essay on history on computer

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Analog calculators: from Napier’s logarithms to the slide rule

Digital calculators: from the calculating clock to the arithmometer, the jacquard loom.

The Difference Engine
The Analytical Engine
Ada Lovelace, the first programmer
Herman Hollerith’s census tabulator
Other early business machine companies
Vannevar Bush’s Differential Analyzer
Howard Aiken’s digital calculators
The Turing machine
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer
The first computer network
Konrad Zuse
Bigger brains
Von Neumann’s “Preliminary Discussion”
The first stored-program machines
Machine language
Zuse’s Plankalkül
Interpreters
Grace Murray Hopper
IBM develops FORTRAN
Control programs
The IBM 360
Time-sharing from Project MAC to UNIX
Minicomputers
Integrated circuits
The Intel 4004
Early computer enthusiasts
The hobby market expands
From Star Trek to Microsoft
Application software
Commodore and Tandy enter the field
The graphical user interface
The IBM Personal Computer
Microsoft’s Windows operating system
Workstation computers
Embedded systems
Handheld digital devices
The Internet
Social networking
Ubiquitous computing

What is a computer?
Who invented the computer?
What can computers do?
Are computers conscious?
What is the impact of computer artificial intelligence (AI) on society?

History of computing

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University of Rhode Island - College of Arts and Sciences - Department of Computer Science and Statistics - History of Computers
LiveScience - History of Computers: A Brief Timeline
Computer History Museum - Timeline of Computer history
Engineering LibreTexts - What is a computer?
Computer Hope - What is a Computer?
computer - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
computer - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
Table Of Contents

A computer might be described with deceptive simplicity as “an apparatus that performs routine calculations automatically.” Such a definition would owe its deceptiveness to a naive and narrow view of calculation as a strictly mathematical process. In fact, calculation underlies many activities that are not normally thought of as mathematical. Walking across a room, for instance, requires many complex, albeit subconscious, calculations. Computers, too, have proved capable of solving a vast array of problems, from balancing a checkbook to even—in the form of guidance systems for robots—walking across a room.

Before the true power of computing could be realized, therefore, the naive view of calculation had to be overcome. The inventors who labored to bring the computer into the world had to learn that the thing they were inventing was not just a number cruncher, not merely a calculator. For example, they had to learn that it was not necessary to invent a new computer for every new calculation and that a computer could be designed to solve numerous problems, even problems not yet imagined when the computer was built. They also had to learn how to tell such a general problem-solving computer what problem to solve. In other words, they had to invent programming.

They had to solve all the heady problems of developing such a device, of implementing the design, of actually building the thing. The history of the solving of these problems is the history of the computer. That history is covered in this section, and links are provided to entries on many of the individuals and companies mentioned. In addition, see the articles computer science and supercomputer .

Early history

Computer precursors.

The earliest known calculating device is probably the abacus . It dates back at least to 1100 bce and is still in use today, particularly in Asia. Now, as then, it typically consists of a rectangular frame with thin parallel rods strung with beads. Long before any systematic positional notation was adopted for the writing of numbers, the abacus assigned different units, or weights, to each rod. This scheme allowed a wide range of numbers to be represented by just a few beads and, together with the invention of zero in India, may have inspired the invention of the Hindu-Arabic number system . In any case, abacus beads can be readily manipulated to perform the common arithmetical operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—that are useful for commercial transactions and in bookkeeping.

The abacus is a digital device; that is, it represents values discretely. A bead is either in one predefined position or another, representing unambiguously, say, one or zero.

Calculating devices took a different turn when John Napier , a Scottish mathematician, published his discovery of logarithms in 1614. As any person can attest , adding two 10-digit numbers is much simpler than multiplying them together, and the transformation of a multiplication problem into an addition problem is exactly what logarithms enable. This simplification is possible because of the following logarithmic property: the logarithm of the product of two numbers is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the numbers. By 1624, tables with 14 significant digits were available for the logarithms of numbers from 1 to 20,000, and scientists quickly adopted the new labor-saving tool for tedious astronomical calculations.

Most significant for the development of computing, the transformation of multiplication into addition greatly simplified the possibility of mechanization. Analog calculating devices based on Napier’s logarithms—representing digital values with analogous physical lengths—soon appeared. In 1620 Edmund Gunter , the English mathematician who coined the terms cosine and cotangent , built a device for performing navigational calculations: the Gunter scale, or, as navigators simply called it, the gunter. About 1632 an English clergyman and mathematician named William Oughtred built the first slide rule , drawing on Napier’s ideas. That first slide rule was circular, but Oughtred also built the first rectangular one in 1633. The analog devices of Gunter and Oughtred had various advantages and disadvantages compared with digital devices such as the abacus. What is important is that the consequences of these design decisions were being tested in the real world.

In 1623 the German astronomer and mathematician Wilhelm Schickard built the first calculator . He described it in a letter to his friend the astronomer Johannes Kepler , and in 1624 he wrote again to explain that a machine he had commissioned to be built for Kepler was, apparently along with the prototype , destroyed in a fire. He called it a Calculating Clock , which modern engineers have been able to reproduce from details in his letters. Even general knowledge of the clock had been temporarily lost when Schickard and his entire family perished during the Thirty Years’ War .

But Schickard may not have been the true inventor of the calculator. A century earlier, Leonardo da Vinci sketched plans for a calculator that were sufficiently complete and correct for modern engineers to build a calculator on their basis.

The first calculator or adding machine to be produced in any quantity and actually used was the Pascaline, or Arithmetic Machine , designed and built by the French mathematician-philosopher Blaise Pascal between 1642 and 1644. It could only do addition and subtraction, with numbers being entered by manipulating its dials. Pascal invented the machine for his father, a tax collector, so it was the first business machine too (if one does not count the abacus). He built 50 of them over the next 10 years.

In 1671 the German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz designed a calculating machine called the Step Reckoner . (It was first built in 1673.) The Step Reckoner expanded on Pascal’s ideas and did multiplication by repeated addition and shifting.

Leibniz was a strong advocate of the binary number system . Binary numbers are ideal for machines because they require only two digits, which can easily be represented by the on and off states of a switch. When computers became electronic, the binary system was particularly appropriate because an electrical circuit is either on or off. This meant that on could represent true, off could represent false, and the flow of current would directly represent the flow of logic.

Leibniz was prescient in seeing the appropriateness of the binary system in calculating machines, but his machine did not use it. Instead, the Step Reckoner represented numbers in decimal form, as positions on 10-position dials. Even decimal representation was not a given: in 1668 Samuel Morland invented an adding machine specialized for British money—a decidedly nondecimal system.

Pascal’s, Leibniz’s, and Morland’s devices were curiosities, but with the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century came a widespread need to perform repetitive operations efficiently. With other activities being mechanized, why not calculation? In 1820 Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar of France effectively met this challenge when he built his Arithmometer , the first commercial mass-produced calculating device. It could perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and, with some more elaborate user involvement, division. Based on Leibniz’s technology , it was extremely popular and sold for 90 years. In contrast to the modern calculator’s credit-card size, the Arithmometer was large enough to cover a desktop.

Calculators such as the Arithmometer remained a fascination after 1820, and their potential for commercial use was well understood. Many other mechanical devices built during the 19th century also performed repetitive functions more or less automatically, but few had any application to computing. There was one major exception: the Jacquard loom , invented in 1804–05 by a French weaver, Joseph-Marie Jacquard .

The Jacquard loom was a marvel of the Industrial Revolution. A textile-weaving loom , it could also be called the first practical information-processing device. The loom worked by tugging various-colored threads into patterns by means of an array of rods. By inserting a card punched with holes, an operator could control the motion of the rods and thereby alter the pattern of the weave. Moreover, the loom was equipped with a card-reading device that slipped a new card from a pre-punched deck into place every time the shuttle was thrown, so that complex weaving patterns could be automated.

What was extraordinary about the device was that it transferred the design process from a labor-intensive weaving stage to a card-punching stage. Once the cards had been punched and assembled, the design was complete, and the loom implemented the design automatically. The Jacquard loom, therefore, could be said to be programmed for different patterns by these decks of punched cards.

For those intent on mechanizing calculations, the Jacquard loom provided important lessons: the sequence of operations that a machine performs could be controlled to make the machine do something quite different; a punched card could be used as a medium for directing the machine; and, most important, a device could be directed to perform different tasks by feeding it instructions in a sort of language—i.e., making the machine programmable.

It is not too great a stretch to say that, in the Jacquard loom, programming was invented before the computer. The close relationship between the device and the program became apparent some 20 years later, with Charles Babbage’s invention of the first computer.

Essay Service Examples Technology Computer

The History of Computers: An Essay

Introduction: the dawn of computing, the mechanical beginnings: from abacus to analytical engine, the birth of binary logic and its impact on computing, the era of innovations: babbage to the first relay computer, the advent of electronic computing: world war ii and beyond, the transition to transistors: the second generation of computers, integrated circuits and minicomputers: the third generation, the microprocessor revolution: the fourth generation and personal computing, conclusion: the future of computing and its infinite possibilities.

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A model of a Babbage-style Difference Engine at the Computer History Museum. Photo by Cory Doctorow.

A brief history of computers

by Chris Woodford . Last updated: January 19, 2023.

C omputers truly came into their own as great inventions in the last two decades of the 20th century. But their history stretches back more than 2500 years to the abacus: a simple calculator made from beads and wires, which is still used in some parts of the world today. The difference between an ancient abacus and a modern computer seems vast, but the principle—making repeated calculations more quickly than the human brain—is exactly the same.

Read on to learn more about the history of computers—or take a look at our article on how computers work .

Photo: A model of one of the world's first computers (the Difference Engine invented by Charles Babbage) at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, USA. Photo by Cory Doctorow published on Flickr in 2020 under a Creative Commons (CC BY-SA 2.0) licence.

Cogs and Calculators

It is a measure of the brilliance of the abacus, invented in the Middle East circa 500 BC, that it remained the fastest form of calculator until the middle of the 17th century. Then, in 1642, aged only 18, French scientist and philosopher Blaise Pascal (1623–1666) invented the first practical mechanical calculator , the Pascaline, to help his tax-collector father do his sums. The machine had a series of interlocking cogs ( gear wheels with teeth around their outer edges) that could add and subtract decimal numbers. Several decades later, in 1671, German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) came up with a similar but more advanced machine. Instead of using cogs, it had a "stepped drum" (a cylinder with teeth of increasing length around its edge), an innovation that survived in mechanical calculators for 300 hundred years. The Leibniz machine could do much more than Pascal's: as well as adding and subtracting, it could multiply, divide, and work out square roots. Another pioneering feature was the first memory store or "register."

Apart from developing one of the world's earliest mechanical calculators, Leibniz is remembered for another important contribution to computing: he was the man who invented binary code, a way of representing any decimal number using only the two digits zero and one. Although Leibniz made no use of binary in his own calculator, it set others thinking. In 1854, a little over a century after Leibniz had died, Englishman George Boole (1815–1864) used the idea to invent a new branch of mathematics called Boolean algebra. [1] In modern computers, binary code and Boolean algebra allow computers to make simple decisions by comparing long strings of zeros and ones. But, in the 19th century, these ideas were still far ahead of their time. It would take another 50–100 years for mathematicians and computer scientists to figure out how to use them (find out more in our articles about calculators and logic gates ).

Artwork: Pascaline: Two details of Blaise Pascal's 17th-century calculator. Left: The "user interface": the part where you dial in numbers you want to calculate. Right: The internal gear mechanism. Picture courtesy of US Library of Congress .

Engines of Calculation

Neither the abacus, nor the mechanical calculators constructed by Pascal and Leibniz really qualified as computers. A calculator is a device that makes it quicker and easier for people to do sums—but it needs a human operator. A computer, on the other hand, is a machine that can operate automatically, without any human help, by following a series of stored instructions called a program (a kind of mathematical recipe). Calculators evolved into computers when people devised ways of making entirely automatic, programmable calculators.

Photo: Punched cards: Herman Hollerith perfected the way of using punched cards and paper tape to store information and feed it into a machine. Here's a drawing from his 1889 patent Art of Compiling Statistics (US Patent#395,782), showing how a strip of paper (yellow) is punched with different patterns of holes (orange) that correspond to statistics gathered about people in the US census. Picture courtesy of US Patent and Trademark Office.

The first person to attempt this was a rather obsessive, notoriously grumpy English mathematician named Charles Babbage (1791–1871). Many regard Babbage as the "father of the computer" because his machines had an input (a way of feeding in numbers), a memory (something to store these numbers while complex calculations were taking place), a processor (the number-cruncher that carried out the calculations), and an output (a printing mechanism)—the same basic components shared by all modern computers. During his lifetime, Babbage never completed a single one of the hugely ambitious machines that he tried to build. That was no surprise. Each of his programmable "engines" was designed to use tens of thousands of precision-made gears. It was like a pocket watch scaled up to the size of a steam engine , a Pascal or Leibniz machine magnified a thousand-fold in dimensions, ambition, and complexity. For a time, the British government financed Babbage—to the tune of £17,000, then an enormous sum. But when Babbage pressed the government for more money to build an even more advanced machine, they lost patience and pulled out. Babbage was more fortunate in receiving help from Augusta Ada Byron (1815–1852), Countess of Lovelace, daughter of the poet Lord Byron. An enthusiastic mathematician, she helped to refine Babbage's ideas for making his machine programmable—and this is why she is still, sometimes, referred to as the world's first computer programmer. [2] Little of Babbage's work survived after his death. But when, by chance, his notebooks were rediscovered in the 1930s, computer scientists finally appreciated the brilliance of his ideas. Unfortunately, by then, most of these ideas had already been reinvented by others.

Artwork: Charles Babbage (1791–1871). Picture from The Illustrated London News, 1871, courtesy of US Library of Congress .

Babbage had intended that his machine would take the drudgery out of repetitive calculations. Originally, he imagined it would be used by the army to compile the tables that helped their gunners to fire cannons more accurately. Toward the end of the 19th century, other inventors were more successful in their effort to construct "engines" of calculation. American statistician Herman Hollerith (1860–1929) built one of the world's first practical calculating machines, which he called a tabulator, to help compile census data. Then, as now, a census was taken each decade but, by the 1880s, the population of the United States had grown so much through immigration that a full-scale analysis of the data by hand was taking seven and a half years. The statisticians soon figured out that, if trends continued, they would run out of time to compile one census before the next one fell due. Fortunately, Hollerith's tabulator was an amazing success: it tallied the entire census in only six weeks and completed the full analysis in just two and a half years. Soon afterward, Hollerith realized his machine had other applications, so he set up the Tabulating Machine Company in 1896 to manufacture it commercially. A few years later, it changed its name to the Computing-Tabulating-Recording (C-T-R) company and then, in 1924, acquired its present name: International Business Machines (IBM).

Photo: Keeping count: Herman Hollerith's late-19th-century census machine (blue, left) could process 12 separate bits of statistical data each minute. Its compact 1940 replacement (red, right), invented by Eugene M. La Boiteaux of the Census Bureau, could work almost five times faster. Photo by Harris & Ewing courtesy of US Library of Congress .

Bush and the bomb

Photo: Dr Vannevar Bush (1890–1974). Picture by Harris & Ewing, courtesy of US Library of Congress .

The history of computing remembers colorful characters like Babbage, but others who played important—if supporting—roles are less well known. At the time when C-T-R was becoming IBM, the world's most powerful calculators were being developed by US government scientist Vannevar Bush (1890–1974). In 1925, Bush made the first of a series of unwieldy contraptions with equally cumbersome names: the New Recording Product Integraph Multiplier. Later, he built a machine called the Differential Analyzer, which used gears, belts, levers, and shafts to represent numbers and carry out calculations in a very physical way, like a gigantic mechanical slide rule. Bush's ultimate calculator was an improved machine named the Rockefeller Differential Analyzer, assembled in 1935 from 320 km (200 miles) of wire and 150 electric motors . Machines like these were known as analog calculators—analog because they stored numbers in a physical form (as so many turns on a wheel or twists of a belt) rather than as digits. Although they could carry out incredibly complex calculations, it took several days of wheel cranking and belt turning before the results finally emerged.

Impressive machines like the Differential Analyzer were only one of several outstanding contributions Bush made to 20th-century technology. Another came as the teacher of Claude Shannon (1916–2001), a brilliant mathematician who figured out how electrical circuits could be linked together to process binary code with Boolean algebra (a way of comparing binary numbers using logic) and thus make simple decisions. During World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Bush chairman first of the US National Defense Research Committee and then director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD). In this capacity, he was in charge of the Manhattan Project, the secret $2-billion initiative that led to the creation of the atomic bomb. One of Bush's final wartime contributions was to sketch out, in 1945, an idea for a memory-storing and sharing device called Memex that would later inspire Tim Berners-Lee to invent the World Wide Web . [3] Few outside the world of computing remember Vannevar Bush today—but what a legacy! As a father of the digital computer, an overseer of the atom bomb, and an inspiration for the Web, Bush played a pivotal role in three of the 20th-century's most far-reaching technologies.

Photo: "A gigantic mechanical slide rule": A differential analyzer pictured in 1938. Picture courtesy of and © University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory, published with permission via Wikimedia Commons under a Creative Commons (CC BY 2.0) licence.

Turing—tested

The first modern computers.

The World War II years were a crucial period in the history of computing, when powerful gargantuan computers began to appear. Just before the outbreak of the war, in 1938, German engineer Konrad Zuse (1910–1995) constructed his Z1, the world's first programmable binary computer, in his parents' living room. [4] The following year, American physicist John Atanasoff (1903–1995) and his assistant, electrical engineer Clifford Berry (1918–1963), built a more elaborate binary machine that they named the Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC). It was a great advance—1000 times more accurate than Bush's Differential Analyzer. These were the first machines that used electrical switches to store numbers: when a switch was "off", it stored the number zero; flipped over to its other, "on", position, it stored the number one. Hundreds or thousands of switches could thus store a great many binary digits (although binary is much less efficient in this respect than decimal, since it takes up to eight binary digits to store a three-digit decimal number). These machines were digital computers: unlike analog machines, which stored numbers using the positions of wheels and rods, they stored numbers as digits.

The first large-scale digital computer of this kind appeared in 1944 at Harvard University, built by mathematician Howard Aiken (1900–1973). Sponsored by IBM, it was variously known as the Harvard Mark I or the IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC). A giant of a machine, stretching 15m (50ft) in length, it was like a huge mechanical calculator built into a wall. It must have sounded impressive, because it stored and processed numbers using "clickety-clack" electromagnetic relays (electrically operated magnets that automatically switched lines in telephone exchanges)—no fewer than 3304 of them. Impressive they may have been, but relays suffered from several problems: they were large (that's why the Harvard Mark I had to be so big); they needed quite hefty pulses of power to make them switch; and they were slow (it took time for a relay to flip from "off" to "on" or from 0 to 1).

Photo: An analog computer being used in military research in 1949. Picture courtesy of NASA on the Commons (where you can download a larger version.

Most of the machines developed around this time were intended for military purposes. Like Babbage's never-built mechanical engines, they were designed to calculate artillery firing tables and chew through the other complex chores that were then the lot of military mathematicians. During World War II, the military co-opted thousands of the best scientific minds: recognizing that science would win the war, Vannevar Bush's Office of Scientific Research and Development employed 10,000 scientists from the United States alone. Things were very different in Germany. When Konrad Zuse offered to build his Z2 computer to help the army, they couldn't see the need—and turned him down.

On the Allied side, great minds began to make great breakthroughs. In 1943, a team of mathematicians based at Bletchley Park near London, England (including Alan Turing) built a computer called Colossus to help them crack secret German codes. Colossus was the first fully electronic computer. Instead of relays, it used a better form of switch known as a vacuum tube (also known, especially in Britain, as a valve). The vacuum tube, each one about as big as a person's thumb (earlier ones were very much bigger) and glowing red hot like a tiny electric light bulb, had been invented in 1906 by Lee de Forest (1873–1961), who named it the Audion. This breakthrough earned de Forest his nickname as "the father of radio" because their first major use was in radio receivers , where they amplified weak incoming signals so people could hear them more clearly. [5] In computers such as the ABC and Colossus, vacuum tubes found an alternative use as faster and more compact switches.

Just like the codes it was trying to crack, Colossus was top-secret and its existence wasn't confirmed until after the war ended. As far as most people were concerned, vacuum tubes were pioneered by a more visible computer that appeared in 1946: the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC). The ENIAC's inventors, two scientists from the University of Pennsylvania, John Mauchly (1907–1980) and J. Presper Eckert (1919–1995), were originally inspired by Bush's Differential Analyzer; years later Eckert recalled that ENIAC was the "descendant of Dr Bush's machine." But the machine they constructed was far more ambitious. It contained nearly 18,000 vacuum tubes (nine times more than Colossus), was around 24 m (80 ft) long, and weighed almost 30 tons. ENIAC is generally recognized as the world's first fully electronic, general-purpose, digital computer. Colossus might have qualified for this title too, but it was designed purely for one job (code-breaking); since it couldn't store a program, it couldn't easily be reprogrammed to do other things.

Photo: Sir Maurice Wilkes (left), his collaborator William Renwick, and the early EDSAC-1 electronic computer they built in Cambridge, pictured around 1947/8. Picture courtesy of and © University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory, published with permission via Wikimedia Commons under a Creative Commons (CC BY 2.0) licence.

ENIAC was just the beginning. Its two inventors formed the Eckert Mauchly Computer Corporation in the late 1940s. Working with a brilliant Hungarian mathematician, John von Neumann (1903–1957), who was based at Princeton University, they then designed a better machine called EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer). In a key piece of work, von Neumann helped to define how the machine stored and processed its programs, laying the foundations for how all modern computers operate. [6] After EDVAC, Eckert and Mauchly developed UNIVAC 1 (UNIVersal Automatic Computer) in 1951. They were helped in this task by a young, largely unknown American mathematician and Naval reserve named Grace Murray Hopper (1906–1992), who had originally been employed by Howard Aiken on the Harvard Mark I. Like Herman Hollerith's tabulator over 50 years before, UNIVAC 1 was used for processing data from the US census. It was then manufactured for other users—and became the world's first large-scale commercial computer.

Machines like Colossus, the ENIAC, and the Harvard Mark I compete for significance and recognition in the minds of computer historians. Which one was truly the first great modern computer? All of them and none: these—and several other important machines—evolved our idea of the modern electronic computer during the key period between the late 1930s and the early 1950s. Among those other machines were pioneering computers put together by English academics, notably the Manchester/Ferranti Mark I, built at Manchester University by Frederic Williams (1911–1977) and Thomas Kilburn (1921–2001), and the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator), built by Maurice Wilkes (1913–2010) at Cambridge University. [7]

Photo: Control panel of the UNIVAC 1, the world's first large-scale commercial computer. Photo by Cory Doctorow published on Flickr in 2020 under a Creative Commons (CC BY-SA 2.0) licence.

The microelectronic revolution

Vacuum tubes were a considerable advance on relay switches, but machines like the ENIAC were notoriously unreliable. The modern term for a problem that holds up a computer program is a "bug." Popular legend has it that this word entered the vocabulary of computer programmers sometime in the 1950s when moths, attracted by the glowing lights of vacuum tubes, flew inside machines like the ENIAC, caused a short circuit, and brought work to a juddering halt. But there were other problems with vacuum tubes too. They consumed enormous amounts of power: the ENIAC used about 2000 times as much electricity as a modern laptop. And they took up huge amounts of space. Military needs were driving the development of machines like the ENIAC, but the sheer size of vacuum tubes had now become a real problem. ABC had used 300 vacuum tubes, Colossus had 2000, and the ENIAC had 18,000. The ENIAC's designers had boasted that its calculating speed was "at least 500 times as great as that of any other existing computing machine." But developing computers that were an order of magnitude more powerful still would have needed hundreds of thousands or even millions of vacuum tubes—which would have been far too costly, unwieldy, and unreliable. So a new technology was urgently required.

The solution appeared in 1947 thanks to three physicists working at Bell Telephone Laboratories (Bell Labs). John Bardeen (1908–1991), Walter Brattain (1902–1987), and William Shockley (1910–1989) were then helping Bell to develop new technology for the American public telephone system, so the electrical signals that carried phone calls could be amplified more easily and carried further. Shockley, who was leading the team, believed he could use semiconductors (materials such as germanium and silicon that allow electricity to flow through them only when they've been treated in special ways) to make a better form of amplifier than the vacuum tube. When his early experiments failed, he set Bardeen and Brattain to work on the task for him. Eventually, in December 1947, they created a new form of amplifier that became known as the point-contact transistor. Bell Labs credited Bardeen and Brattain with the transistor and awarded them a patent. This enraged Shockley and prompted him to invent an even better design, the junction transistor, which has formed the basis of most transistors ever since.

Like vacuum tubes, transistors could be used as amplifiers or as switches. But they had several major advantages. They were a fraction the size of vacuum tubes (typically about as big as a pea), used no power at all unless they were in operation, and were virtually 100 percent reliable. The transistor was one of the most important breakthroughs in the history of computing and it earned its inventors the world's greatest science prize, the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics . By that time, however, the three men had already gone their separate ways. John Bardeen had begun pioneering research into superconductivity , which would earn him a second Nobel Prize in 1972. Walter Brattain moved to another part of Bell Labs.

William Shockley decided to stick with the transistor, eventually forming his own corporation to develop it further. His decision would have extraordinary consequences for the computer industry. With a small amount of capital, Shockley set about hiring the best brains he could find in American universities, including young electrical engineer Robert Noyce (1927–1990) and research chemist Gordon Moore (1929–). It wasn't long before Shockley's idiosyncratic and bullying management style upset his workers. In 1956, eight of them—including Noyce and Moore—left Shockley Transistor to found a company of their own, Fairchild Semiconductor, just down the road. Thus began the growth of "Silicon Valley," the part of California centered on Palo Alto, where many of the world's leading computer and electronics companies have been based ever since. [8]

It was in Fairchild's California building that the next breakthrough occurred—although, somewhat curiously, it also happened at exactly the same time in the Dallas laboratories of Texas Instruments. In Dallas, a young engineer from Kansas named Jack Kilby (1923–2005) was considering how to improve the transistor. Although transistors were a great advance on vacuum tubes, one key problem remained. Machines that used thousands of transistors still had to be hand wired to connect all these components together. That process was laborious, costly, and error prone. Wouldn't it be better, Kilby reflected, if many transistors could be made in a single package? This prompted him to invent the "monolithic" integrated circuit (IC) , a collection of transistors and other components that could be manufactured all at once, in a block, on the surface of a semiconductor. Kilby's invention was another step forward, but it also had a drawback: the components in his integrated circuit still had to be connected by hand. While Kilby was making his breakthrough in Dallas, unknown to him, Robert Noyce was perfecting almost exactly the same idea at Fairchild in California. Noyce went one better, however: he found a way to include the connections between components in an integrated circuit, thus automating the entire process.

Photo: An integrated circuit from the 1980s. This is an EPROM chip (effectively a forerunner of flash memory , which you could only erase with a blast of ultraviolet light).

Mainframes, minis, and micros

Photo: An IBM 704 mainframe pictured at NASA in 1958. Designed by Gene Amdahl, this scientific number cruncher was the successor to the 701 and helped pave the way to arguably the most important IBM computer of all time, the System/360, which Amdahl also designed. Photo courtesy of NASA .

Photo: The control panel of DEC's classic 1965 PDP-8 minicomputer. Photo by Cory Doctorow published on Flickr in 2020 under a Creative Commons (CC BY-SA 2.0) licence.

Integrated circuits, as much as transistors, helped to shrink computers during the 1960s. In 1943, IBM boss Thomas Watson had reputedly quipped: "I think there is a world market for about five computers." Just two decades later, the company and its competitors had installed around 25,000 large computer systems across the United States. As the 1960s wore on, integrated circuits became increasingly sophisticated and compact. Soon, engineers were speaking of large-scale integration (LSI), in which hundreds of components could be crammed onto a single chip, and then very large-scale integrated (VLSI), when the same chip could contain thousands of components.

The logical conclusion of all this miniaturization was that, someday, someone would be able to squeeze an entire computer onto a chip. In 1968, Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore had left Fairchild to establish a new company of their own. With integration very much in their minds, they called it Integrated Electronics or Intel for short. Originally they had planned to make memory chips, but when the company landed an order to make chips for a range of pocket calculators, history headed in a different direction. A couple of their engineers, Federico Faggin (1941–) and Marcian Edward (Ted) Hoff (1937–), realized that instead of making a range of specialist chips for a range of calculators, they could make a universal chip that could be programmed to work in them all. Thus was born the general-purpose, single chip computer or microprocessor—and that brought about the next phase of the computer revolution.

Personal computers

By 1974, Intel had launched a popular microprocessor known as the 8080 and computer hobbyists were soon building home computers around it. The first was the MITS Altair 8800, built by Ed Roberts . With its front panel covered in red LED lights and toggle switches, it was a far cry from modern PCs and laptops. Even so, it sold by the thousand and earned Roberts a fortune. The Altair inspired a Californian electronics wizard name Steve Wozniak (1950–) to develop a computer of his own. "Woz" is often described as the hacker's "hacker"—a technically brilliant and highly creative engineer who pushed the boundaries of computing largely for his own amusement. In the mid-1970s, he was working at the Hewlett-Packard computer company in California, and spending his free time tinkering away as a member of the Homebrew Computer Club in the Bay Area.

After seeing the Altair, Woz used a 6502 microprocessor (made by an Intel rival, Mos Technology) to build a better home computer of his own: the Apple I. When he showed off his machine to his colleagues at the club, they all wanted one too. One of his friends, Steve Jobs (1955–2011), persuaded Woz that they should go into business making the machine. Woz agreed so, famously, they set up Apple Computer Corporation in a garage belonging to Jobs' parents. After selling 175 of the Apple I for the devilish price of $666.66, Woz built a much better machine called the Apple ][ (pronounced "Apple Two"). While the Altair 8800 looked like something out of a science lab, and the Apple I was little more than a bare circuit board, the Apple ][ took its inspiration from such things as Sony televisions and stereos: it had a neat and friendly looking cream plastic case. Launched in April 1977, it was the world's first easy-to-use home "microcomputer." Soon home users, schools, and small businesses were buying the machine in their tens of thousands—at $1298 a time. Two things turned the Apple ][ into a really credible machine for small firms: a disk drive unit, launched in 1978, which made it easy to store data; and a spreadsheet program called VisiCalc, which gave Apple users the ability to analyze that data. In just two and a half years, Apple sold around 50,000 of the machine, quickly accelerating out of Jobs' garage to become one of the world's biggest companies. Dozens of other microcomputers were launched around this time, including the TRS-80 from Radio Shack (Tandy in the UK) and the Commodore PET. [9]

Apple's success selling to businesses came as a great shock to IBM and the other big companies that dominated the computer industry. It didn't take a VisiCalc spreadsheet to figure out that, if the trend continued, upstarts like Apple would undermine IBM's immensely lucrative business market selling "Big Blue" computers. In 1980, IBM finally realized it had to do something and launched a highly streamlined project to save its business. One year later, it released the IBM Personal Computer (PC), based on an Intel 8080 microprocessor, which rapidly reversed the company's fortunes and stole the market back from Apple.

The PC was successful essentially for one reason. All the dozens of microcomputers that had been launched in the 1970s—including the Apple ][—were incompatible. All used different hardware and worked in different ways. Most were programmed using a simple, English-like language called BASIC, but each one used its own flavor of BASIC, which was tied closely to the machine's hardware design. As a result, programs written for one machine would generally not run on another one without a great deal of conversion. Companies who wrote software professionally typically wrote it just for one machine and, consequently, there was no software industry to speak of.

In 1976, Gary Kildall (1942–1994), a teacher and computer scientist, and one of the founders of the Homebrew Computer Club, had figured out a solution to this problem. Kildall wrote an operating system (a computer's fundamental control software) called CP/M that acted as an intermediary between the user's programs and the machine's hardware. With a stroke of genius, Kildall realized that all he had to do was rewrite CP/M so it worked on each different machine. Then all those machines could run identical user programs—without any modification at all—inside CP/M. That would make all the different microcomputers compatible at a stroke. By the early 1980s, Kildall had become a multimillionaire through the success of his invention: the first personal computer operating system. Naturally, when IBM was developing its personal computer, it approached him hoping to put CP/M on its own machine. Legend has it that Kildall was out flying his personal plane when IBM called, so missed out on one of the world's greatest deals. But the truth seems to have been that IBM wanted to buy CP/M outright for just $200,000, while Kildall recognized his product was worth millions more and refused to sell. Instead, IBM turned to a young programmer named Bill Gates (1955–). His then tiny company, Microsoft, rapidly put together an operating system called DOS, based on a product called QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System), which they acquired from Seattle Computer Products. Some believe Microsoft and IBM cheated Kildall out of his place in computer history; Kildall himself accused them of copying his ideas. Others think Gates was simply the shrewder businessman. Either way, the IBM PC, powered by Microsoft's operating system, was a runaway success.

Yet IBM's victory was short-lived. Cannily, Bill Gates had sold IBM the rights to one flavor of DOS (PC-DOS) and retained the rights to a very similar version (MS-DOS) for his own use. When other computer manufacturers, notably Compaq and Dell, starting making IBM-compatible (or "cloned") hardware, they too came to Gates for the software. IBM charged a premium for machines that carried its badge, but consumers soon realized that PCs were commodities: they contained almost identical components—an Intel microprocessor, for example—no matter whose name they had on the case. As IBM lost market share, the ultimate victors were Microsoft and Intel, who were soon supplying the software and hardware for almost every PC on the planet. Apple, IBM, and Kildall made a great deal of money—but all failed to capitalize decisively on their early success. [10]

Photo: Personal computers threatened companies making large "mainframes" like this one. Picture courtesy of NASA on the Commons (where you can download a larger version).

The user revolution

Fortunately for Apple, it had another great idea. One of the Apple II's strongest suits was its sheer "user-friendliness." For Steve Jobs, developing truly easy-to-use computers became a personal mission in the early 1980s. What truly inspired him was a visit to PARC (Palo Alto Research Center), a cutting-edge computer laboratory then run as a division of the Xerox Corporation. Xerox had started developing computers in the early 1970s, believing they would make paper (and the highly lucrative photocopiers Xerox made) obsolete. One of PARC's research projects was an advanced $40,000 computer called the Xerox Alto. Unlike most microcomputers launched in the 1970s, which were programmed by typing in text commands, the Alto had a desktop-like screen with little picture icons that could be moved around with a mouse: it was the very first graphical user interface (GUI, pronounced "gooey")—an idea conceived by Alan Kay (1940–) and now used in virtually every modern computer. The Alto borrowed some of its ideas, including the mouse , from 1960s computer pioneer Douglas Engelbart (1925–2013).

Photo: During the 1980s, computers started to converge on the same basic "look and feel," largely inspired by the work of pioneers like Alan Kay and Douglas Engelbart. Photographs in the Carol M. Highsmith Archive, courtesy of US Library of Congress , Prints and Photographs Division.

Back at Apple, Jobs launched his own version of the Alto project to develop an easy-to-use computer called PITS (Person In The Street). This machine became the Apple Lisa, launched in January 1983—the first widely available computer with a GUI desktop. With a retail price of $10,000, over three times the cost of an IBM PC, the Lisa was a commercial flop. But it paved the way for a better, cheaper machine called the Macintosh that Jobs unveiled a year later, in January 1984. With its memorable launch ad for the Macintosh inspired by George Orwell's novel 1984 , and directed by Ridley Scott (director of the dystopic movie Blade Runner ), Apple took a swipe at IBM's monopoly, criticizing what it portrayed as the firm's domineering—even totalitarian—approach: Big Blue was really Big Brother. Apple's ad promised a very different vision: "On January 24, Apple Computer will introduce Macintosh. And you'll see why 1984 won't be like '1984'." The Macintosh was a critical success and helped to invent the new field of desktop publishing in the mid-1980s, yet it never came close to challenging IBM's position.

Ironically, Jobs' easy-to-use machine also helped Microsoft to dislodge IBM as the world's leading force in computing. When Bill Gates saw how the Macintosh worked, with its easy-to-use picture-icon desktop, he launched Windows, an upgraded version of his MS-DOS software. Apple saw this as blatant plagiarism and filed a $5.5 billion copyright lawsuit in 1988. Four years later, the case collapsed with Microsoft effectively securing the right to use the Macintosh "look and feel" in all present and future versions of Windows. Microsoft's Windows 95 system, launched three years later, had an easy-to-use, Macintosh-like desktop and MS-DOS running behind the scenes.

Photo: The IBM Blue Gene/P supercomputer at Argonne National Laboratory: one of the world's most powerful computers. Picture courtesy of Argonne National Laboratory published on Wikimedia Commons in 2009 under a Creative Commons Licence .

From nets to the Internet

Standardized PCs running standardized software brought a big benefit for businesses: computers could be linked together into networks to share information. At Xerox PARC in 1973, electrical engineer Bob Metcalfe (1946–) developed a new way of linking computers "through the ether" (empty space) that he called Ethernet. A few years later, Metcalfe left Xerox to form his own company, 3Com, to help companies realize "Metcalfe's Law": computers become useful the more closely connected they are to other people's computers. As more and more companies explored the power of local area networks (LANs), so, as the 1980s progressed, it became clear that there were great benefits to be gained by connecting computers over even greater distances—into so-called wide area networks (WANs).

Photo: Computers aren't what they used to be: they're much less noticeable because they're much more seamlessly integrated into everyday life. Some are "embedded" into household gadgets like coffee makers or televisions . Others travel round in our pockets in our smartphones—essentially pocket computers that we can program simply by downloading "apps" (applications).

Today, the best known WAN is the Internet —a global network of individual computers and LANs that links up hundreds of millions of people. The history of the Internet is another story, but it began in the 1960s when four American universities launched a project to connect their computer systems together to make the first WAN. Later, with funding for the Department of Defense, that network became a bigger project called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network). In the mid-1980s, the US National Science Foundation (NSF) launched its own WAN called NSFNET. The convergence of all these networks produced what we now call the Internet later in the 1980s. Shortly afterward, the power of networking gave British computer programmer Tim Berners-Lee (1955–) his big idea: to combine the power of computer networks with the information-sharing idea Vannevar Bush had proposed in 1945. Thus, was born the World Wide Web —an easy way of sharing information over a computer network, which made possible the modern age of cloud computing (where anyone can access vast computing power over the Internet without having to worry about where or how their data is processed). It's Tim Berners-Lee's invention that brings you this potted history of computing today!

And now where?

If you liked this article..., don't want to read our articles try listening instead, find out more, on this site.

Supercomputers : How do the world's most powerful computers work?

Other websites

There are lots of websites covering computer history. Here are a just a few favorites worth exploring!

The Computer History Museum : The website of the world's biggest computer museum in California.
The Computing Age : A BBC special report into computing past, present, and future.
Charles Babbage at the London Science Museum : Lots of information about Babbage and his extraordinary engines. [Archived via the Wayback Machine]
IBM History : Many fascinating online exhibits, as well as inside information about the part IBM inventors have played in wider computer history.
Wikipedia History of Computing Hardware : covers similar ground to this page.
Computer history images : A small but interesting selection of photos.
Transistorized! : The history of the invention of the transistor from PBS.
Intel Museum : The story of Intel's contributions to computing from the 1970s onward.

There are some superb computer history videos on YouTube and elsewhere; here are three good ones to start you off:

The Difference Engine : A great introduction to Babbage's Difference Engine from Doron Swade, one of the world's leading Babbage experts.
The ENIAC : A short Movietone news clip about the completion of the world's first programmable electronic computer.
A tour of the Computer History Museum : Dag Spicer gives us a tour of the world's most famous computer museum, in California.

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Computers: The History of Invention and Development Essay

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The invention of the computer in 1948 is often regarded as the beginning of the digital revolution. It is hard to disagree that computers have indeed penetrated into the lives of people have changed them once and for all. Computer technologies have affected every single sphere of human activities starting from entertainment and ending with work and education. They facilitate the work of any enterprise, they are of great assistance for scientists in laboratories, they make it possible to diagnose diseases much faster, they control the work of ATMs, and help the banks to function properly. The first computers occupied almost the whole room and were very slow in processing data and performance in general. The modern world witnesses the development of computer technologies daily with computers turning into tiny machines and working unbelievably smoothly. A computer is now trusted as a best friend and advisor. It is treated as a reliable machine able to process and store a large amount of data and help out in any situation. “The storage, retrieval, and use of information are more important than ever” since “(w)e are in the midst of a profound change, going from hardcopy storage to online storage of the collected knowledge of the human race” (Dave, 2007), which is why the computers are of great assistance to us. However, to become a successful person, it is not enough to simply have a computer at home. It is often the case that people use computers merely to play games without knowing about the wide range of activities they may engage a person in. One has to know more about computers and use all their capabilities for one’s own benefit. Knowing the capabilities of one’s computer can help in the work and educational process, as well as it can save time and money. In this essay, you will find out reasons as to why it is important to know your computer; and how much time and money you will save by using all the capabilities of your computer.

What should be mentioned above all is that knowing one’s computer perfectly gives an opportunity of using it for the most various purposes. It depends on what exactly a person needs a computer for, in other words, whether it is needed for studying, for work, or for entertainment. Using a computer for work or education purposes involves much more than is required for playing computer games. These days most of the students are permitted to submit only typed essays, research papers, and other works, which makes mastering the computer vital. “Information technologies have played a vital role in higher education for decades” (McArthur & Lewis, n.d.); they contributed and still continue to contribute to students’ gaining knowledge from outside sources by means of using the World Wide Web where information is easily accessible and available for everyone. To have access to this information one has to know how to use a computer and to develop certain skills for this. These skills should include, first of all, using a Web browser. “In 1995, Microsoft invented a competing Web browser called Microsoft Internet Explorer” (Walter, n.d.), but there exist other browsers the choice of which depends on the user. Moreover, knowing different search engines (for instance, Google, Yahoo, etc,) is required; the user should also be able to process, analyze, and group similar sources by means of extracting the most relevant information. At this, the user is supposed to know that not all Internet sources should be trusted, especially when the information is gathered for a research paper. Trusting the information presented in ad banners is unwise for their main purpose is attracting the users’ attention. They may contain false or obsolete data misleading the user. Utilizing the information obtained from the Internet for scholarly works, one should remember about plagiarism or responsibility for copying somebody else’s works. Students who use such information should cite it properly and refer to the works of other scholars rather than simply stealing their ideas. Plagiarism is punishable and may result in dropping out of school or college. This testifies to the fact that using a computer for studies demands the acquisition of certain computer programs and practice in working with them, which would give a perfect idea on how to search and process the information needed for completion of different assignments.

What’s more, knowing a computer for work is no less important. Mastering certain computer programs depend on the type of work. Any prestigious work demands a definite level of computer skills from the basic to the advanced one. The work of a company involves sometimes more than using standard computer programs; the software is usually designed specifically for the company depending on the business’s application. This means that acquisition of a special program may be needed and a new worker will have to complete computer courses and gain knowledge on a particular program. Nevertheless, the knowledge of basic computer programs is crucial for getting a job one desires. Since the work of most companies is computerized, one will need to deal with a computer anyways and the skills obtained while playing computer games will not suffice. A person seeking a job should be a confident user of basic computer programs, such as Microsoft Office Word, Microsoft Office Excel, Internet Explorer (or other browsers), etc. A confident user is also supposed to know what to do with the computer when some malfunctions arise. Of course, each company has system administrators who deal with computer defects but minor problems are usually born by the users themselves. Apart from knowing the computer, a person should be aware of the policy of using it in the office. For instance, some companies prohibit using office computers for personal purposes, especially when it comes to downloading software and installing it on the computer without notifying the system administrator. This may be connected either with the fact that incorrectly installed software may harm the system of the computer in general or, if the software has been downloaded from the Internet, it may contain spyware which makes the information from your computer accessible for other users. This can hardly be beneficial for the company dealing with economic, political, governmental, or any other kind of issues. Therefore, knowing a computer is necessary for getting a prestigious job and ensuring proper and safe performance of the company one is working for.

And finally, using all the capabilities of a computer can save time and money. Firstly, a personal computer has a number of tools which facilitate people’s life. Special software, for instance, Microsoft Money, makes it possible to plan the budget, to discover faults in the plan, and correct it easily without having to rewrite it from the beginning; the program itself can manage financial information provided by the user and balance checkbooks in addition. Such computer tools as word processors enable the users to make corrections at any stage of the work; moreover by means of them, one may change the size of letters and overall design of the work to give it a better look. Mapping programs can also be useful; by means of a computer one may install such a program (GPS) into the car; the program then will take care about planning the route avoiding traffic jams and choosing the shortest ways. Secondly, electronic mail allows keeping in touch with people not only in your country but abroad. It is cheaper and much faster than writing letters or communicating over the telephone when the connection is often of low quality and the conversation is constantly interrupted. Most telephone companies are aimed at getting profits from people’s communication with their friends and relatives whereas electronic mail is almost free; all that one needs to do is to pay a monthly fee to the Internet Service Provider. Eventually, computer users have an opportunity to do shopping without leaving the apartment; the choice of the products one may want to buy is practically unlimited and the user can always find recommendations from those people who already purchased the product. A personal computer can also help to save money due to its being multifunctional. Knowing much about the capabilities of the computer, one may start using it as a TV set watching favorite programs online, and as a Playstation playing the same games on the personal computer. Not only can a user watch favorite TV shows by means of his/her computer, but can download them at various torrent sites for free. Using a PC to send faxes through online fax services saves money for one does not have to buy a fax machine and to use an additional telephone line; it also saves paper and ink which one would have to buy otherwise.

Taking into consideration everything mentioned above, it can be stated that knowing a computer is important for it can make people’s life much easier. Firstly, computers are helpful in getting an education since by means of them the students can find any possible information necessary for writing research papers and other kinds of written assignments. To do this, a student needs to know how to search the Internet and to process the information he/she can find there. Secondly, knowing a computer raises one’s chances of getting a good job because most of the companies look for employees with a sufficient level of computer skills. When working for a company one should also remember about its policy regarding the use of computer for personal purposes and be able to cope with minor problems arising in the course of work with the computer. Finally, a computer allows saving time and money. It saves the users’ time due to utilizing such tools as word processors, budget planning, and mapping programs which facilitate the users’ life. The computer can also save money serving as a TV, fax, and Playstation giving access to TV shows, online fax services, and allowing playing video games without buying special devices for this.

McArthur, D., Lewis, W.M., ND. Web.

Moursund, D. (2007). A College Student’s Guide to Computers in Education . Web.

Walter, R. ND. The Secret Guide to Computers . Web.

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Bibliography

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Essay on History of computers/Evolution of Computers

Essay on History of computers/Evolution of Computers 400-500 words

While computers are now an important part of human life, there was a time when computers did not exist. Knowing the history of computers and their progress can help us understand how complex and innovative computer manufacturing is.

Unlike most devices, the computer is one of the few inventions that does not have a specific inventor. During the development of computers, many people have added their creations to the list of essentials for a computer to work. Some of the inventions have been different types of computers, and some of them were parts that allowed the computer to be further developed.

Perhaps the most important date in the history of computers is 1936. In the same year, the first “computer” was developed. It was created by Konrad Zuse and dubbed the Z1 computer. This computer stands as the first because it was the first fully programmable system. There were devices before this, but none had the computing power that differentiates it from other electronics.

No business had seen profit and opportunity in computers until 1942. This first company was called ABC Computer, which was owned and operated by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry. Two years later, the Harvard Mark I computer was developed, advancing the science of computing.

During the next few years, inventors around the world began to discover more about computers to study and how to improve upon them. They call the introduction of the transistor in the next ten years, which would become an important part of the inner workings of the computer, the ENIAC 1 computer, as well as many other types of systems. ENIAC 1 is probably one of the most interesting, as it requires 20,000 vacuum tubes to operate. It was a huge machine, and it started a revolution to make computers smaller and faster.

The computer age was changed forever by the introduction of International Business Machines, or IBM, in the computing industry in 1953. Throughout computer history, this company has been a major player in the development of new systems and servers for the public. And personal use. This introduction brought the first real signs of competition within computing history, leading to faster and better development of computers. His first contribution was the IBM 701 EDPM computer.

Development of programming language

A year later, the first successful high-level programming language was created. It was a programming language not written in ‘assembly’ or binary, which is considered a very low-level language. FORTRAN was written so that more and more people could start programming computers easily.

In 1955, Bank of America teamed up with Stanford Research Institute and General Electric to build the first computers for use in banks. MICR, or Magnetic Ink Character Recognition, along with the actual computer, ERMA, was a breakthrough for the banking industry. It was not until 1959 that the pairing system was put into use in actual banks.

In 1958, one of the most important breakthroughs in computer history was the creation of the integrated circuit. This device, also known as a chip, is now one of the basic requirements for modern computer systems. On each motherboard and card within a computer system, there are several chips that contain information about what the board and card do. Without these chips, the system as we know them today could not function.

Gaming, Mice and the Internet

For many computer users, games are an important part of the computing experience. In 1962 the first computer game ‘Spacewar’ was created by Steve Russell and MIT.

One of the most basic components of a modern computer, the mouse, was created in 1964 by Douglas Engelbart. It derived its name from the “tail” emanating from the device.

One of the most important aspects of the computer today was invented in 1969. The ARPA net was the original Internet, which provided the foundation for the Internet as we know it today. This development will result in the growth of knowledge and business across the planet.

It wasn’t until 1970 that Intel entered the scene with the first dynamic RAM chip, resulting in an explosion of computer science innovation.

The first microprocessor was on the heels of the RAM chip, also designed by Intel. Apart from the chip developed in 1958, these two components would form the core components of modern computers.

A year later, the floppy disk was created, which derives its name from the flexibility of the storage unit. This was the first step in allowing most people to transfer bits of data between unconnected computers.

The first networking cards were made in 1973, allowing data transfer between connected computers. It is similar to the Internet but allows computers to connect without the use of the Internet.

The emergence of home PCs

The next three years were very important for computers. This was when companies started developing systems for the average consumer. The Scelbi, Mark-8 Altair, IBM 5100, Apple I and II, TRS-80, and Commodore pet computers were pioneers in this area. Along with being expensive, these machines started the trend of computers in common homes.

One of the most prominent change in computer software occurred in 1978 with the release of the VisiCalc spreadsheet program. All development costs were paid off within a two-week period, making it one of the most successful programs in computer history.

The IBM home computer helped revolutionize the consumer market rapidly in 1981, as it was affordable for homeowners and standard consumers. In 1981 also the mega-giant Microsoft entered the scene with the MS-DOS operating system. This operating system completely changed computing forever, as it was easy enough for everyone to learn.

The Competition Begins Apple vs. Microsoft

During the year 1983, computers saw another significant change. The Apple Lisa computer was the first with a graphical user interface or GUI. Most modern programs have a GUI, which allows them to be easy to use and pleasant to the eye. This marked the beginning of our dating most text-based only programs .

Beyond this point in computer history, there have been many changes and changes, from the Apple-Microsoft wars to the development of microcomputers and the variety of computer breakthroughs that have become an accepted part of our daily lives. Without the very early first stages of computer history, none of this would have been possible.

Table of Contents

Essay 2 200 words

Early computer.

The history of computers dates back to the early 1900s; in fact, computers have been around for more than 5000 years.

In ancient times a “computer” (or “computer”) was a person who performed numerical calculations under the direction of a mathematician.

Some of the better-known tools used are the abacus or the Antikythera Tantra.

Around 1725, Basil Bouchon took paper punched in a loom to set the pattern to be reproduced on the cloth. This ensured that the pattern was always the same and there was hardly any human error.

Later, in 1801, Joseph Jacquard (1752 – 1834) used the punch card idea to automate more devices with great success.

Pollution Essay in Hindi/प्रदूषण पर लघु निबंध

First computer?

Charles Babbage. (1792–1871), was ahead of his time, and using the punch card idea, he developed the first computing devices that suffices scientific purposes. He invented Charles Babbage’s differential engine, which he started in 1823 but never completed. He later began work on the Analytical Engine, which was designed in 1842.

The credit for inventing computing concepts goes to Babbage because of his findings such as conditional branches, iterative loops, and index variables.

Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), a collaborator of Babbage and the founder of scientific computing.

Babbage’s inventions were greatly improved upon, with George Scheutz working on a smaller version with his son Edward Scheutz, and by 1853 he had built a machine that could process 15-digit numbers and fourths. Could calculate the difference of the sequence.

Among the first notable commercial use (and success) of computers was the US Census Bureau, which used a punch-card device designed by Herman Hollerith to tabulate data for the 1890 census.

To compensate for the cyclical nature of the Census Bureau’s demand for its machines, Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company (1896), one of three companies that merged to form IBM in 1911.

Use of digital electronics in computers

Later, Claude Shannon (1916–2001) first suggested the use of digital electronics in computers, and in 1937 and J.V. Atanasoff built the first electronic computer that could solve 29 equations simultaneously with 29 unknowns. But this device was not programmable.

During that crisis, the development of computers was rapid. But many projects remained secret until much later due to restrictions, and a notable example is the British Army “Colossus” developed by Alan Turing and his team in 1943.

In the late 1940s, the US Army commissioned John V. Mauchly to develop a device to calculate ballistics during World War II. As it turned out, the machine was only produced in 1945, but the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, or ENIAC, proved to be a turning point in computer history.

The ENIAC proved to be a very efficient machine but not very easy to operate. Any change sometimes requires reprogramming the device. Engineers were aware of this obvious problem and developed a “stored program architecture.”

John von Neumann (a consultant to ENIAC), Mauchly, and his team developed EDVAC, this new project using stored programs.

Eckert and Mauchly later developed what was arguably the first commercially successful computer, the UNIVAC.

Software technology was very primitive during this period. The first programs were written in machine code. By the 1950s, programmers were using a symbolic notation known as assembly language, then translating the symbolic notation into machine code by hand. The programs later known as assemblers did the translation work.

The end of the transistor era, inventor.

The late 1950s saw the end of valve-operated computers. Transistor-based computers were were smaller, cheaper, faster, and much more reliable.

Corporations were now building new computers instead of inventors.

Some of the better known are:

TRADIC at Bell Laboratories in 1954,

TX-0 at MIT’s Lincoln Laboratory

The IBM 704 and its successors, the 709 and 7094. The latter introduced I/O processors for better throughput between I/O devices and main memory.

The first food computers, the Livermore Atomic Research Computer (LARC) and the IBM 7030 (aka Stretch)

Texas Instrument Advanced Scientific Computer (TI-ASC)

Now that was the basis of computers, computers with transistors were faster, and with stored-program architecture, you could use computers for almost anything.

New higher-level programs soon followed, FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958), and COBOL (1959), with Cambridge and the University of London collaborating in the development of the CPL (Combined Programming Language, 1963). Martin Richards of Cambridge developed a subset of CPL called BCPL (Basic Computer Programming Language, 1967).

1969’s latest release, the CDC 7600, could perform 10 million floating-point operations (10 Mflops) per second.

Network year.

Since 1985, there was a competition to install more and more transistors on a computer. Each of them could perform a simple operation. But computers haven’t evolved much other than being faster and capable of doing more operations.

The concept of parallel processing has been more widely used since the 1990s.

In the field of computer networking, both wide area network (WAN) and local area network (LAN) technology developed rapidly.

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The History of Computing

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The history of computer dates back to the mid-19th century when Charles Babbage conceptualized the idea of a mechanical calculator that could perform mathematical calculations accurately and quickly. Later, the development of the vacuum tube in the 1930s led to the creation of the first electronic computer, the Colossus, which was used to crack codes during World War II. The invention of the transistor in the 1950s paved the way for faster, smaller and more reliable computers. The 1970s witnessed the development of the first personal computer, the Altair 8800, which was followed by Apple II and IBM PC.

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Essay on Computer

Updated January 18, 2023

Can you think of an object that has profoundly touched many aspects of our lives and brought about a revolution across the globe even while undergoing innumerable transformations? Yes, you guessed right! The answer is the computer.

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A computer consists of three essential parts – keyboard, CPU, and monitor- which perform the three most important functions – input, processing, and output. There are other parts, like the mouse, printer, scanner, and USB drive, based on the utility factor. Let’s find out find more significance in this article, Essay on Computer.

Computer’s history can trace back to the Abacus, a calculating tool of ancient times, which eventually gave way to the development of the computer. The very first mechanical computer was developed in the 1820s by Charles Baggage, credited as the Father of the “Modern Computer.”” Later, in the 1930s, the first electronic computer was invented by Vannevar Bush in the United States.

The first programmable digital computer introduces in 1944 following a partnership between IBM and Harvard, which marked a revolutionizing era in the field of computers. Subsequently, many generations of computers followed, undergoing many significant changes.

Based on different criteria like design, size, and utility, there are different types of computers as below:

Super Computer: Considered to be a class of powerful computers, Supercomputer ensures a faster and higher level of performance compared to an ordinary computer.
Mainframe Computer: These computers possess vast processing power and memory and are used in massive organizations.
Personal Computer: As the name suggests, Personal Computers are used by individuals only. They are generally small in size and not costly.
Laptops: Also a type of Personal Computer, a Laptop is much lighter, more flexible, and occupies lesser space.
Smartphone: In a way, smartphones are also computing devices though they are much smaller and handy. They perform most of the functions carried out by a computer.

Computers are used in almost every field associated with humans today and have made our life easier and hassle-free.

Below are some of the areas where computers involvement the most:

Education: Computers have revolutionized the field of education like never before. They have made the process of teaching and learning much more relaxed with the use of power-point presentations, videos, and info graphs while conducting the class.
Medicine: Computers have entered many areas of medicine, like medical imaging, decision-making, data collection, laboratories, computer-aided therapies, etc. They are also proving to be extremely helpful in doing research and development in the field of medicine.
Offices and Industries: Today, we can only imagine an office or industry with computers. They have replaced piles of files and immense machines, thus changing how offices and industries operate.
Defense: Computers are being increasingly used effectively in Defence. They are being used to control and detect missiles, control access to atomic bombs, train soldiers for combat situations, and sort intelligence data.
Agriculture: The use of computers in the agriculture sector widely increases. Critical software help in predicting weather conditions and estimating crop production have evolved. Computer technologies have helped reduce farmers farmer’s efforts and increase their profits. Computers have also helped farmers communicate with experts to garner knowledge about helpful methods and technologies related to agriculture.

Thus, we saw an essay on computer, it is a fantastic device born out of the human mind to help humanity. Though it is also used for destructive purposes by specific repulsive forces, the answer to thwarting such attempts also lies in your computer. You need to apply your mind and make the correct clicks!

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100 Words Essay On The History Of Computer In English

The history of computers is one that is very interesting to look at. The first ever computer to be made was invented in the 1820s by Charles Babbage, who is termed the “Father of the Computer.”

With the passage of time, of course, computers have shrunk in size and today are portable with more features.

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History of Computers, Essay Example

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Introduction

Computers have become an important part of social development from one human generation to another. Unlike other forms of technology, the discovery and development of computers cannot be accounted from one person alone. Relatively, the distinct course of progressive evolution that computers have been best known for could be noted to have been a contribution coming from collaborative inventors, programmers and other enthusiasts who have been in constant desire to improve what has already been seen and discovered through time. With such knowledge in mind, it is safe to say that the history of computers is defined through the collaborative engagement of inventors and explorers of modern technology as they try to be more confined on what is assumed as directive development.

Through time, it could be observed [as recorded in history] that the evolution of computers is highly dependent on the distinct desire of humans to be acquainted with innovations that allow them to become more efficient in the works that they are expected to complete. Notably, with such a desire, the evolutionary development of computers has been given strong attention to. What is noted as a definite course progress in technology notes the capacity of computers to lead the current society towards a much more progressive system of development in the near future. In the discussion that follows, particular highlights that define the history of computers from the early 1930s towards the present shall be given specific attention to.

The First Generation of Computers (1936-1948)

From the abacus to the distinct creation of a complex machine that is able to compute basic mathematical operations, the creation of a unit that would allow humans to create commands and direct particular machines to work according to the demands established under particular industries, the era of the 1930s paved the way towards opening the doors into introducing what free computer programming is about. Under the leadership of Konrad Zeus, the Z1 computer has been produced. This computer features a free-programmable system that allows human individuals to become more acquainted to the open options that computer systems offer them with [especially when it comes to customizing the functions of a computer system into completing tasks that they are expected to accomplish]. This type of computer generation is often programmed to accomplish basic mathematical operations and formulas which have most often than not been applied to create a definite pattern of function in machines. It is because of this application that the number of machine-operators has decreased accordingly during the said years.

The Second Generation Computers (1951-1958)

While the first generation computers were made to specifically respond to single to three commands at a time, the complexity of the new second generation of computers opened the doors towards welcoming a more complex form of programming. In 1951, the release of first UNIVAC computer was given way under the leadership of John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. This type of computer is already able to take on mass-operations [eg. Election: picking of new presidents based on social vote-counts]. The complexity of the programs that could be encoded in the system of these types of computers allowed for the presentation of a new sense of understanding the role of computers in the human society. Notably, it could be understood that this is where the release of first commercial computers have been given way.

These commercial computers allowed the new generation of computer-users to become more effective in determining the progressive function that these innovative technologies are supposed to provide them with. It is with the desire of the inventors and developers to make the best use of what benefits they could get from computers that the creation of such possibilities came into mind. It is also during this phase of development in computer-technology that organizations and computer developers such as IBM and FORTRAN came into being. These big names in the industry were the pioneers in making properly established computer systems that cater to the needs of the modern society as they embrace the new sense of understanding what computer-technology has to offer the public with.

Gaming and Computer-User Interaction (1962-1981)

During the introductionof the 1960s, the creation of highly interactive computers has been given way. Known as personal computers, this generation of new age computing machines could already be owned and utilized by individual users. Releasing the first microprocessor in 1971, the possibilities of creating hand held computers have been given birth. Nevertheless, such exploration required first hand direction on what personal computers are to be for. The creation of effective data storage systems has also been given way.

Allowing personal users of computer to be more effective in their sense of computer utilization, these personal sets of computers gives a sense of satisfaction especially when it comes to individual demands. Used for their office functions and personal operations, these set of basic personal computers provide a sense of usage-ease among the first owners of the said forms of technology. Best for basic business operations, the creation of the first programmable VisiCalc Spreadsheet Software has been introduced for public use. This allowed users to create calculations and formulations turning them into automatic operations that make the tasks easier to bear. WordStar Software was also introduced by Seymour Rubenstein and Rob Barnaby. This software made office works easier and served as the pioneer base for the creation of other more advanced forms of word processors.

In 1981, the presentation of the new revolutionary platform for programming has been given way in the form of MS DOS Computer Operating System. Relatively, this quick and dirty form of operating system paved the way towards determining a more directive course of development in programming that paves the way to more complex functions of the computer. It is from this form of computing program that the creation of more complex form of personal computers.

The Birth of New Age Computers (1983-1985)

From the new programming system comes the new-age form of computer setups that revolutionized the way computers are used at home. The first home computer with a GUI [Graphics User Interface] has been brought to life. Under the leadership of APPLE Inc., this computer provides home owners a much better access to the new age technology that tends to ease out their computing operations. From this point, new computer sets have been created to fit the home-owners’ demands accordingly. Such option of revolution in computer-distribution has paved the way to new discoveries that gave new age computers a better sense of reputation that caters to the basic needs of general users in the community.

Computer Revolution and Progress (1990-Present)

Since the early revolution of programming, it could be realized how practically developmental computer evolution has become. What made such progress possible is the distinct desire of humans to engage in something new and something innovative at all times. Reality suggests that new age technology does impose a sense of development especially when it comes to make a definite impact on how the human society functions accordingly. Computer revolution allowed for the chance by which people become more connected to how these machines of wonders work towards the development of new options of user-interface function that actually identifies well with what is assumed as modern computing options.

Looking Into the Future

The future of computers continue to open different possibilities of advancement that is expected to ease out the process by which humans complete the tasks that they are expected to accomplish. May it be industry based, office base, home based or other operations that are designed to give attention to the general functions of the society, computers are expected to shape the general operations of the human community as it embraces the new opportunities for the future. Computers are gradually becoming the main elements that define human development alongside the desire of developing social progress.

Overtime, computer operations in the modern society has allowed a sense of development especially on how humans function according to the tasks that they are supposed to accomplish. The future of computers will continue to be based on such function. Notably, it is through this distinctive value that computer technology and other skills related to developing its advancement are considered as a sense of investment especially among those who have distinct interest on how computers work and how they develop through time according to the demands of the community.

Computers have and will always be a basic factor that serves as the foundation of social advancement. Under the determination of a modern world to make amends to how humans live their lives, it is expected that computers will continue to take on center stage as they become the primary elements that are dedicated towards assuming the best option of growth that humans are likely to be well related to. Notably, the way people become strongly acquainted to this technology defines how well computers are shaping the culture and the living system of the modern human society.

In relation to this particular discussion, the history of computer-development does provide an efficient sense of improvement on how humans intend to embrace social progress in consideration with the determination of good computer operation application. The practical measures of advancement that the computers take into account at present does improve the manner by which humans function especially in consideration with the basic functions they are supposed to undergo. It is through this that the fast paced life-culture of the new social system gets supported through the emergence of new technological applications that are designed to redefine the pattern of living that humans take into account as they embrace modernity accordingly.

Works Cited

Copeland, Jack (2006), Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park’s Codebreaking Computers , Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 101–115.

Fuegi, J. and Francis, J. “ Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 ‘notes’ “. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 25 No. 4 (October–December 2003): Digital Object Identifier.

Kempf, Karl (1961). “ Historical Monograph: Electronic Computers Within the Ordnance Corps “. Aberdeen Proving Ground (United States Army).

Phillips, Tony (2000). “ The Antikythera Mechanism I”. American Mathematical Society.

Essinger, James (2004). Jacquard’s Web, How a hand loom led to the birth of the information age. Oxford University Press.

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HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER

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The historicization of the computer in the second half of the 20th century can be understood as the effect of the inevitable changes in both its technological and narrative development. What interests us is how past futures and therefore history were stabilized. The development, operation, and implementation of machines and programs gave rise to a historicity of the field of computing. Whenever actors have been grouped into communities – for example, into industrial and academic developer communities – new orderings have been constructed historically. Such orderings depend on the ability to refer to archival and published documents and to develop new narratives based on them. Professional historians are particularly at home in these waters – and nevertheless can disappear into the whirlpool of digital prehistory. Toward the end of the 1980s, the first critical review of the literature on the history of computers thus offered several programmatic suggestions. It is one of the peculiar coincidences of history that the future should rear its head again just when the history of computers was flourishing as a result of massive methodological and conceptual input. The emergence of the World Wide Web in the 1990s, which caught historians totally by surprise, led to an ahistorical, anthropological, aesthetic-medial approach to digitization. The program for investigating the prehistory of the digital age was rewritten in favor of explaining the development of communication networks. Computer systems and their concepts dropped out of history. This poses a problem for the history of computers, insofar as the success of the history of technology is tied to the stability of its objects. It seems more promising to us to not attribute the problem to the object called computer or to the “disciplinary” field, but rather to focus entirely on substantive issues. An issue-oriented technological history of the 21st century should be able to do this by treating the history of computers as a refreshing source of productive friction.

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Essay on Computer

500+ words essay on computer.

A computer is an electronic device that performs complex calculations. It is a wonderful product of modern technology. Nowadays, computers have become a significant part of our life. Whether it is in the sector of education or health, computers are used everywhere. Our progress is entirely dependent on computers powered by the latest technology. This ‘Essay on Computer’ also covers the history of computers as well as their uses in different sectors. By going through the ‘Computer’ Essay in English, students will get an idea of writing a good Essay on Computers. After practising this essay, they will be able to write essays on other topics related to computers, such as the ‘Uses of Computer’ Essay.

The invention of the computer has made our lives easier. The device is used for many purposes, such as securing information, messages, data processing, software programming, calculations, etc. A desktop computer has a CPU, UPS, monitor, keyboard, and mouse to work. A laptop is a modern form of computer in which all the components are inbuilt into a single device. Earlier, computers were not so fast and powerful. After thorough and meticulous research and work by various scientists, modern-day computers have come up.

History of Computers

The history of computer development is often used to reference the different generations of computing devices. Each generation of computers is characterised by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers work. Most of the major developments from the 1940s to the present day have resulted in increasingly smaller, more powerful, faster, cheaper and more efficient computing devices.

The evolution of computer technology is often divided into five generations. These five generations of computers are as follows:

Uses of Computers

Computers are used in various fields. Some of the applications are

1. Business

A computer can perform a high-speed calculation more efficiently and accurately, due to which it is used in all business organisations. In business, computers are used for:

Payroll calculations
Sales analysis
Maintenance of stocks
Managing employee databases

2. Education

Computers are very useful in the education system. Especially now, during the COVID time, online education has become the need of the hour. There are miscellaneous ways through which an institution can use computers to educate students.

3. Health Care

Computers have become an important part of hospitals, labs and dispensaries. They are used for the scanning and diagnosis of different diseases. Computerised machines do scans, which include ECG, EEG, ultrasound and CT Scan, etc. Moreover, they are used in hospitals to keep records of patients and medicines.

Computers are largely used in defence. The military employs computerised control systems, modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. It uses computers for communication, operation and planning, smart weapons, etc.

5. Government

Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields are:

Computation of male/female ratio
Computerisation of PAN card
Income Tax Department
Weather forecasting
Computerisation of voters’ lists
Sales Tax Department

6. Communication

Communication is a way to convey an idea, a message, a picture, a speech or any form of text, audio or video clip. Computers are capable of doing so. Through computers, we can send an email, chat with each other, do video conferencing, etc.

Nowadays, to a large extent, banking is dependent on computers. Banks provide an online accounting facility, which includes checking current balances, making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, trustee records, etc. The ATM machines, which are fully automated, use computers, making it easier for customers to deal with banking transactions.

8. Marketing

In marketing, computers are mainly used for advertising and home shopping.

Similarly, there are various other applications of computers in other fields, such as insurance, engineering, design, etc.

Students can practise more essays on different topics to improve their writing skills. Keep learning and stay tuned with BYJU’S for the latest update on CBSE/ICSE/State Board/Competitive Exams. Also, download the BYJU’S App for interactive study videos.

Frequently asked Questions on Computer Essay

How has the invention of the computer been useful to students.

Easy and ready access to information has been possible (internet) with the invention of the computer.

How to start writing an essay on a computer?

Before writing an essay, first plan the topics, sub-topics and main points which are going to be included in the body of the essay. Then, structure the content accordingly and check for information and examples.

How to use the computer to browse for information on essays?

Various search engines are available, like Google, where plenty of information can be obtained regarding essays and essay structures.

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Essay on Importance of Computer

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100 Words Essay on Importance of Computer

Introduction to computers.

Computers are important in our lives. They help in various tasks like learning, communication, and entertainment.

Role in Education

Computers make learning fun. They offer educational games and online classes.

Communication

Computers help us communicate with friends and family through emails and social media.

Entertainment

Computers provide entertainment like movies, music, and games.

In conclusion, computers have a significant role in our lives. They make tasks easier and more enjoyable.

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250 Words Essay on Importance of Computer

The emergence of computers.

The advent of computers has revolutionized the world, dramatically transforming human life and societal structures. Computers, initially designed for complex computations, now permeate every aspect of our daily lives, from education and business to entertainment and communication.

Computers in Education

The importance of computers in education is undeniable. They have transformed the way we learn, making education more interactive and engaging. With the help of computers, vast amounts of information can be accessed within seconds, facilitating research and broadening the scope of knowledge. Moreover, online learning platforms have made education accessible to everyone, irrespective of geographical boundaries.

Role in Business

In the business world, computers have become indispensable. They assist in managing large databases, conducting financial transactions, and executing marketing strategies. The advent of e-commerce, largely facilitated by computers, has reshaped the global economy, enabling businesses to reach customers worldwide.

Impact on Communication

Entertainment and leisure.

In the realm of entertainment and leisure, computers have introduced new dimensions. From digital art and music to online gaming and streaming services, computers have enriched our recreational experiences.

In conclusion, the importance of computers is vast and multifaceted. They have become an integral part of our lives, continually shaping our world. As we move forward, the influence of computers will only continue to grow, making them an undeniable necessity in our modern existence.

500 Words Essay on Importance of Computer

Introduction.

The computer, a revolutionary invention of the twentieth century, has become a fundamental part of our daily lives. Its importance cannot be overstated as it has revolutionized various sectors including business, education, healthcare, and entertainment. This essay explores the significance of computers in our contemporary world.

The role of computers in education is transformative. They serve as an interactive medium where students can learn and explore new concepts. Online learning platforms, digital libraries, and educational software have made learning more accessible, engaging, and personalized. Furthermore, computers have also simplified research, data analysis, and presentation of academic work, enhancing the overall educational experience.

Impact on Business and Economy

Computers have reshaped the business landscape. They have facilitated automation, leading to increased productivity and efficiency. Businesses are now able to manage large volumes of data, aiding in informed decision-making and strategic planning. E-commerce, digital marketing, and online banking are other significant contributions of computers, driving economic growth and globalization.

Healthcare Advancements

Entertainment and communication.

The entertainment industry has been revolutionized by computers. They have given birth to digital media, video games, and computer-generated imagery (CGI) in films. Moreover, computers have redefined communication, making it instant and borderless. Social media, email, and video conferencing are now integral parts of our social and professional lives.

Challenges and Future Prospects

Despite the numerous benefits, the use of computers also brings challenges such as cybersecurity threats and digital divide. Addressing these issues is crucial for a safe and inclusive digital future. On the brighter side, the future of computers is promising with advancements like quantum computing, artificial intelligence, and virtual reality. These technologies are expected to further enhance our lives, solve complex problems, and open new avenues of exploration.

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Essay on Computer and its Uses for School Students and Children

500+ words essay on computer.

In this essay on computer, we are going to discuss some useful things about computers. The modern-day computer has become an important part of our daily life. Also, their usage has increased much fold during the last decade. Nowadays, they use the computer in every office whether private or government. Mankind is using computers for over many decades now. Also, they are used in many fields like agriculture, designing, machinery making, defense and many more. Above all, they have revolutionized the whole world.

History of Computers

It is very difficult to find the exact origin of computers. But according to some experts computer exists at the time of world war-II. Also, at that time they were used for keeping data. But, it was for only government use and not for public use. Above all, in the beginning, the computer was a very large and heavy machine.

Working of a Computer

The computer runs on a three-step cycle namely input, process, and output. Also, the computer follows this cycle in every process it was asked to do. In simple words, the process can be explained in this way. The data which we feed into the computer is input, the work CPU do is process and the result which the computer give is output.

Components and Types of Computer

The simple computer basically consists of CPU, monitor, mouse, and keyboard . Also, there are hundreds of other computer parts that can be attached to it. These other parts include a printer, laser pen, scanner , etc.

The computer is categorized into many different types like supercomputers, mainframes, personal computers (desktop), PDAs, laptop, etc. The mobile phone is also a type of computer because it fulfills all the criteria of being a computer.

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Uses of Computer in Various Fields

As the usage of computer increased it became a necessity for almost every field to use computers for their operations. Also, they have made working and sorting things easier. Below we are mentioning some of the important fields that use a computer in their daily operation.

Medical Field

They use computers to diagnose diseases, run tests and for finding the cure for deadly diseases . Also, they are able to find a cure for many diseases because of computers.

Whether it’s scientific research, space research or any social research computers help in all of them. Also, due to them, we are able to keep a check on the environment , space, and society. Space research helped us to explore the galaxies. While scientific research has helped us to locate resources and various other useful resources from the earth.

For any country, his defence is most important for the safety and security of its people. Also, computer in this field helps the country’s security agencies to detect a threat which can be harmful in the future. Above all the defense industry use them to keep surveillance on our enemy.

Threats from a Computer

Computers have become a necessity also, they have become a threat too. This is due to hackers who steal your private data and leak them on internet. Also, anyone can access this data. Apart from that, there are other threats like viruses, spams, bug and many other problems.

The computer is a very important machine that has become a useful part of our life. Also, the computers have twin-faces on one side it’s a boon and on the other side, it’s a bane. Its uses completely depend upon you. Apart from that, a day in the future will come when human civilization won’t be able to survive without computers as we depend on them too much. Till now it is a great discovery of mankind that has helped in saving thousands and millions of lives.

Frequently Asked Questions on Computer

Q.1 What is a computer?

A.1 A computer is an electronic device or machine that makes our work easier. Also, they help us in many ways.

Q.2 Mention various fields where computers are used?

A.2 Computers are majorly used in defense, medicine, and for research purposes.

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Title: the ai scientist: towards fully automated open-ended scientific discovery.

Abstract: One of the grand challenges of artificial general intelligence is developing agents capable of conducting scientific research and discovering new knowledge. While frontier models have already been used as aides to human scientists, e.g. for brainstorming ideas, writing code, or prediction tasks, they still conduct only a small part of the scientific process. This paper presents the first comprehensive framework for fully automatic scientific discovery, enabling frontier large language models to perform research independently and communicate their findings. We introduce The AI Scientist, which generates novel research ideas, writes code, executes experiments, visualizes results, describes its findings by writing a full scientific paper, and then runs a simulated review process for evaluation. In principle, this process can be repeated to iteratively develop ideas in an open-ended fashion, acting like the human scientific community. We demonstrate its versatility by applying it to three distinct subfields of machine learning: diffusion modeling, transformer-based language modeling, and learning dynamics. Each idea is implemented and developed into a full paper at a cost of less than $15 per paper. To evaluate the generated papers, we design and validate an automated reviewer, which we show achieves near-human performance in evaluating paper scores. The AI Scientist can produce papers that exceed the acceptance threshold at a top machine learning conference as judged by our automated reviewer. This approach signifies the beginning of a new era in scientific discovery in machine learning: bringing the transformative benefits of AI agents to the entire research process of AI itself, and taking us closer to a world where endless affordable creativity and innovation can be unleashed on the world's most challenging problems. Our code is open-sourced at this https URL

Subjects:	Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI); Computation and Language (cs.CL); Machine Learning (cs.LG)
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COMMENTS

Essay on History of Computer
500 Words Essay on History of Computer The Dawn of Computing. The history of computers dates back to antiquity with devices like the abacus, used for calculations. However, the concept of a programmable computer was first realized in the 19th century by Charles Babbage, an English mathematician. His design, known as the Analytical Engine, is ...
Computer
computer, device for processing, storing, and displaying information.. Computer once meant a person who did computations, but now the term almost universally refers to automated electronic machinery.The first section of this article focuses on modern digital electronic computers and their design, constituent parts, and applications. The second section covers the history of computing.
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The close relationship between the device and the program became apparent some 20 years later, with Charles Babbage's invention of the first computer. Computer - History, Technology, Innovation: A computer might be described with deceptive simplicity as "an apparatus that performs routine calculations automatically.".
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The fourth generation of computers started in 1971 and goes until the present day. During this time the popularity and technology of computers has become epic. The Altair 8800 in 1975 was the first real microcomputer. In 1975 Stephen Wozniak and Jobs started to build their own microprocessor.
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C omputers truly came into their own as great inventions in the last two decades of the 20th century. But their history stretches back more than 2500 years to the abacus: a simple calculator made from beads and wires, which is still used in some parts of the world today. The difference between an ancient abacus and a modern computer seems vast, but the principle—making repeated calculations ...
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Discussion. In history computers were only used as machines that performed calculations. These changed over time with more supplicated machines which were being developed to perform more general tasks (Null L.& Lobur J., P. 34) Modern computer is a result of advances in technologies and the need to quantify, record numbers and language.
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In his Essays on Automatics (1914) Torres presented the design of an electromechanical calculating machine and introduced the idea of Floating-point arithmetic. ... Stephen White's excellent computer history site (the above article is a modified version of his work, used with permission)
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PDF The History of Computing: An Introduction for the Computer Scientist
The last of the three major institutions in the history of computing is the Computer History Museum.7 This holds an exceptional collection of rare and historical computer hardware, including pieces of the ENIAC, an Enigma machine, a SAGE console, a Cray 1 supercomputer, a Xerox Alto, an Altair, and an Apple 1.
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Good Essays. 1316 Words. 6 Pages. Open Document. The first ever computer was invented in the 1820s by Charlse Babbage. However the first electronic digital computer were developed between 1940 and 1945 in the United States and in the United Kingdom. They were gigantic, originally the size of a large room, and also need to be supply a large ...
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Essay on History Of Computer; Paragraph on History Of Computer in 250 Words. Computers, as we know them today, have a rich history that goes back many years. The first computer ever made was not a machine but a concept. This concept came from a man named Charles Babbage in the 19th century. He thought about creating a device that could ...
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History. Computer's history can trace back to the Abacus, a calculating tool of ancient times, which eventually gave way to the development of the computer. The very first mechanical computer was developed in the 1820s by Charles Baggage, credited as the Father of the "Modern Computer."" ... Thus, we saw an essay on computer, it is a ...
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This 'Essay on Computer' also covers the history of computers as well as their uses in different sectors. By going through the 'Computer' Essay in English, students will get an idea of writing a good Essay on Computers. After practising this essay, they will be able to write essays on other topics related to computers, such as the ...
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Essay on Computer and its Uses in 500 Words for Students
500+ Words Essay on Computer. In this essay on computer, we are going to discuss some useful things about computers. The modern-day computer has become an important part of our daily life. Also, their usage has increased much fold during the last decade. Nowadays, they use the computer in every office whether private or government.
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Computers: The History of Invention and Development Essay

Development of programming language

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