quantitative estimate of UPF consumption among Indian population can be useful for assessing impact of UPF consumption on increasing burden of NCDs in India.

This study is one of the first attempts to explore the types of UPFs in the Indian food market, identify the types of packaged traditional recipes that have been converted to UPFs, and map their saliency.

Study limitations

Studies reviewed were majorly from South India and largely represented the urban population, hence the results cannot be extended to the rural population. The study could only conduct saliency mapping of preferred foods without quantity of intake of UPFs and their contribution to total day’s energy intake. We could not explore traditional variants of UPFs that may be sold in the local unregulated markets.

Conclusions

India needs to develop a food classification system while systematically defining food categories based on level of processing. This should be followed by an assessment of the extent of UPFs consumption in India. The mapping of the UPFs in India reported in this paper provides the first step in developing a quick screener that systematically lists all the UPF categories. The data generated on consumption of UPFs using the screener is likely to inform policies on regulating the Indian UPFs market, undertake consumer education initiatives and create nutrition literacy around UPFs and thus contain their indiscriminate consumption. This may address the impact of UPF consumption on increasing burden of NCDs in India. There is an urgent need for strengthening the food regulatory environment to check the infiltration of several unhealthy UPFs in the Indian food market.

Data availability

No new data was created or analyzed under the literature review part of the study. The datasets used as part of a particular component is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

• Ultra-processed foods

Non-communicable diseases

Diet-related non-communicable diseases

Food frequency questionnaires

High fat sugar salt

Low and middle-income countries

Ready-to-eat

Ready-to-cook

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Acknowledgements

We would like to appreciate the contribution of Dr. Shukrani Shinde for supporting the study team during the literature search and online grocery retailer scan.

This work is funded through the Innovative Methods and Metrics for Agriculture and Nutrition Action (IMMANA) programme (Grant IMMANA 3.06), led by the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM). IMMANA is co-funded with UK Aid from the UK government and by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. This work was supported, in part, by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation [INV-002962 / OPP1211308]. Under the grant conditions of the Foundation, a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Generic License has already been assigned to the Author Accepted Manuscript version that might arise from this submission.

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Suparna Ghosh-Jerath and Neha Khandpur contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

The George Institute for Global Health, 308, Third Floor, Elegance Tower, Plot No. 8, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi, Delhi, 110025, India

Suparna Ghosh-Jerath & Sahiba Kohli

Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands

Neha Khandpur

Public Health Foundation of India, New Delhi, India

Gaurika Kumar, Meenu Singh, Inderdeep Kaur Bhamra & K Srinath Reddy

Center for Epidemiological Research in Nutrition and Health, Faculty of Public Health, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

Fernanda H Marrocos-Leite

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The study was conceptualized by KSR, SGJ, NK and FHML. The literature review and online grocery retailer scan were conducted by MS, GK, IKB. The first draft of the manuscript was prepared by MS, GK, IKB, SK and SGJ. The manuscript was critiqued and edited by SGJ, NK, FHML and KSR. SGJ had primary responsibility for final content; and all authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Suparna Ghosh-Jerath .

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This study was conducted according to guidelines laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki, and all procedures involving humans were approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee at the Public Health Foundation of India, and the ethics committee of University of Sao Paulo. The current manuscript, however, reports findings from an exhaustive literature review and online grocery retailer scan for which informed consent process is not applicable.

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Ghosh-Jerath, S., Khandpur, N., Kumar, G. et al. Mapping ultra-processed foods (UPFs) in India: a formative research study. BMC Public Health 24 , 2212 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19624-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19624-1

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Mapping the landscape of carbon-neutral city research: dynamic evolution and emerging frontiers.

1. Introduction

2. methodology, 2.1. data sources, 2.2. analytical framework, 3. context of research results, 3.1. publication volume and inter-annual trends, 3.2. discipline statistics, 3.3. author analysis, 3.3.1. chinese author analysis, 3.3.2. international author analysis, 3.4. institution analysis, 3.5. journals analysis, 3.6. article citations, 3.7. research hotspots and trend analysis, 3.7.1. research hotspots and trends in china, low-carbon city, carbon peaking and carbon neutrality, industrial structure carbon neutrality, transportation carbon neutrality, research methods, 3.7.2. research hotspots and trends internationally, urban governance, carbon emissions, research method, 3.7.3. summary, 4. conclusions and implications, 4.1. conclusions, 4.2. implications, 4.2.1. front end: energy alternatives, 4.2.2. middle end: energy saving and emissions reduction, 4.2.3. back end: carbon absorption and carbon trading, 4.3. limitation, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Miao, Y.; Yang, L.; Chen, F.; Chen, J. Mapping the Landscape of Carbon-Neutral City Research: Dynamic Evolution and Emerging Frontiers. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 6733. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166733

Miao Y, Yang L, Chen F, Chen J. Mapping the Landscape of Carbon-Neutral City Research: Dynamic Evolution and Emerging Frontiers. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):6733. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166733

Miao, Yang, Le Yang, Feng Chen, and Jiawei Chen. 2024. "Mapping the Landscape of Carbon-Neutral City Research: Dynamic Evolution and Emerging Frontiers" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 6733. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166733

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

An intervention model for developing self-directed learning skills in neet-youth: a literature review.

• 1 University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
• 2 Izmir Democracy University, Karabağlar, Türkiye
• 3 Institute of Health Sciences, Acibadem University, Istanbul, Türkiye
• 4 Prisms, Birkirkara, Malta
• 5 Association of Citizens CEFE Macedonia Skopje, Skopje, North Macedonia

In response to the growing need for self-directed learning (SDL) skills in a rapidly changing world, research was conducted to map interventions that support SDL skills, aiming to find a model for supporting SDL skills in NEET-youth. SDL competencies support continuous personal development and coping with change. There is a significant number of young people in society who do not participate in working life, education, or training (NEET-youth) and are characterized by a low level of education. Little has been done to support SDL skills interventions for them; however, bringing young people back to the education path is a crucial issue. This raises important questions about which supportive approach and tools are most beneficial for developing SDL skills in NEET-youth, and how best to implement them. This literature review is based on the analysis of 25 articles. The results of the study showed that SDL interventions have not been used for NEET-youth, and therefore, the new model was created. In the case of NEET-youth the SDL intervention should be seen as a non-formal learning process that combines various activities that enable self-reflection and real-life experiences for acquiring new positive learning experiences.

Introduction

A rapidly changing society requires constant reorientation, retraining and adaptation. In order to remain actively engaged in the labor market and aligned with societal changes, individuals need to continuously develop themselves to adapt to these changes. The International Labour Organization ( ILO, 2021 ) highlights an increasing demand for workers with strong core skills and motivation to learn and adapt throughout their professional careers. Educational practices have to generate educational models and formal/informal approaches that facilitate the development of 21st century competencies in a complex, changing world ( González-Pérez and Ramírez-Montoya, 2022 ). In this context, attention must be paid to the fact that there are many young people in society who have discontinued their education and do not participate in the labor market. In 2022, 11.7% of 15–29 year-olds in the European Union were neither in employment nor in education and training (i.e., NEET-youth) ( Eurostat, 2023 ). The target group of young people may miss out on the development of modern, future-oriented skills.

Self-directed learning (SDL) supports individuals in pursuing learning throughout their life span and equips people with the skills and competencies required to continue their own “self-education” beyond the end of formal schooling ( Candy, 1991 ). The mission of educational institutions through learning processes is to contribute to people’s ability to learn and their desire to continue their learning path. NEET-youth who do not participate in educational activities miss out on activities that support SDL and the skills to ensure that they become lifelong learners and individuals who continually adapt to change. Based on this, there arises the need to investigate how to support SDL skills in NEET-youth.

Mawn et al. (2017) have highlighted that by considering a broad range of interventions, including classroom training or work experiences, there are so far no effective practices for social engagement. Valiente et al. (2020) have criticized lifelong learning policies in Europe for NEET-youth because they have offered work-oriented education and training but avoid addressing the poor labor market prospects of young people. Rahmani and Groot (2023) have emphasized the importance of research in determining optimal strategies for enhancing the lives and prospects of NEET-youth, given the constraints posed by limited availability and quality of information on this target group. Knowledge about methods and tools for developing skills among NEET-youth would enable the development of interventions that help young people return to the learning path.

“NEET” label often encompasses a diverse group of young people, each displaying different characteristics and potential needs for intervention ( Yates and Payne, 2006 ). Despite the diverse backgrounds of young people, the Authors’ study shows significantly lower SDL skills among NEET-youth, especially in factors such as openness to new experiences , future orientation and responsibility , compared to their peers in education or employment. To develop these skills, it is necessary to study the impact of various SDL intervention on different factors and to be able to combine activities that specifically support the characteristics requiring support among NEET-youth.

SDL is mostly based on the learner-centered approach ( Knowles, 1975 ; Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991 ), but there can be differences in the case of different interventions. The aim of this research is to identify the main approaches in interventions (e.g., learner-centred or teacher-centred). NEET youth may have encountered more teacher- directed learning during their studies, which has not supported their autonomy growth, and the experience of learning based on SDL principles has been insufficient.

Therefore, this article provides a narrower perspective on supporting NEET-youth, emphasizing interventions that enhance the self-efficacy and self-management of individuals for continuing their own learning path and adapting to changes in society and the labor market. The study aims to analyze the intervention tools used for the development of SDL skills and to find an appropriate intervention model to develop SDL skills for NEET-youth.

Conceptual framework

Self-directed learning.

In adulthood, people are expected to be independent, capable of making decisions for themselves, and responsible for their own well-being. The extent to which we successfully and continuously build a knowledge base drives who we are, and the accumulation of knowledge built up over a lifetime drives how we operate within society ( Cronin-Golomb and Bauer, 2023 ). Candy (1991) has highlighted that a person may be regarded as autonomous to the extent that he or she conceives goals and plans, exercises freedom of choice, uses the capacity for rational reflection, has the willpower to follow through, exercises self-restraint and self-discipline and views themselves as autonomous. SDL skills have become crucial in the 21st century, and education has placed significant emphasis on developing these skills.

Utilizing metacognitive skills entails being aware of one’s beliefs, attitudes, and experiences, allowing for the integration of these internal states with the external environment and events to construct meaning from information ( Patterson, 2011 ). Continuous learning and individual development should be integral components of every individual’s life, facilitating the achievement of contentment and balance between one’s aspirations and the current reality, all the while guaranteeing steady progress toward individual objectives. SDL can be conceptualized as a tool for empowerment or change – and therefore represents a competence that is especially important for living and working successfully in the modern world.

Non-cognitive skills have a long-term positive effect on participation in education ( Farrington et al., 2012 ). Previous research has found that people who are more self-directed in their studies better understand their learning needs ( Jossberger et al., 2010 ), are more satisfied with their lives, and have a more purposeful direction regarding their future aspirations ( Edmondson et al., 2012 ).

School can support learners to be autonomous and independent lifelong learners, during which they will need assistance acquiring learning skills, attitudes, and knowledge to develop a sense of ownership over their learning and the ability to perceive learning beyond educational participation ( Bolhuis, 2003 ). Fostering self-directed learning competence in formal educational settings is a prerequisite for enabling competent self-directed learning in informal or non-formal learning contexts ( Morris, 2019 ). In situations where these skills have remained insufficient, learners may drop out of school or there may be a general disruption to their learning path.

In cases where young individuals are not actively involved in formal education, the responsibility for fostering their SDL skills may shift to other institutions. The development of SDL skills is then not only an issue in formal education but also important in all other contexts, especially for those people who do not participate in education. Unsurprisingly, individuals who have discontinued formal education and require assistance developing their SDL skills to re-engage in studies may encounter challenges.

Young people who are not in education, employment, or training are called NEET-youth ( Furlong, 2006 ). In 2022, 11.7% of the 15–29-year-olds in the EU were neither in employment nor in education and training ( Eurostat, 2023 ). The highest concentration of NEET-youth can be seen among young people with low education ( Eurostat, 2022 ). NEET-youth as the target group is mostly characterized by a lack of skills, a lack of capacity ( Bolhuis, 2003 ), a low self-perception of transition to adulthood and a negative vision about the future ( Parola et al., 2023 ). Yates and Payne (2006) has highlighted that the ‘NEET’ category encompasses a diverse group of young individuals, which poses a challenge to the effectiveness of identifying and targeting interventions for these youths solely based on their ‘NEET’ status. Therefore, there is a need for specific assessment tools and intervention programs.

NEET status can often be the culmination of a series of educational failures over the years, and so different models of education provision are needed to prevent what could otherwise simply become an extended period of failing in an education system ( Hutchinson and Kettlewell, 2015 ). Relative low skill level and low educational attainments significantly increase the probability of reporting long-term NEET statuses ( Jongbloed and Giret, 2021 ). The need exists for interventions that effectively respond to the needs of NEET-youth, and it is important not only to support NEET-youth but also to prevent young people from entering NEET status in the first place ( Mawn et al., 2017 ). Support is necessary to prevent young people from entering long-term NEET status, which leads to prolonged economic inactivity, negatively impacting both the individual and their family ( Ralston et al., 2022 ). The interventions that are more focused on psychological aspects, such as motivation, future expectations, educational aspirations, goal attainability, investing in active efforts, and intrapersonal agency, can protect teenagers from becoming NEET-youth ( Mawn et al., 2017 ; Ripamonti, 2023 ). Therefore, the personal characteristics of NEET-youth can be barriers to active participation in the lifelong learning process and society in general, and it is important to focus on interventions that can support young people’s skills and competencies to help them overcome these challenges.

Yates and Payne (2006) have emphasized the need to support NEET youths based on their specific needs and to avoid, for example, pushing them into training and education if they feel they are not ready for it. Kõiv and Saks (2024) have measured that NEET-youth have lower results in all SDL factors, with a statistically significant difference compared to their learning/working peers in factors such as openness to new experiences ( p  = 0.001), responsibility ( p  = 0.002), and future orientation ( p  = 0.026). These results indicate that for those NEET youths who have the opportunity to continue their educational journey, but lack the necessary skills, interventions should be implemented to enhance their self-directed learning skills.

SDL interventions

Supporting NEET youth can occur through systemic approaches embedded within society or through targeted interventions at the individual level to catalyze transformation ( Flynn et al., 2024 ). Paabort et al. (2023) collected data confirms that educationally focused approaches are just a few, next to the more significant general political, social, or contextual approaches. Despite the political attention this group receives, few studies utilize a robust design to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions for them ( Stea et al., 2024 ).

Educational institutions should help learners to become independent lifelong learners ( Bolhuis, 2003 ). However, it might be complicated for people who have dropped out of formal education and need support in developing SDL skills in order to return to study. Therefore, solutions must be found to improve the SDL skills of all target groups, including the people who have dropped out of the education system.

Fostering SDL competence in formal educational settings seems fundamental for empowering learners to deal with a world that is becoming ever more complex and changeable ( Morris, 2019 ). Compulsory education should prioritize lifelong learning skills, yet students still graduate with varying levels of proficiency due to individual differences ( Cornford, 2002 ). Given the non-participation of many people in the education system, the development of SDL skills needs to be looked at more broadly, and interventions should be available in different contexts.

SDL is a process in which the learner assumes primary responsibility for planning, implementing, and evaluating the learning process, and the education agent or resource often plays a facilitating role in the process ( Knowles, 1975 ; Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991 ). Kõiv and Saks (2023) define the construct of self-directed learning for NEET-youth as a supported process in which a person’s attitude towards learning improves, and the subject develops initiative, independence, and abilities in shaping their educational path with a positive view of the future.

The integration of the learner-directed approach in addition to the traditional teacher-directed learning approach is becoming a growing trend. The teacher as facilitator can be seen as a key role in providing numerous kinds of support because of the many barriers to self-direction that a learner will face – providing positive emotions and giving support ( Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991 ; Schweder and Raufelder, 2019 ). Even if SDL is seen as a learner-led learning process, it cannot happen in isolation, and especially for vulnerable groups, support is essential. Garrison (1997) highlighted the need for educators to create learning environments and conditions that facilitate learner’s self-direction. Interventions to develop SDL skills should focus on strengthening the learner-directed approach. Since many adults globally lack competence in self-directed learning upon exiting formal education, adult education becomes crucial for fostering this skill, but adult education practitioners must be prepared to offer support to facilitate this process ( Morris, 2023 ).

The aim of the study

Although there is extensive research on SDL in various target groups, far too little attention has been paid to investigating NEET-youth SDL skills ( Ellena et al., 2021 ; Kõiv et al., 2022 ). There is a lack of knowledge about the most effective interventions for developing NEET-youth SDL skills and it is not known to what extent and how the different support measures contribute to the development of these skills. Therefore, the goal of this research was to identify intervention activities that support the development of SDL skills and can be used to develop SDL skills in NEET-youth based on a systematic literature analysis. The results of the research help to create an appropriate intervention model to develop SDL skills in NEET-youth. Proceeding from the aim of the study the following research questions were formulated:

1. What are the main approaches for developing SDL skills?

2. What methods and tools are used in developing SDL skills?

3. Which factors of the SDL construct have interventions affected?

Methodology

Search procedures.

To achieve the objective of identifying effective SDL intervention model for NEET youth, this study employs a systematic literature review. The search for articles to include in the systematic literature review was conducted between March and May 2023. The search targeted studies that implemented intervention activities aimed at the development of SDL skills in young people who were out of education. The selection process for the systematic literature analysis was based on the PRISMA (Preferred Reported Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses) framework ( Moher et al., 2009 ).

The initial search for articles was carried out in the Scopus and Academic Search Complete, APA PsycInfo and ERIC databases. As the aim of the research was to learn about the interventions for SDL development in young people, the advanced search function and the following search terms were used to identify an initial pool of articles (see Table 1 ).

Table 1 . Search terms for the first search.

As the earliest studies on SDL go back to the middle of the 20th century, the search was constrained to the period 1950–2023. In addition, full text and English as the language of the articles were applied in the search procedure. Self-regulated learning as a term was included with the terms because according to Jossberger et al. (2010) , SDL that is situated at the macro level includes self-regulated learning (SRL) at the micro level, and concerns processes within task execution.

The primary results showed that there were no articles on SDL interventions targeting young people with NEET status and dropout youth generally. In addition, the number of articles extracted as a result of the first search was very small ( N  = 8). Therefore, it was decided to conduct an additional search using the same databases, but only the terms self-directed learn* and intervention. The result of the new search was 419 articles. Duplicate articles ( N  = 93) were deleted from the selection. The selection and exclusion of articles was based on the same criteria. The additional articles ( N  = 17) were added to the pool. An overview of the process of the two searches according to the PRISMA framework is provided in the Figure 1 .

Figure 1 . The process of selecting studies for analysis.

In the first round of screening, the eligibility of the titles of records was estimated by four researchers, in the second round by two researchers. The inter-rater average reliability resulted in 75.5%. The researchers worked independently, and a meeting was held during the process to refine and agree on selection criteria.

The initial search of the databases for relevant articles resulted in identifying 1,511 articles. After deleting duplicates, the number of titles screened by researchers was 1,350. The inclusion criterion was a clearly visible association of support and intervention in education in the title, but a title was excluded if it was generally about ICT or education and learning-teaching, intervention of medicine or the COVID-19 topic. The second-level screening resulted in 390 abstracts selected from the pool of 1,350 articles. The articles were excluded if the study was a comparative analysis about different personal characteristics without any intervention, general massive open online course (MOOC) issues or the connection with SDL or SRL was missing. The screening of abstracts left us with 95 studies.

As the next step, the full text of each identified study was downloaded. During this step, full text screening was performed to confirm the article’s eligibility. The texts were assessed based on one or more of the following criteria: (1) the article mentions an intervention or program that aims to promote self-directed learning in NEET-youth; (2) the article discusses outcomes related to self-directed learning; (3) the article uses measures or tools to assess self-directed learning or related constructs; (4) the article includes a sample of NEET-youth or a subgroup of NEET-youth, such as unemployed youth or school dropouts. Articles focused on any other topics or issues that are not directly related to intervention, SRL or SDL were excluded. As a result, 25 articles that focused on intervention or support for SRL and SDL formed the final pool for subsequent analysis.

Data analysis

All the collected data was systematically compiled using MS Excel. The following data was included: (a) descriptive information about the study (i.e., title, authors, year of publication, journal); (b) data needed for answering the RQs – sample, approach, context, used methods and tools; (c) measured factors, measurement tools and results. For validation purposes, two authors analyzed the same full texts of 10 studies using the given table and compared the extracted data. A consensus was reached on the minor differences which occurred.

Methodological qualities

The aim of the current review was to find an appropriate intervention model to develop SDL skills in NEET-youth. Consequently, all 25 articles addressed the principles of the intervention and support for SDL skills development, highlighting the theoretical basis and in 20 of them also practical intervention tools and methods. The approaches and intervention tools used, the method and measured impact were categorized according to the data in the articles.

Most of the articles described different factors emerging from the interventions and the support principles of SDL, in which the approach, methods and tools were important and key to the present study. These articles added valuable material in addressing the support and intervention tool for SDL skills development in young people.

Key concept definition

In the context of this study, several terms were used to categorize the different elements of the interventions. First, the term approach was used to refer to the main approach of the intervention, and the term approach was divided into facilitator-led and learner-led approach . Being learner-centered is the main approach in line with SDL, but the intervention structure could be seen from the facilitator or learner perspective. The facilitator-led approach is based on the teacher-led approach, but is called facilitator-led because, in the case of NEET-youth, a direct connection with a teacher is not always available. A facilitator-led process refers to an instructional approach in which the facilitator takes on the central role in guiding and directing the learning process of learners and is taking an important role in planning and delivering the learning. In the learner-led approach, learners take an active role in directing their own learning, making decisions about what and how they will learn, and taking responsibility for their learning process. The role of the facilitator in a learner-led approach shifts from being the sole provider of knowledge to that of a facilitator, mentor, or coach.

Another key term used in the current study is method , which refers to a structured approach used to accomplish a specific goal and involves a series of organized steps or procedures as tools that are applied to achieve the desired outcome. The term tool in the study context can refer to any technique, simulation, material, platform, or resource that is used during the intervention process.

Study components

For each article, the main approach, context, tools, and methods of the intervention were identified, and the main characteristics for each intervention were generated. The results were then synthesized and used to find the suitable SDL intervention model for NEET-youth. The intervention tools ( n  = 20) were mapped, highlighting the main approach ( n  = 2) and methods (6) and tools (12), as well as how the results are measured and which skills or factors the intervention had a positive impact on.

Based on the definition of SDL for NEET-youth ( Kõiv and Saks, 2023 ) and the factors of SDL ( Kõiv and Saks, 2024 ), the results were found to be related to one or another of these factors. For example, the positive impact on motivation was categorized under the attitude factor; results related to goal-setting were linked to future vision ; positive outcomes related to the learning process and understanding of one’s own learning was associated with metacognition ; results related to experiences were linked to openness to new experiences ; and problem-solving skills were associated with resilience . For the purpose of clearer understanding, the factors formulated by Kõiv and Saks (2024) are used in the subsequent analysis.

Based on the analysis of the selected studies, their theoretical frameworks and corresponding methods and tools, an intervention model was prepared.

Descriptive data

The studies included in the review come from peer-reviewed scientific journals. The study domains involved were mostly from the field of education (13) and education technology (4), psychology (3), youth (3), and medicine and health (2). The studies are published in very different journals, only the journals Frontiers in Education and Vocations and Learning appeared twice.

As the search terms of the study included both SDL and SRL, the selection comprises articles about interventions for SDL (15) and SRL (5). The context of the studies is mostly formal education – primary or secondary school (4), vocational education (4) or higher education (9). One study was related to a MOOC course, one to non-formal learning activities, and one was associated with adult education. The studies involved both face-to-face interventions (13) and digital interventions (5) or a combination of both (2). Furthermore, in some face-to-face interventions some activities were conducted online (e.g., log data, questionnaire). The studies were conducted in different countries, including European countries such as the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany. They were also conducted in Africa, America, and in Asia. The broad geographical and cultural scope in these practices made it possible to obtain information that is adaptable to various cultural contexts.

Most of the studies, in terms of the methods applied and defined by the inclusion criteria, were empirical in nature and described the process and results of the intervention. Some articles (5) gave useful theoretical overviews and suggestions about the interventions. The vast majority of cases reported their data collection tools and data analysis methods. The data for analysis was collected through a combination of various sources such as interviews, log data, observations, focus group discussions and various types of validated targeted questionnaires [e.g., Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) ( Guglielmino, 1977 ); PRO-SDLS ( Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991 ); SDL skill scale ( Ayyildiz and Tarhan, 2015 ); Self-regulated Online Learning Questionnaire – Revised (SOL-Q-R) ( Jansen et al., 2018 )] used independently or combined with other instruments. Pre-test and post-test were the major methods used to analyze the results of the interventions. Studies that employed a quantitative approach had high reliability scores, α = 0.66–0.95 (see Table 2 ). While the context of the study, as well as the participant information, was almost always reported; there were some gaps with regard to information about the validity confirmation procedures for the data collection instrument(s). Therefore, due to the lack of data in this direction, the practice of these methods and tools was included only as suggestions in our analysis framework.

Table 2 . The characteristics of the interventions.

All interventions were categorized based on the main approach, methods, tools, the main learning focus (SRL or SDL), and impacted factors (see Table 2 ).

The interventions were primarily in the form of training courses, supportive measures, or practical interventions, and they were piloted over a specific period. Support tools used during the general learning process were mainly piloted over one or two semesters in schools. The training courses varied in duration depending on whether it was a course for the introduction of SDL or a more complex program that included introduction, practice, and reflection. Their duration ranged from 4 weeks to 1 year.

Interventions supporting SDL

Five out of the 25 studies focused solely on SDL or SRL interventions, while 20 articles included studies that examined different interventions, such as training courses, support methods integrated into existing courses, individual practice, coaching etc. The primary context of the interventions was formal education, either in upper secondary school or university. The target groups for the interventions were students at various educational levels and stages of the learning process. Only three interventions were based on out-of-school activities or adult education. No intervention was targeted at those who had dropped out of education and were not participating in learning.

The main approach for developing SDL skills

The main approaches used in the interventions were analyzed in response to the first research question: What is the main approach for developing SDL skills?

Despite the different approaches and methods used in the interventions, all of them aimed to develop a self-directed learner and move towards a learner-directed learning process. Based on the structure of the interventions, they were categorized into either facilitator-led or learner-directed approaches. The facilitator-led approach was more strongly recognized in intervention methods such as training sessions, integrated activities in other courses, and regulation activities. These methods were structured, built up, and guided by a teacher or facilitator. Interventions as experience or hands-on practice provided a framework for action but the participants were free to decide the direction of the process. In the analyzed articles, intervention methods were almost equally divided into facilitator-led ( n  = 11) and learner-led approaches ( n  = 9).

Methods and tools for developing SDL skills

The intervention methods and tools used were then analyzed and categorized in order to answer the second research question: What methods and tools are used in developing SDL skills?

The intervention methods included facilitator-led training sessions ( n  = 2) and activities integrated into the course of a curriculum ( n  = 4). The learner-led interventions involved coaching ( n  = 2) and experience/hands-on practice ( n  = 4). There was only one intervention as a training session for trainers or facilitators and several (6) training sessions for learners. While the training for facilitators was focused on teaching methods for SDL, the sessions for learners focused on both SDL and SRL. There were also some tools that were integrated into the courses, but they were primarily meant to support SRL in the learning process. The digital promise ( Morris-Eyton and Pretorius, 2023 ) as a tool was used for SDL skills development. Considering that a learning-supportive context ( Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991 ) and an understanding of learning ( Knowles, 1975 ) are important prerequisites for SDL, training programs that support the understanding of SDL in both facilitators and learners are crucial in developing SDL.

Learner-led activities were categorized into both personal coaching and practical hands-on activities. Given that the definitions of SDL by Knowles (1975) , Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) , and Kõiv and Saks (2023) emphasize the importance of support and interaction with the facilitator in the process of developing SDL skills, it is essential to consider coaching interventions throughout the process. Coaching and mentoring were consistently present in the interventions. Since SDL is not only a theoretically learned skill but also requires practical experience, several implemented interventions have incorporated learning by doing activities. Depending on the target audience and context, it is possible to either combine these into a holistic solution or utilize various components of the interventions in the educational process.

Attention has been paid in the interventions to various aspects that may affect the learning process, and individual independent tools have been implemented. Since the studies did not demonstrate strong impact on participants, these interventions may be applied in the intervention model as recommended activities, but not as core activities. For example, specific behaviors linked to reducing mind wandering ( Randall et al., 2022 ) or e-portfolio, helping learners self-assess their performance on learning tasks ( Beckers et al., 2019 ; Payne, 2021 ).

Since intervention studies have utilized evaluation instruments not only for studying the intervention but also for assessing its impact, the implementation of these evaluation instruments provides significant insights regarding the characteristics of the participants. Therefore, the evaluation instrument should be considered as an integral part of the intervention as a whole.

Effect of the interventions on skills

The impact of interventions was assessed in very different ways, including both qualitative and quantitative methods, which made comparing the results of the intervention challenging. The description of the intervention results was coded and categorized based on the SDL factors for NEET-youth identified by Kõiv and Saks (2024) . This categorization is important in this study for identifying SDL interventions suitable for NEET-youth. As a result, it can be highlighted that while facilitator-led activities primarily influenced the learner’s metacognition, responsibility, and attitudes, learner-led interventions also supported openness to new experiences, resilience, and future orientation.

The findings from various studies underscore the significance of comprehensive guidance in intervention. Personal coaching by a coach has been effective in developing future orientation and metacognition ( Beckers et al., 2019 ; Wolff et al., 2020 ), but peer-coaching has not been as effective ( Gaspar et al., 2009 ).

When planning interventions, it must be considered that coaches and trainers also need knowledge of SDL. The study by Van Tonder et al. (2022) confirms the positive effect of training for trainers on teacher attitudes and beliefs about teaching, as well as its impact on classroom practices and learner development, including the academic and personal well-being of learners. The results of several studies emphasize the importance of comprehensive guidance during interventions. Minnaert et al. (2017) highlight the positive synergy of combining the implementation of behavior counselling and self-regulation strategies to enhance learners goal orientation. Reflective activities, such as learning logs, have shown a positive impact on learner self-management, goal commitment, self-evaluation, and general SDL ( Stephen and Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2021 ). The interventions have taken place in the context of courses supporting learners’ abilities, including positive effects on learner self-efficacy, self-awareness, curiosity, motivation, and coping strategies ( Chukwuedo et al., 2021 ; Chen et al., 2022 ; Keane et al., 2022 ). In courses where learners took a leading role in significant activities, including real-life situations, and facilitators played a motivating role, positive impacts on lifelong learning tendencies and the intention to engage in skills upgrading were observed.

Activities integrated into ongoing courses mainly supported self-regulation, such as the digital promise tool presented by Morris-Eyton and Pretorius (2023) , which acted like a learning agreement and promoted taking responsibility for personal learning outcomes. Positive effects on metacognition, responsibility, and resilience were observed when using self-report questionnaires ( Mejeh and Held, 2022 ; Randall et al., 2022 ). Jansen et al. (2020) assessed the limited impact of video lectures throughout the course and concluded that implementing a single video training at the beginning of the course would be more effective.

Interventions designed for learners to take a leading role in activities had a more wide ranging positive impact. These activities were based on experiential and hands-on methods. Growth in leadership skills, independence, skill upgrading in a personally interesting field, increased confidence, self-discipline, and other skills are different abilities that were developed through experiential and hands-on learning activities ( Cremers et al., 2014 ; Hauseman, 2016 ; Golightly, 2018 ; Schweder and Raufelder, 2021 ; Wong and Kan, 2022 ). Learning by doing as a tool, along with assessing learning needs, setting learning goals, sourcing for resources, choosing strategies, and evaluating the results, had a positive effect on lifelong learning, information management, and problem-solving skills ( Abubakar and Arshad, 2015 ). These are effective tools that support all the essential factors of SDL.

In summary, it can be said that most of the studied interventions had a positive impact on SDL factors, but the main difference lay in which factor was more significantly influenced. To create effective interventions, it is necessary to combine various activities based on the needs of the target group. Needs assessment can benefit from both goal-setting with coaching support and the use of self-report questionnaires.

The results of the study underscore that the development of SDL skills has predominantly been discussed from the perspective of young people in various forms and levels of formal education. The development of SDL within the school environment is very important, but at the same time, this raises the question of how we can help young people who have dropped out of school reintegrate back into the educational path. It appears that the previous learning paths of these young people may have been interrupted, in part, due to low SDL skills. The low levels of SDL skills were also confirmed in the research by Kõiv and Saks (2024) .

Despite the fact that NEET-youth do not participate in formal education and training, they may still take some courses and workshops on their own. It is important to avoid the assumption that they are inherently ready to learn independently and consciously develop themselves. All adults who undertake self-directed learning are competent self-directed learners; their learning outcomes might not be efficient or successful in achieving their learning objectives ( Morris, 2019 ).

The present study did not identify any SDL interventions specifically targeted at NEET-youth. Therefore, the findings align with the study’s objective of creating SDL intervention model. Mawn et al. (2017) , in analyzing interventions specially for NEET-youth, noted that the vast majority of interventions were multi-component, combining some form of education or skills-based classroom training with on-the-job training (e.g., internship, work experience, job placements). Building on the general practice of supporting NEET-youth, the SDL intervention should also be seen as multi-component process.

NEET-youth, like their peers, are expected to participate in social life and to be lifelong learners, ready to adapt to changes in personal life and society, and to develop themselves. Recognition and interventions are necessary to foster the growth of SDL skills, also among NEET-youth. Empowering learners using the tools needed to be successful and active learners rather than passive recipients of information will lead to a more fulfilling and productive educational experience for all ( Wandler and Imbriale, 2017 ). Given that the present study revealed the current practices and results of SDL interventions, but the literature did not highlight interventions specifically directed at NEET-youth, there is a need to discuss which interventions, based on these results, might be recommended for NEET-youth.

Considering that NEET-youth as the target group in the context of SDL has received little attention, it can also be assumed that trainers have not acquired relevant knowledge. In this case, an intervention targeting NEET-youth should include training for facilitators, as illustrated by the example from Van Tonder et al. (2022) . Many studies discussed in this research utilized training sessions or workshops to introduce the concept of SDL to young people. This includes the work of Jansen et al. (2020) , who highlighted the effectiveness of using video material at the beginning of a course. Consequently, the intervention should also include an introductory SDL course for young people, because as NEET-youth are out of formal learning process, their knowledge about learning skills should be updated.

Across all studied interventions, coaching, mentoring, and the use of tools supporting reflective practices were prevalent. These activities should be consistently implemented throughout the intervention. Since NEET-youth lack daily connections with educational institutions, well-thought-out mentoring activities before and after more intensive programs are also necessary. Long-term and secure mentoring relationships are crucial, especially in the transition processes of young people at risk of marginalization ( Ripamonti, 2023 ). Considering that low self-esteem and previous negative learning experiences are the risk-factor to become a NEET-youth ( Rahmani and Groot, 2023 ), it is important to involve mentors who support young people in setting their personal goals and motivate them. Future orientation was particularly supported by the coaching process ( Wolff et al., 2020 ), including through the creation of portfolios ( Beckers et al., 2019 ). Boles (2014) highlighted that in the case of SDL, it is necessary to find people who would push individuals further than they would push themselves.

As Kõiv and Saks (2024) have pointed out that NEET-youth have statistically significant lower results compared to their learning/working peers in such factors as new experiences, responsibility, and future orientation, the intervention must pay significant attention to these factors. The results of the study also indicated that SDL training for learners ( Mbagwu et al., 2020 ), problem-based learning activities ( Cremers et al., 2014 ), and inquiry-based activities ( Schweder and Raufelder, 2022 ) had the greatest impact specifically on the combination of these factors. Experiential learning through the inquiry-based activities can support NEET-youth develop these skills. Considering that NEET youth may operate in isolation or lack social capital ( Rahmani and Groot, 2023 ), interventions should also involve creating new contacts and exchanging ideas. Experiential learning activities with others would enable them to make new acquaintances and contacts, and also encourage young people to step out of their comfort zone.

The length of the interventions varied according to the type of method, generally ranging from one semester to 1 year. For NEET-youth, for whom this intervention is not part of a longer educational program but rather a skill development intervention, the duration should be similar to one semester (4–6 months). NEET-youth may face various obstacles to participating in the program, such as health issues, low motivation, or caring for a family member, which need to be taken into account when adapting the program duration to fit the target group. Considering that the evaluation instrument for assessing the SDL skills of intervention participants should be an integral part of the intervention, given the purpose of this study, the SDL-NEET scale created by Kõiv and Saks (2024) can be utilized. This scale has been specifically developed for this target group.

Based on the literature review conducted, a model for an intervention aimed at developing SDL skills in NEET-youth was compiled (see Figure 2 ).

Figure 2 . The SDL skills intervention model for NEET-youth.

An intervention aimed at developing SDL skills in NEET-youth should consist of training for facilitators, an introductory course for learners, and activities based on experiential learning and hands-on methods, including problem and interest-based activities. Supportive activities should consistently involve coaching or mentorship, alongside the use of various tools for goal-setting and reflecting on the process. In conclusion, it can be argued that since NEET youth do not participate in formal education, SDL intervention should be constructed as a non-formal learning process integrating diverse activities to facilitate self-reflection and real-life experiences conductive to acquiring new positive learning experiences, emphasizing the critical role of supportive mentorship.

Limitations

The analyzed articles and described interventions focused solely on SDL or SRL interventions for individuals already in education. There is limited evidence about the SDL skills of NEET-youth. Consequently, the discussion and proposed model are only based on a few scientific pieces of evidence about NEET-youth SDL skills. Future research should aim to implement diverse educational practices for individuals not currently in education and test the proposed theoretical model. Given the pronounced significance of mentoring, reflection, and experiential learning within the intervention framework for NEET-youth observed in this study, subsequent targeted research on these themes could yield nuanced insights into identifying the tools within these themes that would be most acceptable and efficacious for this target group.

Despite using search terms such as NEET, unemployed youth, and dropout, the literature review did not yield any interventions, except for a theoretical article written by the authors themselves ( Kõiv et al., 2022 ). This limitation led to the research questions being focused generally on SDL interventions. In addition, it is crucial to consider that NEET-youth constitute a highly heterogeneous target group. Implementing the proposed model must account for the learners’ diverse contexts and needs, which can be achieved through the use of special SDL measurement tools and coaching sessions.

This study provides an overview of SDL interventions, revealing a general lack of such interventions for NEET-youth. However, these interventions are urgently needed, as NEET-youth are known to have a low level of education, which is a risk factor for exclusion, and they are expected to return to the education system. The data collected in the study related to characteristics that define the SDL skills of NEET-youth, allow for the creation of the recommended model for SDL skills development interventions. The practical value of the study lies in integrating various SDL intervention activities into a cohesive whole and considering the situation of learners who are not involved in any formal learning process. The created model enables the initiation of a pilot program, which, based on the results obtained, assesses the impact of the intervention and informs decisions about its future implementation. In conclusion, this study successfully met its objective of identifying the lack of SDL interventions for those who are out of education, and of highlighting the key tools and methods for developing SDL skills in NEET-youth.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Author contributions

KK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. KS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. IG: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. KG: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. AA: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. VT: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. EP: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The authors received financial support for the research from European Commission Erasmus+ program (project number: 2022-2-EE01-KA220-YOU-000095464).

Conflict of interest

All authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: self-directed learning, NEET-youth, dropouts, support, intervention

Citation: Kõiv K, Saks K, Gencel IE, Güven KM, Azzopardi A, Todoroska V and Petkovska E (2024) An intervention model for developing self-directed learning skills in NEET-youth: a literature review. Front. Educ . 9:1433484. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1433484

Received: 15 May 2024; Accepted: 30 July 2024; Published: 14 August 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Kõiv, Saks, Gencel, Güven, Azzopardi, Todoroska and Petkovska. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Kerli Kõiv, [email protected]

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