quantitative research title about drugs

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 03 May 2019

Qualitative and quantitative research of medication review and drug-related problems in Hungarian community pharmacies: a pilot study

• András Szilvay 1 ,
• Orsolya Somogyi 1 ,
• Attiláné Meskó 1 ,
• Romána Zelkó 1 &
• Balázs Hankó 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  19 , Article number:  282 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

7997 Accesses

8 Citations

Metrics details

Pharmaceutical care is the pharmacist’s contribution to the care of individuals to optimize medicines use and improve health outcomes. The primary tool of pharmaceutical care is medication review. Defining and classifying Drug-Related Problems (DRPs) is an essential pillar of the medication review. Our objectives were to perform a pilot of medication review in Hungarian community pharmacies, a DRP classification was applied for the first time. Also, our goal was the qualitative and quantitative description of the discovered DRPs, and of the interventions for their solution in order to prove the safety relevance of the service and to map out the competence limits of GPs and community pharmacists to drug therapy.

The project took place in Hungarian community pharmacies. The study was performed with patients taking vitamin K antagonist (VKA) and/or ACE inhibitor and NSAID simultaneously (ACEI-NSAID). 61 pharmacists and 606 patients participated in the project. Pharmacists reviewed the medication for 3 months and the classification of DRPs was performed (category of DRP1 – DRP6). Patient data were statistically analyzed.

Patients consumed on average 7.9 ± 3.1 medications and other products. 571 DRPs were detected in 540 patients, averaging 1.06 DRPs per patient (SD = 1.07). The highest frequency category was DRP5 (non-quantitative safety problem; 51.0%). The most common root cause was an interaction (42.0%) and non-adherence (19.4%.). The most commonly used intervention was education (25.4%) and medication replacement by the pharmacist (20.1%). The changing of the frequency and dosage in any direction were negligible.

Conclusions

Patients are struggling with many DRPs that can be assessed and categorized by this system and which remain unrecognizable without pharmacists. Further projects need to be developed to assist in the development of physician-pharmacist cooperation and the widespread dissemination of pharmaceutical care.

Peer Review reports

According to the definition of Pharmaceutical Care Network Europe “Pharmaceutical Care is the pharmacist’s contribution to the care of individuals to optimize medicines use and improve health outcomes”. [ 1 ] The goal of the pharmacists is to collect the patient’s medications (Rx, OTC) and other products (e.g. dietary supplements) to ensure their necessity, efficacy and safety. [ 2 ]

The main tool of pharmaceutical care is medication review, “a structured, critical examination of a patient’s medicines with the objective of reaching an agreement with the patient about treatment, optimizing the impact of medicines, minimizing the number of medication-related problems and reducing waste”. [ 3 ] The best way to make medication review is in collaboration with the patients and their general practitioners. [ 4 , 5 ] To demonstrate the benefits of medication review, several but controversial articles have published. It reduces the number of cases requiring emergency care [ 6 , 7 ], the number of (re) hospitalizations, but its beneficial effects on quality of life, adverse drug reactions and mortality are non-significant in high-risk groups. [ 7 , 8 ] However according to other articles it reduces the number of (unnecessary) drugs [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ], it helps to detect and solve drug-related problems (DRPs) [ 9 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ], especially in collaboration with hospital pharmacists [ 18 ], it increases the patients’ trust in the therapy [ 19 ] and the cost-effectiveness of the treatment [ 20 ].

Defining and classifying drug-related problems is an essential pillar of the medication review. The drug-related problems are “situations in which in the process of use of medicines cause or may cause the appearance of a negative outcome associated with the medication.” [ 21 ] There are many reasons for the drug-related problems, which may result that drug therapy is not achieving its purpose or even becoming harmful. There are more than 20 types of DRP classification system in the literature, which differ in, e.g. DRP groups and methodology. [ 22 ] It is also important to involve patients in the process of detecting drug-related problems. [ 23 ]

The aim of our research was to perform a pilot of medication review in Hungarian community pharmacies as part of basic pharmaceutical care, using a drug-related problem classification for the first time to lay the foundation for wider adoption of this service in Hungary. Also, our goal was the qualitative and quantitative description of the discovered drug-related problems, and of the interventions for their solution in order to prove the safety relevance of the service and to map out the competence limits of GPs and community pharmacists to drug therapy. The latter can contribute to the development of a future “target model” of doctor-patient-pharmacist cooperation.

Description of the project

The project took place between December 2015 and August 2016. The data were collected by pharmacists (they have not received monetary compensation) participating in specialist training at Semmelweis University. The participation of pharmacists was obligatory to complete the second year of the training, and the cooperative pharmacies were their own workplaces. All participating pharmacies were accredited at the Semmelweis University. All the participating pharmacists from all around the country went to Budapest and participated in one-day training at Semmelweis University, which included the description and requirements of the project, and the presentation of the drug-related problem classification.

The pharmacists at the beginning of the project visited family practitioners working near the pharmacy, practically those whose patients often go to the pharmacy. They were invited to participate in the project. After that, the patients were involved in the pharmacy. The study was performed with patients taking vitamin K antagonist (VKA) and/or ACE inhibitor and NSAID simultaneously (ACEI-NSAID). The latter is considered as a high-risk group because of the increased chance of renal failure [ 24 ] and the potential inadequacy of the therapy [ 25 ]. A patient could have been in both categories. Patients had to be at least 18 years old, had to buy medicines themselves and had to be the patients of the general practitioner involved. All pharmacists tried to have around 10 patients. The process of the first and further occasions is described in Fig.  1 .

The process of the occasions

Characteristics of participating pharmacies and patients

Data for patients and pharmacies in the study are shown in Table  1 . 61 pharmacists took part in 61 pharmacies. The survey was close to nationwide coverage (16 of 20 counties). Most of the pharmacies were in the capital (35.6%). 606 patients participated in the project (9.9 patients/pharmacy; SD = 3.0), 57.3% were women and 42.7% were males. 497 patients (mean = 8.1; SD = 2.2) took part in every requested meeting with the pharmacist (traced patients), 18.0% of the patients left the project. However, we used data from all the patients involved, not only from traced patients. The average age of patients was 65.0 years (SD = 11.9). 55.6% of the participants took ACE inhibitor and NSAID simultaneously, 39.8% of them took vitamin K antagonists, and 4.6% of them were included in both categories.

• Medication review

Pharmacists have been conducting medication review at each consultation; they looked at medication taken from the point of necessity, effectiveness and safety. The medication review and the classification of drug-related problems were performed according to the Third Consensus of Granada on Drug-Related Problems classification system [ 21 ] and to the Hungarian National Committee of Pharmaceutical Care Metabolic Syndrome Pharmaceutical Care Programme. [ 26 ] In the process of assessing drug-related problems, the pharmacist classified the DRPs into six classes and identified the root cause. (Table  2 ).

The number and cause of the drug-related problem were recorded by the pharmacist. In addition, the intervention was also recorded. The medication review was performed at all pharmacist meetings. Anonymous patient data were statistically analyzed.

Statistical analysis

Statistical calculations were performed using SPSS 20.0. After the descriptive statistical analysis, two sample t test, paired sample t test, and a variance analysis were performed on continuous data to detect differences and correlations. When calculating the Pearson correlation coefficient, the p value for the correlation coefficient was < 0.005. For discrete data, the Kruskal-Wallis test and chi-square test were used. Control of normality was performed with Kolmogorov Smirnov test. The significance level was p = 0.05.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The project was implemented with the support and cooperation of the National Health Development Institute’s Primary Care Directorate [ 27 ]. The unified professional protocol made available in the course of the co-operation is a document agreed with the Primary Service Directorate. We have not received a waiver of ethics approval since the participation in the questionnaire survey, and the pharmaceutical service was not linked to one Institute (University) and was absolutely free and undoubtedly noninvasive, so IRB deemed unnecessary according to the similar national regulations. In Hungary according to Regulation No 44/2004 MoHSFA and Act XLVII of 1997, pharmacies did not need to be individually ethically licensed, because the service complies with statutory regulations, and pharmacies are legally entitled to perform such activities [ 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants in the pharmacies; no written consent was required according to the Act CLIV of 1997 on Health (noninvasive pharmaceutical service and questionnaire survey) [ 32 ].

The investigation was a free service of pharmacies with operating licenses. The patients involved voluntarily participated in the process. Patients participating in the project received verbal information in accordance with the national regulations mentioned above. Qualified pharmacists conducted the project. The data were handled by pharmacy and health data management according to Act XLVII of 1997. Data were transmitted without personal information to process the results. The personal and health data of the patients included in the study were not damaged.

Descriptive results

In the assessment of drug-related problems, 540 patients from 606 patients were collected and analyzed. On average, patients consumed 7.9 ± 3.1 medications and other products: 6.3 were prescription drug (SD = 2.8), 1.1 OTC (SD = 1.1) and 0.4 other product, for example dietary supplements (SD = 0.8). (Table 1 ).

During the study, 571 drug-related problems were detected in these 540 patients, averaging 1.06 DRP per patient (SD = 1.07). The highest frequency category was DRP5 (non-quantitative safety problem: 51.0%). Approximately one-fourth of cases (24.0%) belonged to DRP3 (non-quantitative ineffectiveness) and 10% to DRP1 (untreated health problem). DRP2 (Effect of unnecessary medicine), DRP4 (Quantitative ineffectiveness) and DRP6 (Quantitative safety problem) were less frequent (8.2, 4.6, 2.3%). (Fig.  2 -All patients).

The relative proportion of different drug-related problem categories per patient group (All patients: all the participating patients ( n  = 571); ACEI-NSAID: patients taking ACE inhibitor and NSAID simultaneously ( n  = 330); VKA: patients taking vitamin K antagonist ( n  = 212); Both: patients included in both categories ( n  = 29); DRP: drug-related problem (see Table 2 ))

Analyzing the root causes of drug-related problems, the most common was the interaction (42.0%), the second was non-adherence (19.4%). The Quantitative safety problem caused by improper dosage was the rarest (2.3%). (Fig.  3 -All patients ).

The relative proportion of the underlying cause of drug-related problems per patient group (All patients: all the participating patients ( n  = 571); ACEI-NSAID: patients taking ACE inhibitor and NSAID simultaneously ( n  = 330); VKA: patients taking vitamin K antagonist ( n  = 212); Both: patients included in both categories ( n  = 29); DRP: drug-related problem (see Table 2 ))

In the case of ACEI-NSAID patients, the DRP1 category appears to be higher (13.9%) than in the case of VKA patients (4.7%). The ratio was reversed in the case of DRP3 (22.1 and 27.8%) and DRP5 (48.2% or 52.4%), the latter is due to a higher rate of interactions. (Figs.  2 and 3 ) The ratio of interaction was extremely high for those patients who were in both categories (65.5%). (Fig. 3 ) However, these differences are not significant either in the number of drug problems or in the occurrence of the individual categories and causes. There was no “other” problem that cannot be categorized elsewhere.

Results of statistical analysis

There are no differences in the prevalence of drug-related problems between men and women (p = 0.070) and between the patients over and under 65 years. (p = 0.552).

There is a significant difference between the types of settlement in the occurrence of the drug-related problem. In the capital city, the pharmacists have found two DRPs per patient in a significantly higher ratio, while in other settlements it was markedly higher that the pharmacist found no mistake in the medication. There is a correlation between the number of DRPs and the total number of used medications, but the correlation is weak (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.214 (p < 0.005)). The relationship between the number of prescription drugs and the number of drug-related problems is similar, somewhat lower (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.152 (p < 0.005)).

Table  3 summarizes the rates of interventions used to eliminate drug-related problems. The most common intervention for the elimination of each underlying cause was indicated with bold number, while underlined number indicates the interventions with an incidence higher than 10%. Overall, the most commonly used intervention was education (25.4%) and medication replacement by the pharmacist (20.1%). More than 10% of the problems the intervention was not necessary (10.9%), or the pharmacist sends the patient to a physician (14.5%) or the pharmacist warned the GP (11.7%). The changing of the frequency and dosage in any direction were negligible.

Due to a large number of patients involved and the low drop-out rate, patients are interested and find the service provided by pharmacists useful. The fact that a large number of patients who had NSAIDs with an ACE inhibitor were included in the study underlined the relevance of this problem. Such a problem frequently does not show up at the doctor but at the pharmacy. The project involved a large number of patients with more than 5 medicines (also known as polypharmacy patients [ 33 ]).

It is noteworthy that patients use an average of 1 OTC drug on a regular basis, and that 4 out of 10 patients also use some other formulations (e.g. dietary supplements).

The use of these two product categories can only be supervised by the pharmacist. The patient’s medication is fully matched at expedition at the pharmacy only (Rx, OTC, other products) so the pharmacy service presented in the project plays an essential role in the assessment and resolution of drug-related problems. It is supported by a large number of DRPs that have been identified and classified in this project based on a drug-related problem classification system that has been used for the first time in Hungary. In addition to the reasons mentioned above, the overload of general practitioner services can also contribute. Among the DRP categories, there is a high amount of non-quantitative safety problems in all patient groups, which are mainly drug-drug or drug-other product interactions. The latter is also influenced by the patient’s involvement in the ACEI-NSAID group. However, we cannot talk about such a factor in the VKA group. This phenomenon is due to the uncontrolled use of the vast amounts of prescription and OTC medicines mentioned earlier and the other medicines are taken by 4 out of 10 patients. The problem may be solved by pharmacists who have resolved the situation in our research with education, medication replacement (especially OTC-OTC drug switching) and by sending the patient to the GP. In the case of interactions, “stop medication” has hardly occurred, and pharmacists seem to be hesitant to take this step, as they think that the physician is the one who competent to make this decision. Another major problem is the Non-quantitative ineffectiveness of the medication of a quarter of patients due primarily to their deliberate or unintended non-adherence.

Non-adherence is a widespread problem with chronic diseases for example in the case of conditions treated with ACE inhibitor and vitamin K antagonist. The pharmacist can help by detecting the problem and education. It is also important to mention that every tenth ACEI-NSAID patient is suffering from an untreated health problem. The research has shown that in many cases the pharmacist has noticed such a health problem, which has been solved by drug recommendation and by sending the patient to the GP. Based on these results, a medication review in the framework of basic pharmaceutical care can be a solution beyond the problems mentioned above in preventing the risks of self-medication.

In the case of medication review, it is also necessary to address the issue of competency conflict between the pharmacist and the general practitioner. By looking at the pharmacists’ interventions to resolve drug-related problems, we can see that 59.7% of the problems have been solved by the pharmacist without the involvement of a physician, primarily through education and the exchange of a patient’s drug with an OTC drug. The pharmacist in his/her own solved only about 5–6% of the cases by recommending a new drug or stopping a therapy, while the changing of frequency and dosage were as rare as possible without consultation with the physician. Pharmacists sent patients more to the physician without indicating the problem being diagnosed to them. Pharmacists preferred to send patients to doctors without consulting the GP, suggesting low levels of co-operation between two professions and pharmacists’ fears of doctors. Analyzing the effect of certain population factors on drug-related problems, it can be stated that among the examined factors, the number of DRPs is only influenced by the geographical location of the pharmacies. This, assuming that patients seek indirectly the pharmacy closest to their home first, refers indirectly to the influence of the type of residential township. Based on the results, it is assumed that a more extensive settlement poses a higher risk for patients, due to the less personal physician-patient and pharmacist-patient relationship, the more likely to be accessed by more accessible medical services. So the development of a regular pharmacist-patient relationship is of the utmost importance in this area.

Based on the results of the 540 patients surveyed in the 61 Hungarian pharmacies we can conclude that patients are struggling with many drug-related problems that can be assessed and categorized by this system and which remain unrecognizable without pharmacists. To achieve this, further projects need to be developed to assist in the development of physician-pharmacist cooperation and the widespread dissemination of pharmaceutical care. Our results provide a reasonable basis for the widespread use of medication review. In the future, it would be worthwhile extending the study to other patient groups, such as elderly patients with polypharmacy.

Abbreviations

Patients taking ACE inhibitor and NSAID simultaneously

• Drug-related problem

Patients taking vitamin K antagonist

Allemann SS, van Mil JW, Botermann L, Berger K, Griese N, Hersberger KE. Pharmaceutical care: the PCNE definition 2013. Int J Clin Pharm. 2014;36(3):544–55.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Cipolle RJ, Strand LM, Morley PC. Pharmaceutical care practice: the patient-centered approach to medication management. 3rd ed. McGraw Hill Professional; 2012.

Google Scholar  

Clyne W, Blenkinsopp A, Seal R. A guide to medication review 2008. 2008. http://www.cff.org.br/userfiles/52%20-%20CLYNE%20W%20A%20guide%20to%20medication%20review%202008.pdf . Accessed: 15.11. 2018.

Geurts MM, Talsma J, Brouwers JR, de Gier JJ. Medication review and reconciliation with cooperation between pharmacist and general practitioner and the benefit for the patient: a systematic review. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2012;74(1):16–33.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Kwint HF, Bermingham L, Faber A, Gussekloo J, Bouvy ML. The relationship between the extent of collaboration of general practitioners and pharmacists and the implementation of recommendations arising from medication review: a systematic review. Drugs Aging. 2013;30(2):91–102.

Christensen M, Lundh A. Medication review in hospitalised patients to reduce morbidity and mortality. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(2).

Roth MT, Ivey JL, Esserman DA, Crisp G, Kurz J, Weinberger M. Individualized medication assessment and planning: optimizing medication use in older adults in the primary care setting. Pharmacotherapy. 2013;33(8):787–97.

Leendertse AJ, de Koning GH, Goudswaard AN, Belitser SV, Verhoef M, de Gier HJ, et al. Preventing hospital admissions by reviewing medication (PHARM) in primary care: an open controlled study in an elderly population. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2013;38(5):379–87.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Lenaghan E, Holland R, Brooks A. Home-based medication review in a high risk elderly population in primary care--the POLYMED randomised controlled trial. Age Ageing. 2007;36(3):292–7.

Frank C, Weir E. Deprescribing for older patients. Cmaj. 2014;186(18):1369–76.

Hurmuz MZM, Janus SIM, van Manen JG. Changes in medicine prescription following a medication review in older high-risk patients with polypharmacy. Int J Clin Pharm. 2018;40(2):480–7.

Mudge A, Radnedge K, Kasper K, Mullins R, Adsett J, Rofail S, et al. Effects of a pilot multidisciplinary clinic for frequent attending elderly patients on deprescribing. Aust Health Rev. 2016;40(1):86–91.

Cooper JA, Cadogan CA, Patterson SM, Kerse N, Bradley MC, Ryan C, et al. Interventions to improve the appropriate use of polypharmacy in older people: a Cochrane systematic review. BMJ Open. 2015;5(12).

Vinks TH, Egberts TC, de Lange TM, de Koning FH. Pharmacist-based medication review reduces potential drug-related problems in the elderly: the SMOG controlled trial. Drugs Aging. 2009;26(2):123–33.

Messerli M, Blozik E, Vriends N, Hersberger KE. Impact of a community pharmacist-led medication review on medicines use in patients on polypharmacy - a prospective randomised controlled trial. BMC Health Serv Res. 2016;16(1):145.

Lenander C, Bondesson Å, Viberg N, Beckman A, Midlöv P. Effects of medication reviews on use of potentially inappropriate medications in elderly patients; a cross-sectional study in Swedish primary care. BMC Health Serv Res. 2018;18(1):616.

Chua SS, Kok LC, Yusof FAM, Tang GH, Lee SWH, Efendie B, et al. Pharmaceutical care issues identified by pharmacists in patients with diabetes, hypertension or hyperlipidaemia in primary care settings. BMC Health Serv Res. 2012;12(1):388.

Ensing HT, Koster ES, Dubero DJ, van Dooren AA, Bouvy ML. Collaboration between hospital and community pharmacists to address drug-related problems: the HomeCoMe-program: Res Social Adm Pharm; 2018.

Geurts MM, Stewart RE, Brouwers JR, de Graeff PA, de Gier JJ. Patient beliefs about medicines and quality of life after a clinical medication review and follow-up by a pharmaceutical care plan: a study in elderly polypharmacy patients with a cardiovascular disorder. J Pharm Health Serv Res. 2015;6(4):171–6.

Article   Google Scholar  

Jodar-Sanchez F, Malet-Larrea A, Martin JJ, Garcia-Mochon L, Lopez Del Amo MP, Martinez-Martinez F, et al. Cost-utility analysis of a medication review with follow-up service for older adults with polypharmacy in community pharmacies in Spain: the conSIGUE program. Pharmacoeconomics. 2015;33(6):599–610.

Cd C. Tercer Consenso de Granada sobre problemas relacionados con medicamentos (PRM) y resultados negativos asociados a la medicación (RNM). Ars Pharmaceutica. 2007;48(1):5–7.

Basger BJ, Moles RJ, Chen TF. Application of drug-related problem (DRP) classification systems: a review of the literature. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2014;70(7):799–815.

Kwint HF, Faber A, Gussekloo J, Bouvy ML. The contribution of patient interviews to the identification of drug-related problems in home medication review. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2012;37(6):674–80.

Gooch K, Culleton BF, Manns BJ, Zhang J, Alfonso H, Tonelli M, et al. NSAID use and progression of chronic kidney disease. Am J Med. 2007;120(3):1–7.

Page RL 2nd, O'Bryant CL, Cheng D, Dow TJ, Ky B, Stein CM, et al. Drugs that may cause or exacerbate heart failure: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2016;134(6):32–69.

Hungarian National Committee of pharmaceutical care. Metabolic syndrome pharmaceutical care Programme. 2009.

National Health Development Institute's primary care directorate. http://www.egeszseg.hu/szakmai_oldalak/oldal/szervezeti-egysegek,alapellatasi-igazgatosag/alapellatasi-igazgatosag-feladata/ . Accessed: 22.11. 2018.

Regulation no 44/2004 MoHSFA on the ordering and issuing of medicinal products for human use. Sect. 22/A-C (2004).

Ministry of Human Capacities. A profession directive on medication review in the framework of basic pharmaceutical care. Egészségügyi Közlöny. 2013. http://hbcs.hu/uploads/jogszabaly/1529/fajlok/gyogyszerbiztonsagi_ellenorzes.pdf . Accessed: 22.11. 2018.

Act XLVII of 1997 on the management and protection of health data and related personal data, XLVII. Sect. 14/A (1997).

Regulation No 41/2007 Ministry for Health on the operation, Service and registration of public, branch, manual and institute pharmacies. Sect. 36/A (2007).

Act CLIV of 1997 on Health, CLIV Sect 15 (1997).

Jiron M, Herrada L, Rojas A, Lueiza A, Vega E, Buckel E, et al. Prevalence of potentially inappropriate medication prescribing among older adults in emergency Department in Chile, vol. 24; 2015. p. 102.

Download references

Acknowledgements

Thanks for all the pharmacist, pharmacy, general practitioner and patient involved in the project.

No funding was obtained for this study.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to our privacy policy but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

University Pharmacy Department of Pharmacy Administration, Semmelweis University, Hungary; 7-9 Hőgyes Endre street, Budapest, H-1092, Hungary

András Szilvay, Orsolya Somogyi, Attiláné Meskó, Romána Zelkó & Balázs Hankó

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

ASz co-ordinated the collection of data, planned the processing of the data and performed their processing. ASz wrote the first manuscript. OS and BH created the research plan, OS managed the conduct of the research and co-ordinated pharmacists involved. AM did the statistical analyzes. RZ co-ordinated the publication process OS, RZ, and BH contributed to the discussion and reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Balázs Hankó .

Ethics declarations

Consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Szilvay, A., Somogyi, O., Meskó, A. et al. Qualitative and quantitative research of medication review and drug-related problems in Hungarian community pharmacies: a pilot study. BMC Health Serv Res 19 , 282 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-019-4114-1

Download citation

Received : 23 November 2018

Accepted : 22 April 2019

Published : 03 May 2019

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-019-4114-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Pharmaceutical care
• Community pharmacy
• Vitamin K antagonist
• ACE inhibitor

BMC Health Services Research

ISSN: 1472-6963

• General enquiries: [email protected]

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Real-world application of a quantitative systems pharmacology (qsp) model to predict potassium concentrations from electronic health records: a pilot case towards prescribing monitoring of spironolactone.

1. Introduction

3. discussion, 4. materials and methods, 4.1. ehr data management, 4.1.1. data sources and study population, 4.1.2. data preparation of real-world ehr for modeling and simulation, 4.2. parameter exploration via shiny app, 4.2.1. fundamental qsp model, 4.2.2. shiny app, 4.3. parameter sensitivity analysis, 4.3.1. local sensitivity analysis (sa) and identifiability analysis (ia), 4.3.2. global sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis, 4.4. parameter (variability) estimation, 4.5. bayesian parameter estimation to predict potassium concentrations, 4.5.1. estimation setting of a (qsp) prescribing monitoring, 4.5.2. performance assessment, 4.6. software, supplementary materials, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

Click here to enlarge figure

• Helmlinger, G.; Sokolov, V.; Peskov, K.; Hallow, K.M.; Kosinsky, Y.; Voronova, V.; Chu, L.; Yakovleva, T.; Azarov, I.; Kaschek, D.; et al. Quantitative Systems Pharmacology: An Exemplar Model-Building Workflow with Applications in Cardiovascular, Metabolic, and Oncology Drug Development. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol. 2019 , 8 , 380–395. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Musante, C.J.; Ramanujan, S.; Schmidt, B.J.; Ghobrial, O.G.; Lu, J.; Heatherington, A.C. Quantitative Systems Pharmacology: A Case for Disease Models. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2017 , 101 , 24–27. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Visser, S.A.; de Alwis, D.P.; Kerbusch, T.; Stone, J.A.; Allerheiligen, S.R. Implementation of quantitative and systems pharmacology in large pharma. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol. 2014 , 3 , e142. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cucurull-Sanchez, L. An industry perspective on current QSP trends in drug development. J. Pharmacokinet. Pharmacodyn. 2024, in press. [ CrossRef ]
• Lasiter, L.; Tymejczyk, O.; Garrett-Mayer, E.; Baxi, S.; Belli, A.J.; Boyd, M.; Christian, J.B.; Cohen, A.B.; Espirito, J.L.; Hansen, E.; et al. Real-world Overall Survival Using Oncology Electronic Health Record Data: Friends of Cancer Research Pilot. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2022 , 111 , 444–454. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Purpura, C.A.; Garry, E.M.; Honig, N.; Case, A.; Rassen, J.A. The Role of Real-World Evidence in FDA-Approved New Drug and Biologics License Applications. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2022 , 111 , 135–144. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dagenais, S.; Russo, L.; Madsen, A.; Webster, J.; Becnel, L. Use of Real-World Evidence to Drive Drug Development Strategy and Inform Clinical Trial Design. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2022 , 111 , 77–89. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Israni, R.; Betts, K.A.; Mu, F.; Davis, J.; Wang, J.; Anzalone, D.; Uwaifo, G.I.; Szerlip, H.; Fonseca, V.; Wu, E. Determinants of Hyperkalemia Progression Among Patients with Mild Hyperkalemia. Adv. Ther. 2021 , 38 , 5596–5608. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eschmann, E.; Beeler, P.E.; Schneemann, M.; Blaser, J. Developing strategies for predicting hyperkalemia in potassium-increasing drug-drug interactions. J. Am. Med. Inf. Assoc. 2017 , 24 , 60–66. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Beeler, P.E.; Eschmann, E.; Schneemann, M.; Blaser, J. Negligible impact of highly patient-specific decision support for potassium-increasing drug-drug interactions—A cluster-randomised controlled trial. Swiss Med. Wkly. 2019 , 149 , w20035. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Braakman, S.; Pathmanathan, P.; Moore, H. Evaluation framework for systems models. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol. 2022 , 11 , 264–289. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Cucurull-Sanchez, L.; Chappell, M.J.; Chelliah, V.; Amy Cheung, S.Y.; Derks, G.; Penney, M.; Phipps, A.; Malik-Sheriff, R.S.; Timmis, J.; Tindall, M.J.; et al. Best Practices to Maximize the Use and Reuse of Quantitative and Systems Pharmacology Models: Recommendations from the United Kingdom Quantitative and Systems Pharmacology Network. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol. 2019 , 8 , 259–272. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Bittmann, J.A.; Scherkl, C.; Meid, A.D.; Haefeli, W.E.; Seidling, H.M. Event Analysis for Automated Estimation of Absent and Persistent Medication Alerts: Novel Methodology. JMIR Med. Inf. 2024 , 12 , e54428. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Maddah, E.; Hallow, K.M. A quantitative systems pharmacology model of plasma potassium regulation by the kidney and aldosterone. J. Pharmacokinet. Pharmacodyn. 2022 , 49 , 471–486. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Gardiner, P.; Schrode, K.; Quinlan, D.; Martin, B.K.; Boreham, D.R.; Rogers, M.S.; Stubbs, K.; Smith, M.; Karim, A. Spironolactone metabolism: Steady-state serum levels of the sulfur-containing metabolites. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1989 , 29 , 342–347. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• McInnes, G.T.; Perkins, R.M.; Shelton, J.R.; Harrison, I.R. Spironolactone dose-response relationships in healthy subjects. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1982 , 13 , 513–518. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pérez-Blanco, J.S.; Lanao, J.M. Model-Informed Precision Dosing (MIPD). Pharmaceutics 2022 , 14 , 2731. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Darwich, A.S.; Polasek, T.M.; Aronson, J.K.; Ogungbenro, K.; Wright, D.F.B.; Achour, B.; Reny, J.L.; Daali, Y.; Eiermann, B.; Cook, J.; et al. Model-Informed Precision Dosing: Background, Requirements, Validation, Implementation, and Forward Trajectory of Individualizing Drug Therapy. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2021 , 61 , 225–245. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Keizer, R.J.; Ter Heine, R.; Frymoyer, A.; Lesko, L.J.; Mangat, R.; Goswami, S. Model-Informed Precision Dosing at the Bedside: Scientific Challenges and Opportunities. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol. 2018 , 7 , 785–787. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ramos, C.I.; González-Ortiz, A.; Espinosa-Cuevas, A.; Avesani, C.M.; Carrero, J.J.; Cuppari, L. Does dietary potassium intake associate with hyperkalemia in patients with chronic kidney disease? Nephrol. Dial. Transpl. 2021 , 36 , 2049–2057. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Connell, J.M.; Davies, E. The new biology of aldosterone. J. Endocrinol. 2005 , 186 , 1–20. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• He, F.J.; Markandu, N.D.; Sagnella, G.A.; de Wardener, H.E.; MacGregor, G.A. Plasma sodium: Ignored and underestimated. Hypertension 2005 , 45 , 98–102. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• MacKenzie, S.M.; van Kralingen, J.C.; Davies, E. Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion. Vitam. Horm. 2019 , 109 , 241–263. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wang, K.; Parrott, N.; Olivares-Morales, A.; Dudal, S.; Singer, T.; Lavé, T.; Ribba, B. Real-World Data and Physiologically-Based Mechanistic Models for Precision Medicine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2020 , 107 , 694–696. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Brun, R.; Reichert, P. Practical identifiability analysis of large environmental simulation models. Water Resour. Res. 2001 , 37 , 1015–1030. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Saltelli, A.; Tarantola, S.; Chan, K.P.S. A Quantitative Model-Independent Method for Global Sensitivity Analysis of Model Output. Technometrics 1999 , 41 , 39–56. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hsieh, N.H.; Reisfeld, B.; Chiu, W.A. pksensi: An R package to apply global sensitivity analysis in physiologically based kinetic modeling. SoftwareX 2020 , 12 , 100609. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Faelens, R.; Luyckx, N.; Kuypers, D.; Bouillon, T.; Annaert, P. Predicting model-informed precision dosing: A test-case in tacrolimus dose adaptation for kidney transplant recipients. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol. 2022 , 11 , 348–361. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Krieger, A.; Pistikopoulos, E.N. Model predictive control of anesthesia under uncertainty. Comput. Chem. Eng. 2014 , 71 , 699–707. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Saeheng, T.; Na-Bangchang, K.; Karbwang, J. Utility of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling in oncology drug development and its accuracy: A systematic review. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2018 , 74 , 1365–1376. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, W.; Hallow, K.M.; James, D.A. A Tutorial on RxODE: Simulating Differential Equation Pharmacometric Models in R. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol. 2016 , 5 , 3–10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Soetaert, K.; Petzoldt, T.; Setzer, R.W. Solving Differential Equations in R: Package deSolve. J. Stat. Softw. 2010 , 33 , 9. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Leven, C.; Coste, A.; Mané, C. Free and Open-Source Posologyr Software for Bayesian Dose Individualization: An Extensive Validation on Simulated Data. Pharmaceutics 2022 , 14 , 442. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Friedrich, C.M. A model qualification method for mechanistic physiological QSP models to support model-informed drug development. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol. 2016 , 5 , 43–53. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Gadkar, K.; Kirouac, D.C.; Mager, D.E.; van der Graaf, P.H.; Ramanujan, S. A Six-Stage Workflow for Robust Application of Systems Pharmacology. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol. 2016 , 5 , 235–249. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sher, A.; Niederer, S.A.; Mirams, G.R.; Kirpichnikova, A.; Allen, R.; Pathmanathan, P.; Gavaghan, D.J.; van der Graaf, P.H.; Noble, D. A Quantitative Systems Pharmacology Perspective on the Importance of Parameter Identifiability. Bull. Math. Biol. 2022 , 84 , 39. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Soetaert, K.; Petzoldt, T. Inverse Modelling, Sensitivity and Monte Carlo Analysis in R Using Package FME. J. Stat. Softw. 2010 , 33 , 3. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hsieh, N.H.; Reisfeld, B.; Bois, F.Y.; Chiu, W.A. Applying a Global Sensitivity Analysis Workflow to Improve the Computational Efficiencies in Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling. Front. Pharmacol. 2018 , 9 , 588. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhang, X.Y.; Trame, M.N.; Lesko, L.J.; Schmidt, S. Sobol Sensitivity Analysis: A Tool to Guide the Development and Evaluation of Systems Pharmacology Models. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol. 2015 , 4 , 69–79. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Omlin, M.; Reichert, P.; Forster, R. Biogeochemical model of Lake Zürich: Model equations and results. Ecol. Model. 2001 , 141 , 77–103. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Elixhauser, A.; Steiner, C.; Harris, D.R.; Coffey, R.M. Comorbidity measures for use with administrative data. Med. Care 1998 , 36 , 8–27. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Lee, T.C.; Shah, N.U.; Haack, A.; Baxter, S.L. Clinical Implementation of Predictive Models Embedded within Electronic Health Record Systems: A Systematic Review. Informatics 2020 , 7 , 25. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]

Share and Cite

Meid, A.D.; Scherkl, C.; Metzner, M.; Czock, D.; Seidling, H.M. Real-World Application of a Quantitative Systems Pharmacology (QSP) Model to Predict Potassium Concentrations from Electronic Health Records: A Pilot Case towards Prescribing Monitoring of Spironolactone. Pharmaceuticals 2024 , 17 , 1041. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17081041

Meid AD, Scherkl C, Metzner M, Czock D, Seidling HM. Real-World Application of a Quantitative Systems Pharmacology (QSP) Model to Predict Potassium Concentrations from Electronic Health Records: A Pilot Case towards Prescribing Monitoring of Spironolactone. Pharmaceuticals . 2024; 17(8):1041. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17081041

Meid, Andreas D., Camilo Scherkl, Michael Metzner, David Czock, and Hanna M. Seidling. 2024. "Real-World Application of a Quantitative Systems Pharmacology (QSP) Model to Predict Potassium Concentrations from Electronic Health Records: A Pilot Case towards Prescribing Monitoring of Spironolactone" Pharmaceuticals 17, no. 8: 1041. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17081041

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, supplementary material.

ZIP-Document (ZIP, 8476 KiB)

Further Information

Mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

An official website of the United States government

Here’s how you know

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

Research Topics

The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) is the largest supporter of the world’s research on substance use and addiction. Part of the National Institutes of Health, NIDA conducts and supports biomedical research to advance the science on substance use and addiction and improve individual and public health. Look below for more information on drug use, health, and NIDA’s research efforts.

Information provided by NIDA is not a substitute for professional medical care.

In an emergency? Need treatment?

In an emergency:.

• Are you or someone you know experiencing severe symptoms or in immediate danger? Please seek immediate medical attention by calling 9-1-1 or visiting an Emergency Department . Poison control can be reached at 1-800-222-1222 or www.poison.org .
• Are you or someone you know experiencing a substance use and/or mental health crisis or any other kind of emotional distress? Please call or text 988 or chat www.988lifeline.org to reach the 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline. 988 connects you with a trained crisis counselor who can help.

FIND TREATMENT:

• For referrals to substance use and mental health treatment programs, call the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration (SAMHSA) National Helpline at 1-800-662-HELP (4357) or visit www.FindTreatment.gov to find a qualified healthcare provider in your area.
• For other personal medical advice, please speak to a qualified health professional. Find more health resources on USA.gov .

DISCLAIMER:

The emergency and referral resources listed above are available to individuals located in the United States and are not operated by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). NIDA is a biomedical research organization and does not provide personalized medical advice, treatment, counseling, or legal consultation. Information provided by NIDA is not a substitute for professional medical care or legal consultation.

Research by Substance

Find evidence-based information on specific drugs and substance use disorders.

• Cannabis (Marijuana)
• Commonly Used Drugs Charts
• Emerging Drug Trends
• Methamphetamine
• MDMA (Ecstasy/Molly)
• Over-the-Counter Medicines
• Prescription Medicines
• Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms)
• Psychedelic and Dissociative Drugs
• Psychedelic and Dissociative Drugs as Medicines
• Steroids (Anabolic)
• Synthetic Cannabinoids (K2/Spice)
• Synthetic Cathinones (Bath Salts)
• Tobacco/Nicotine and Vaping

Drug Use and Addiction

Learn how science has deepened our understanding of drug use and its impact on individual and public health.

• Addiction Science
• Comorbidity
• Drug Checking
• Drug Testing
• Drugged Driving
• Drugs and the Brain
• Harm Reduction
• Infographics
• Mental Health
• Monitoring the Future
• National Drug Early Warning System (NDEWS)
• Overdose Death Rates
• Overdose Prevention Centers
• Overdose Reversal Medications
• Stigma and Discrimination
• Syringe Services Programs
• Trauma and Stress
• Trends and Statistics
• Words Matter: Preferred Language for Talking About Addiction

People and Places

NIDA research supports people affected by substance use and addiction throughout the lifespan and across communities.

• The Adolescent Brain and Substance Use
• College-Age and Young Adults
• Criminal Justice
• Global Health
• LGBTQI+ People and Substance Use
• Military Life and Substance Use
• National Drug and Alcohol Facts Week Organizers and Participants
• Older Adults
• Parents and Educators
• Pregnancy and Early Childhood
• Sex, Gender, and Drug Use

Related Resources

• Learn more about Overdose Prevention from the Department of Health and Human Services.
• Learn more about substance use treatment, prevention, recovery support, and related services from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration .
• Learn more about the health effects of alcohol and alcohol use disorder from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism .
• Learn more the approval and regulation of prescription medicines from the Food and Drug Administration .
• Learn more about efforts to measure, prevent, and address public health impacts of substance use from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention .
• Learn more about controlled substance law and regulation enforcement from the Drug Enforcement Administration .
• Learn more about policies impacting substance use from the Office of National Drug Control Policy .

• Animal Rights Research Topics
• Color Blindness Topics Topics: 49
• Gender Inequality Topics Topics: 75
• Homelessness Topics Topics: 151 Research Questions
• Gender Equality Research Topics Topics: 77
• Domestic Violence Topics Topics: 160
• Social Inequality Research Topics Topics: 77
• Drug Abuse Research Topics Topics: 141
• Black Lives Matter Research Topics Topics: 112
• Social Problems Paper Topics Topics: 157
• Gender Stereotypes Paper Topics Topics: 94
• Animal Ethics Paper Topics
• Animal Testing Topics Topics: 111
• Animal Cruelty Essay Topics Topics: 107
• Animal Abuse Topics Topics: 97

429 Drugs Essay Topics & Research Questions + Examples

Are you looking for a good drugs research title? You’re at the right place! StudyCorgi has prepared a list of engaging drug essay topics and questions for your project, discussion, debate, and other assignments.

💊 TOP 7 Drug Presentation Topics

🏆 best essay topics on drugs, ❓ research questions about drugs, 👍 good drugs research topics & essay examples, ✏️ topics about drugs for argumentative essay, 🌶️ hot drug topics to write about, ✍️ war on drugs essay topics, 🎓 most interesting research topics about drugs, 📌 easy drugs essay topics, 📝 engaging drug essay examples, 💡 simple drug titles for essays, 🔎 current research topics on drugs.

• Impacts of Drugs on the Society
• Drug Addiction: Advantages and Disadvantages
• Drug Abuse among Teenagers Causes and Effects
• Drug and Alcohol Abuse among Young People
• Ethical and Legal Implications of Prescribing Drugs
• Adolescent Drug Abuse, Their Awareness and Prevention
• The Consequences of Drug Abuse
• Causes and Effects of Drug Addiction Drug abuse entails constant and excessive usage of drugs to create feelings of happiness and blot out reality despite its well-known harmful effects.
• Drug Abuse and Theories Explaining It This paper aims to examine several theories explaining drug addiction. The theories for analysis are biological, psychological, and sociological.
• Teenage Drug Addiction Problem The modern world is full of diverse activities and hobbies that can have both positive and negative effects. This essay aims at discussing the phenomenon of teenage drug addiction.
• Shoppers Drug Mart: History, Founder, SWOT Analysis This paper aims to provide a full review of Shoppers Drug Mart’s internal and external operations. The author examines the history of the company and its founder, Murray Koffler.
• Alcohol, Tobacco, and Illegal Drugs: Use Consequences Although tobacco, alcohol, and drugs cause severe physical and mental health problems and spoil a person’s social life, the image created for them contributes to harm devaluation.
• Case Study of Drug Addiction The case study provides a platform for evaluating treatment priorities and agencies crucial for the full recovery of substance abuse patients.
• Drug Abuse and Its Effects on Families Because of the lack of control that a substance abuse patient has over their actions, families of the people that develop chemical dependency are under constant threat.
• Social Problems Related to Alcohol and Drugs The present paper will explain the content of three articles relating to the issue of Alcohol and drug use while also providing a personal reflection on the readings.
• Effects of Drug Use on Society Every society encounters a variety of problems that it needs to address, and one of the most common is drug use among the population.
• Canadians’ Reaction to Alcohol as a Newly-Invented Illicit Drug The possible reaction of Canadians to alcohol, if it was a newly-invented illicit drug, will differ depending on their personal characteristics and external circumstances.
• Drug Addiction and Best Treatment Practices This paper will determine the role of treatment in the recovery process and analyze the best evidence-based practices.
• Overcoming the Drug Abuse Addiction The use of narcotic drugs brings irreparable harm to health and diminishes the quality of life. Opioid abuse is a predominant problem that continues to be a concern.
• How Drugs Influence the Crimes This essay discusses five major questions about ‘Drug and Crimes’, namely, what is the extent to which the drug subculture influences criminal behavior?, etc.
• The Use of Performance-Enhancing Drugs The information herein identifies particular risk factors that expose the global community to the objectionable concerns linked with the goods.
• Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM) Assays Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) refers to the measurement of chemical or biochemical parameters in the lab to inform drug prescribing procedures.
• Criminal Justice System: Drugs and Crime The main objective of the criminal justice system is ensuring delivery of justice for all. It mainly concentrates in detection of crime.
• Drug Legalization from the Utilitarian Perspective The focus of the paper will be mainly on marijuana use, and such utilitarian principles as the principle of utility and the felicific calculus will be primarily applied.
• Shoppers Drug Mart Company’s Retail Networks The paper presents the analysis of business concept applications on the example of the Shoppers Drug Mart company. It suggests ways to maintain the market share of retail networks.
• Drug Misuse and Its Effects on Children Health and body functioning are negatively affected, and the condition may manifest itself in drug dependence or an array of other harmful and problematic behaviors.
• Drugs and Social Life in Iceland The nature of drug use in Iceland can be described as experimental — young people see something new in them and decide to try it out.
• Classification of Legal and Illegal Drugs The classification of drugs as either legal or illegal provides a baseline foundation for the effect on victims and the attribute of addiction.
• Drug Use and Heroin Addiction: Informative Speech The illegality of drugs makes it impossible to research the actual numbers of people using drugs and situations making these persons initiate drug abuse and harm their health.
• Pharmaceutical Industry: Drug Development Drug development is a lengthy process but rightly so since the result should be playing a curative role and not disease inducer.
• Apis Mellifica as a Homeopathic Drug for Headaches Homeopathy is one of the systems of alternative medicine. The paper investigates the effectiveness of using a homeopathic drug to address headaches.
• Drug Addiction among Nurses The United States of America has one of the best healthcare systems in the world. Drug abuse among nurses is a serious problem that threatens the quality care that is offered.
• Monopoly Drugs Versus Generic Drugs When a pharmaceutical company creates a new drug it may apply for and be granted a patent that is a legal protection that shelters an invention from being used, copied, or traded without permission.
• The Crisis of Drug Addiction This essay will focus on the crisis of drug addiction in general. It will also include some factors that lead to drug abuse. The paper will cover the dynamics of drug addiction in the USA.
• Leadership in Drug Abuse Program Development Within the context of a potential intervention for drug abuse, the roles and competencies of leaders are the primary emphasis of this paper.
• Drug Abuse and Its Impact on Creativity The boosting effect of drugs on creativity is a myth because changes in thinking are a brain reaction to a narcotic that is temporary yet severe.
• Drugs: Myths and Misconceptions Starting from the very beginning of the twentieth century and ending even today, drugs as a topic have been surrounded by a mass of myths and misconceptions.
• Causes and Consequences of Alcohol and Drug Addiction Drug addiction is a psychological and physical disorder that affects the brain of an individual. It is caused by dependence on drugs, alcohol, and specific behaviors.
• Mandatory Drug Tests for Nursing Students Nursing schools have therefore tried to address this issue and one of the most commonly used tools is the mandatory drug test.
• Drug Addiction in America: Effects and Solutions The problem of illegal drug use is a major health issue in the United States, it affects thousands of people, the specified concern must be handled on the level of state policies.
• Drug Abuse Relation to the Violent Behavior Various groups of drugs greatly vary and relate to violence in different ways. Any person with heavy drug habits may act negatively and involve in violent acts punishable by law.
• The Link Between Drug Abuse and Corruption This paper discusses that drug abuse and corruption deserve attention. It introduces causes and reasons for drug abuse and corruption.
• “Should Drugs Be Legalized?” by William Bennett The war against drugs in the United States has reached a new level. Such an outcome is conditional upon the recent measures that politicians are discussing.
• Performance Enhancing Drugs Legalization in Sports The question that was going to be answered through various arguments in this paper was whether these drugs should be legalized.
• The Influence of Drugs and Alcohol on Date Rape While drugs can affect mental health and make the victim forget everything, the perpetrators indulge in alcohol abuse to escape the blame and deny non-consensual sex.
• Cause and Effect of Drug Addiction As a result of drug misuse, there are changes in the functioning of neurological pathways in the human brain, with the associated physical; and mental health deterioration.
• The Drug Trafficking as Organized Crime Drug trafficking is among the recently organized crimes, and it has a direct influence on the economy as it earns a lot of money.
• How Can Illegal Drugs Be Prevented From Entering Prison?
• Can Economic Aid Make a Difference in the Flow of Drugs?
• Are Novel Drugs Riskier for Patients Than Less Novel Drugs?
• Can the Drugs Problem Be Tackled Primarily Through Legal Enforcement?
• Do Drugs Are Barriers to Our Future?
• Are Anabolic Steroids Really Pernicious Deleterious Drugs?
• How Can Kids Best Be Convinced Not for Do Drugs?
• Have Newer Cardiovascular Drugs Reduced Hospitalization?
• Are Illegal Drugs Inferior Goods in the U.S.?
• How Dangerous Are Drugs?
• Are Psychotherapeutic Drugs Overprescribed for Treating Mental Illness?
• How Dangerous Are Drugs and What Can We Do About the Drug Problem?
• Are Drugs Taking Away the Excitement in Sports?
• How Antidepressant Drugs Work Effect Us?
• Does Medicaid Pay Too Much for Prescription Drugs?
• Are Drugs More Detrimental to Educational Attainment?
• Are Diet Drugs Are Safe for People?
• Can Pharmacogenomics Improve Drugs Safely?
• Does Price Reveal Poor-Quality Drugs?
• How Are Biosimilar Drugs More Extensive Than Those of Generic?
• Are Illegal Drugs Inferior Goods?
• Does Previous Marijuana Use Increase the Use of Other Drugs?
• How Are Drugs and Alcohol Affecting the Teenagers?
• Are Any Drugs Derived From the Ocean Presently Approved?
• Are the More Educated More Likely to Use New Drugs?
• Does Coffee Contain Drugs?
• Has the Time Come to Legalize Drugs?
• How Cost-Effective Are New Cancer Drugs in the U.S.?
• Are Adolescents With Abusive Parents at a Greater Risk of Abusing Drugs?
• Can Production and Trafficking of Illicit Drugs Be Reduced?
• The Practice of Nursing Research: Drug Round Tabards The study has several implications for hospitals and nurses involved in medication distribution. It demonstrates that the implementation of drug round tabards is worth attention.
• Social Factors of Substance Drug Abuse Substance abuse refers to the pattern of continued use, despite adverse consequences. Socio determinants of substance abuse imply social factors that affect the outcome of drugs.
• The Effects of Drugs on a Man’s Reproductive System In this article, the author examines the reasons why drug and alcohol abuse negatively affects the reproductive health of men.
• Drug Trade. “Crack” Book by David Farber The purpose of the book “Crack” by David Farber is to study what influenced the development of the drug trade industry and how this process took place.
• Juvenile Drug Abuse Problems Analysis This essay describes the problem of juvenile drug use and applies the relevant delinquency theory. Additionally, the interventions or programs to fix the issue will be highlighted.
• Drug Addiction: The Problem of Xanax Abuse and Its Consequences Xanax as a drug can be very addictive and difficult to stop and it is very important for anyone using the drug to be cautious and follow the instructions that are provided.
• The Phenomenon of The Use of Prescription Drugs The need to have a prescription before the drugs are acquired is usually applied in order to prevent illegal distribution, and effective use of such medicine.
• Adderall Drug’s Impact on Cognitive Performance By exploring the effects of Adderall on cognitive performance, this research will contribute to an understanding of how this drug affects the brain and behavior.
• Drug Addiction: A Disease or a Choice? Drug addiction remains a serious health concern for contemporary society. The problem of whether drug addiction can be viewed as a disease or a choice remains topical.
• Drug Misuse, Abuse, and Their Factors Addiction is a recurrent, chronic disorder characterized by compulsive substance seeking and use despite harmful consequences.
• Victimless Crimes: Drug Abuse and Sex Work This work’s primary objective is to research and analyze victimless crimes, namely drug abuse and sex work, from the viewpoint of criminology.
• Drug Dependency: Construction of a Rehabilitation Center Creating a program that would act as a foundation to help drug addicts recover from drug usage would help lessen drug dependency.
• Drugs and Substance Abuse in College: Effects and Treatments The paper will give a review of a treatment approach to drug abuse and describe the effects of substance abuse on a person who is in college.
• Drugs and Alcohol Influence on Drivers Excessive amounts of alcohol and drugs deprive the driver of conscious control over the vehicle, leading to catastrophic consequences.
• Drug Abuse in Homeless Community The number of homeless people is continuously increasing, creating a severe threat to a country’s general well-being.
• Health Issue Analysis: Prescription Drug Abuse Prescription drug abuse is a rapidly growing epidemic that spreads worldwide. Various national and international health organizations research this field.
• War on Drugs: Fighting the Way We Are Not Likely to Win The spread of drugs is showing a steady growth trend; its adverse consequences are very multifaceted both for the drug addicts themselves and for the society in which they exist.
• Miami Drug Wars of the 70s and 80s Drug use is a subject that has raised controversies for decades. This paper focuses on the drug wars in Miami outlining their social, political, and economic impacts.
• Drug Dealing on College Campuses Regardless of the attention given to the issue, the effects of drugs on students are always understated. It is typical because the entire scope of the problem is rarely understood.
• Alcohol and Drug Abuse in the Workplace Alcohol and drug abuse is one of the major causes of accidents in the workplace. Random alcohol and drug tests would discourage employees of organization from abusing alcohol or drugs.
• Criminalizing Drug Usage: Effects and Consequences This paper critically examines the views that criminalization of drug use leads to greater social problems and harms individuals.
• Drugs and Drug Related Crimes Obviously the current strategy of the government isn’t working and it is backfiring. The government needs to do something new.
• Drug Enforcement and War on Drugs “War on Drugs” has both positive and negative impact on criminal justice, creating certain stereotypes and putting pressure on the law enforcement agencies.
• Psychotherapy and Counseling for Drug Abuse Treatment Drugs are the biggest vice of humanity, along with the mental and moral deviations, horrible diseases of modern times, social neglect and abuse it causes and goes along with.
• Mechanism of Action and Clinical Application of Antiviral Drugs Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome was first reported in 1981 by the Centers for Disease Control, with the identification of the HIV-1 as the causative agent.
• Drug Interactions Prevention in Nursing Guidelines The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention developed new guidelines to dictate how and when medications should be provided.
• Computerized Entry of Drug Prescribing Order The core of CPOE lies in the idea that it can replace recipes that are written manually with electronic orders. This approach involves reducing text recognition errors.
• Drug’s, Poverty’s and Beauty’s Effects on Health Some serious health outcomes emanate from frequent consumption of drugs, poverty, and a stringent adherence to the global trends of beauty.
• Drug Criminalization: Causes and Effects A comparison of the points made by opponents and proponents of drug decriminalization shows the differences between their overviews of the causes of drug crimes.
• The Business Ethics Workshop: Sex and Drugs at Work Employees should not sleep with their bosses to get promotions and pay raises because it does not conform to honesty and fairness.
• Drug and Prostitution Issues in the Local Community The present scenario concerns a patrol officer assigned to a truck stop near a major highway encountering crime and disorder problems.
• The History of Drug Addiction and Control The paper states that drug initiation can be considered a system of relations between the adolescent, family, drug culture, and society.
• What Are the Costs of Drug Addiction to Society? The essay will explore the overwhelming economic and social costs of drug addiction to society and outline how can confront and reduce the costs of drug addiction.
• The Drug Legalization Debate: A Complex Issue With Compelling Arguments Numerous social issues and concerns require close attention from the American government, including the problem of drug legalization.
• The Aspects of the Drug Use and Media The paper states that it is true when the media portrays drug and alcohol use in a glamorous light or when characters do not experience negative consequences.
• Drug Abuse in Pregnant Women: Effective Ways to Combat Several policies have been proposed to tackle the problem, namely financial support for therapy, voluntary sterilization, and criminal persecution.
• Monitoring Analysis of Drug Courts: The Value of Drug Courts The value of drug courts is expressed in their positive impact on drug-related crime statistics in the first years after completion of a drug treatment program.
• Solutions to Drug Misuse in the United States Drug abuse is a major cause of concern in the United States, with a consequential impact on people’s health and societal psychosocial and socioeconomic problems.
• Drug Abuse and Alcohol-Related Crimes in Adolescents The current paper focuses on the topic of drug abuse and alcohol-related crimes among teenagers, showing that substances remain the most notable factor in juvenile crime.
• The Issue of Misuse of Prescription Drugs The paper discusses the growing problem of prescription drug abuse in the United States, its consequences such as addiction and overdose, and possible solutions.
• The legalization of recreational marijuana: pros and cons.
• Should drug users be criminalized or treated?
• Are drug companies liable for the opioid crisis?
• Are safe injection sites effective in preventing drug overdoses?
• The gateway drug theory: reality or a myth?
• Are mandatory minimum sentences for drug offenses justified?
• The impact of zero tolerance drug policies in schools.
• The therapeutic potential of psychedelic substances.
• Why is drug testing essential in the workplace?
• Should drug education programs be mandatory in schools?
• Drug Abuse During Pregnancy: Policy Options Heated discussions on whether or not drug abuse during pregnancy should be illegal due to the potential risks to the developing fetus or child persist.
• Disclosure and Nondisclosure in Drugs Prescription The case focuses on the ethical and legal implications of prescribing new medication currently in the development stage for a child under the age of 12.
• Illegal Drug Use in Nurses: Discussion There are reasons why nurses are at risk of developing a drug addiction, which means that there is a high chance for practitioners to work with nurses who illegally use drugs.
• Drugs and Violence Go Hand in Hand From the point of view of American researchers, substance abuse increases the chances of subjects being drawn into conflict relationships.
• Alcohol in the Drugs and Behavior Context It is no secret that alcohol and human health are incompatible things. The most significant influence of alcohol falls on the cerebral cortex.
• Alcohol and Drug Foundation’s Public Relations The campaign conducted by Alcohol and Drug Foundation is a vivid example of how the theories and practices of PR can help alter people’s behavior.
• Illegal Drugs: Types and Influences Illegal drugs include substances that affect the body and the brain of a person. They are divided into several groups, depending on the method of use and the impact on the brain.
• Wellbutrin and Lexapro: Drugs Affecting Neurotransmitters Wellbutrin and Lexapro are effective drugs in the fight against depressive disorder. However, the drugs are addictive.
• Drugs and Behavior: History of Alcohol in America The ordinary colonial American drank roughly twice as much alcohol in 1770 as it does today—about three and a half gallons annually.
• Incretin Mimetic Drugs for Type 2 Diabetes In patients with type 2 diabetes, there is a significant decrease in the incretin effect and a decrease in insulin secretion in response to an oral load.
• Drug Addiction: The Brain Disease Drug addiction acts similarly to neurological diseases. Substances directly affected the brain, with addiction being the most acute phase of substance use disorder.
• Random Drug Testing at the Workplace Employees in law enforcement, public health and safety, and national security should all be subjected to random drug testing.
• Drug Errors: Enhancing Care Quality and Safety Though numerous new technologies have been developed to improve healthcare delivery, drug errors continue to be an issue in the United States.
• Drug Repurposing in Cancer Treatment This article examines the concept of drug repurposing in the context of pharmaceutical companies’ innovation policy: the methods and economic feasibility of repurposing drugs.
• Ethics of Using Experimental Drugs It is necessary to examine whether terminal patients have a moral right to the experimental treatment and suggest possible outcomes for this type of cure.
• Public Policies Related to Drug Addiction Public policies related to drug addiction need to be enforced in a compassionate manner that pays attention to the unique needs of American society.
• Economic Evaluation: Prevention of Suicide and Drug Overdose The economic evaluation of the provided scenario was conducted in four dimensions: cost-of-illness, programmatic, benefit-cost, and cost-effectiveness analyses.
• The War on Drugs in the United States The United States government’s combat with substance abuse is called the “War on Drugs,” addressing the campaign initiated by President Nixon.
• Zero Discrimination for People Who Use Drugs From all of the above, it follows that HIV-infected prisoners should have the same access to timely and high-quality medical care as the population.
• The Drug Abuse Problem in Indiana Drug usage is one of Indiana’s most serious societal problems, affecting the state’s health, economy, behavioral, and criminal elements.
• The Effect of an Antimicrobial Drug on Gene Expression This paper critically evaluates methods and techniques that can be used to assess the effect of an antimicrobial drug on global gene expression.
• Drug Addiction as Moral Failure The paper shows that drug abuse cannot be viewed as a moral failure. Kuhar’s scientific examinations made him come to that conclusion.
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases Transmission Involving Drug Use Preventive techniques need to target drug addicts and sex workers to combat the STD epidemic and offer interventions to reduce risky sexual behaviors and drug use.
• Psychotropic Drugs Usage, Effects, Consequences Numerous aspects determine the effectiveness of drug therapy with psychotropic medication, for example, the appropriateness of the choice of pills for the disease.
• The Problems of Drug Misuse and Abuse and Their Management This research aims to determine the best ways to prescript drugs, the importance of drug interactions, and the potential dangers of drug abuse.
• The Anti-Drug Programs in Boston The history of drug abuse across the US has been a challenge for decades. There were various anti-drug programs introduced in Boston to curb the spread of its use in the city.
• Drug Prescription Issues and Abuse This paper aims to determine the best ways to prescript drugs, the importance of drug interactions, and the potential dangers of drug abuse.
• History of Drug Use in Incarceration The history of drug use in prisons go beyond 2008 with some documents indicating a steady rise in drug use between 1980 and 2008.
• Rohypnol and Illegal Drugs in Clinical Trials The current paper discusses Rohypnol. It is a generic drug known as flunitrazepam which contains lorazepam, diazepam, and alprazolam.
• Media Misinformation About Drug Use The United States is one of the countries with the strictest policies, rules, and regulations against the peddling and abuse of illicit drugs.
• A Spontaneous Reporting System for Drug Safety Surveillance Post-marketing in clinical trials uses a spontaneous reporting system for drug safety surveillance where potential AEs induced by the drugs are detected.
• Drug Abuse Demographics in Prisons Drug abuse, including alcohol, is a big problem for the people contained in prisons, both in the United States and worldwide.
• Drug-Resistant Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Strains As with any other infectious disease, TB exhibits specific signs and symptoms that help distinguish it from other illnesses.
• Correlation of HIV, AIDS in White Males Who Are Injection Drug Users The testable hypothesis for this work states that socioeconomic status is correlated with HIV/AIDS in white males who are injection drug users.
• Assessment and Therapeutic Approaches for Drug Addiction Clients The paper uses various drug addiction assessment methods to examine the severity, give clinicians insight into the problem and assist in psychotherapy.
• COVID-19 Epidemic and Alcohol and Drug Addiction The sudden life changes during the COVID-19 epidemic make it difficult for people who suffer from alcohol and drug dependence to fight their addictions.
• High-Level Drug Trafficking in Australia Media articles explain the problem of narcotics trafficking across the Australian border. Australia is an effective participant in international drug trafficking organizations.
• Drug Addiction and Stigmatization The horrifying nature of stigmatization is one of the perplexing factors of drug addiction, so society should understand the role of mental and physical help for such people.
• Drug Addiction: Analysis of Goeders and Guerin Research Goeders & Guerin (1994) point out that anxiety and stress may be involved in drug use and increased risk of dependency, as these are involved in the etiology of cocaine use.
• COVID-19 and Drugs at Schools as Public Health Issues This paper discusses two articles on community and public health issues, specifically, concerning COVID vaccination and drugs at schools.
• The war on drugs: the causes of its failures.
• The impact of the war on drugs on minorities.
• The link between the war on drugs and mass incarceration.
• Alternatives to the war on drugs.
• The war on drugs and human rights violations.
• The economic costs of the war on drugs.
• The effects of the war on drugs on drug prices and availability.
• The impact of drug prohibition on drug use patterns.
• The influence of the war on drugs on drug-producing countries.
• Unintended adverse effects of the war on drugs.
• Drugs for Neglected Disease Initiative There is a significant unmet need for the treatment of many neglected diseases, as well as for patient groups impacted by these.
• Negative Effects of Drugs on Voice The essay explores the influence of drug intake on the singer’s voice and illustrate the importance of the topic for the singer’s vocal cords maintenance.
• Drug Abuse at the Workplace and a Policy to Address It In this proposal, a policy to address worker substance abuse and addiction, will be discussed, with both its major goals and potential benefits being outlines.
• Drug and Substance Abuse: Sociological Causes and Explanations It is normal to think that drug and substance abuse affects only consumers. However, it also affects various aspects of society.
• Drug Legalization: Arguments For and Against Some people would say that the U.S. should stop the war on drugs because this war caused enormous imprisonment of small-time drug dealers.
• Act Liability for Price-Fixing of Generic Drugs The United States Department of Justice reported that Apotex Corporation, among other drug manufacturers, paid over $400 to settle violations of the False Claims Act.
• The Emergence of Drug-Resistant Pathogens The drug-resistant pathogens phenomenon has endangered the efficacy of drugs such as antibiotics which have helped transform modern medicine and saved countless lives.
• Non-Performance Enhancing Drugs in Sports The use of drugs is prohibited in professional sports. As for the drugs that do not improve performance, they also require control.
• Forensic Drug Analysis Course: Reflection The most interesting part of the course is the study of various techniques for the analysis of substances and their impact on forensic research.
• The Adverse Consequences of Substance Use Tool and the Psychoactive Drug History The patient is a 25-years old White male, homosexual, currently single. He has a medical history of having a severe case of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis, clinical depression.
• Vaccine and Antiviral Drug Supply and Distribution Problem Once the cause of the vaccine and antiviral drugs supply and distribution problem is established, it becomes possible to offer a solution.
• Drug Addiction Treatment & Benchmark Program Drug addiction is an illness that has no easy cure but instead requires in-depth research to take into account various therapy factors.
• The Mexican Drug War and “Queen of the South” The purpose of this paper is to explore how the Mexican drug war and cartels and their influences on Hispanic culture are reflected in this Netflix series.
• Improving Drug Administration in Healthcare Facility The improvement plan consists of consecutive steps to be followed by a medical facility to ensure drug administration safety.
• Decriminalizing the Simple Possession of Illegal Drugs The decriminalization of illicit drugs has been mentioned as one of the most effective ways of dealing with the crisis in America.
• National Association for Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Counselors This paper will consider the fourth principle of the organization’s ethical code, which reads: “Working in a culturally diverse world.”
• Law Enforcement of Drug Business on the Demand Side Law enforcement of the drug business on the demand side would not be an effective method of reducing the market.
• Evaluating Harm Reduction Program for Drug Users The target population of this quantitative study includes substance users with a focus on drug addicts. Harm reduction program addresses the needs of drug addicts who seek help.
• Effects of the War on Drugs on Latinos in the US and the Role of Stereotypes Analysis of the effects of the war on drugs in the US on the Latino community, including the link to mass incarceration and the role of stereotypes in the anti-drugs efforts.
• Drug Cartels in Mexico: Definition, Background, Mexican War on Drugs Mexican drug cartels, as one of the most powerful and well-known internationally, present the primary focus of interest in the research paper.
• The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Globalization The paper explains why the FDA has created a global strategy for fulfilling its mission and what are the costs and benefits to society of a more globalized food market.
• Six Stages of Change: Treatment Approaches for Drug Addiction Recovery from addiction leads to lifestyle change. Individuals whose loved ones undergo the recovery process may feel long when they have doubtful expectations.
• Types of Drugs and Types of Domestic Abuse Correlation Understanding that the consumption of particular drugs causes physical changes is essential in ascertaining the probability of a specific type of domestic violence.
• Drug Production During Crisis: The Case of COVID-19 The essay argues that the US healthcare system is not suited to properly address crises as COVID-19 has illustrated.
• High U.S. Drug Prices: Health Policy Log This paper presents a health policy log on why are U.S. drug prices so high, including a brief summary of the topic discussed, and an analysis of the health policy issue.
• Why Adolescents Take Drugs: Human Development Delinquent and irresponsible behaviors such as substance abuse, violence, and unsafe safe practices produce serious social and health implications.
• Prescription Drug Abuse Problem Providing access to prescription drugs is among the key tasks that the modern healthcare system should fulfill to increase recovery rates.
• The Influence of Drugs and Social Media Limitless online resources are used to search for helpful information and to harass, torment anonymously, or provoke others.
• War on Drugs: Causes and Problems Ever since a declaration on the war on drugs was made a few decades ago, arguments have not been far off. Top on the list of these disputes has been the issue of drug legalization.
• Drug War in Border Cities: Causes and Consequences This paper examines three topics: the situation in border cities, the consequences of drug wars, and the question of whether legalization can solve the problem.
• Consumption of Illicit Drugs in the United States Tackling the drug problem in America requires a two-pronged strategy that focuses on the demand and supply side of the problem.
• Court Decisions on Drug Offenders The research entails an investigation into the variables that influence the sentencing decisions of judges in drug offenders’ cases.
• Drug Testing in Pharmacology The aim of this paper is to analyze and review drug tests within the population of third-world countries and define whether these trials are ethical.
• Drug Use and Addiction Correlations One individual may misuse substances and never develop an addiction, but another may have one encounter and become immediately addicted to that drug.
• Analysis of Drug Classification The article argues drug reactions depend considerably on patients and administration methods, that’s why employees must know the basics of drug classification.
• Support for the Legalization of the Drug Consumption The appropriate use of drugs is everyone’s responsibility, and whether legalized or illegalized by the government may not reduce its abuse.
• Drug and Alcohol Addiction Treatment Program Successful addiction treatment is comprised of three aspects, constructing the addiction treatment: body, mind, and soul.
• Drug Addiction: A Choice or a Medical Disease? This article examines two opposing points of view on the problem of drug addiction – does a person have a choice to be a drug addict or is drug addiction a medical disease?
• Analysis of Drugs in American Society by E. Goode According to Goode, a number of scholars state that abuse is the use of drugs without a related medical prescription.
• Male Health Drugs:Overview and Effects Adverse effects of androgenic drugs could be observed in livers in the form of blood-filled spaces known as peliosis of the liver.
• Alcohol and Other Drug Use Among the Aboriginal and Torres Islander People
• The Problem of Legalizing Drugs
• Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986: Crack vs. Cocaine Sentencing Disparity
• The Effect of Prohibition Alcohol and Drug Use
• Escalating Drug Prices: Solution to the Problem
• How Liquid Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry is Used in Drug Screening
• Random Drug Testing: Pros and Cons
• Drugs in the Modern Sports
• Patient Rights to Experimental Drugs
• Drug Issues in Watertown, New York
• Racism, Racial Profiling and Bias in the War on Drugs
• Children Insecurity in the Context of Mother’s Drug Misuse
• Variables That Impact Sentencing Decision of Judges in Drug Offender Cases
• The Effectiveness of Drugs in Medicine
• Doctors’ Knowledge on Drug Prescription
• Drug Trafficking and Terrorism in the Middle East
• Drugs and Crime Committed Under the Influence
• Combating the Local Drug Distribution in Missouri
• Colombian and Mexican Drug Cartels and Their Impact in the U.S.
• Prescription Drug Abuse as a Community Health Issue
• Crime Trends: Drug Abuse in Adults and Juveniles
• Substance Abuse: Alcohol and Drugs in the Movie “Ray”
• Trade and Usage Control: Drug Enforcement Administration
• “Addicts Who Survived” by David Courtwright: American Addiction to Narcotics Problem and Anti-drug Policies
• The Interrelationship Among a Bacterial Pathogen and Antimicrobial Drugs
• Should All or Certain Drugs Be Legalized?
• Drug Release: Ethical Dilemma in Pharmaceutics
• Drug Abuse in Correction Facilities
• Distribution of Fake Drugs: Analysis of a Criminal Case
• An Overview of Drug Addiction
• Medication Safety and Drug Therapy Process
• Reducing the Number of Adverse Drug Events Among Older Adults: An Action Plan
• A Study of Drug Allergy, Iron Poisoning and Abnormal Bone Mineral Metabolism
• Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act Amendment
• The Role of Forensics in the War on Drugs
• Schizophrenia Treatment With Approved Drug
• Drugs and Crime Description: Federal Drug Statutes
• Patients Receiving Antipsychotic Drugs: Neuroleptic Syndrome
• Reducing Adverse Drug Events Among Older Adults
• The U.S. Drug Prices Assessment
• Drug Abuse in the United States’ Social Context
• The Drug Courts: The Question of Drug Abuse
• Judicial Process in Drug Offender Cases: Research Design
• Drugs for Treating Schizophrenia and Mood Disorders
• The Importation of Drugs into the United States
• Drug Courts and Criminal Courts Compared
• Regulation of Drug Compounding
• Community Health: Prescription Drug Abuse
• The Concept of the “War on Drugs”
• Two Acts on Drug Law Comparison
• Quality Patient Care: Drug Errors and Nurses
• Drug Addiction: Elimination of Incarcerations
• Juveniles and Drugs in the US
• Carl Hart’s Talk on Racism, Poverty, and Drugs
• The Control the Availability of Illicit Drugs
• “Addicts Who Survived” by David Courtwright: Crucial Work on Drug Addiction
• Why Government Needs Drug Control Policy?
• Pharmacogenomics Impact on Individual Drug Effectiveness
• Drug Use and Biological Development in Adolescents
• Reality in Drug Addiction Research: Ethnography
• The Drug Abuse in the U.S. Navy: The Problem Analysis
• The High Cost of Specialty Drugs
• Overmedication of Children With Psychotropic Drugs
• Misguided Perception of Drug Addiction
• Drug Testing Problem Reflection
• International Drug Policy in Russia and the US
• OxyContin as a Legitimate Drug and a Drug of Abuse
• Drug Abuse Factors: Substance Use Disorder
• Prescription Drug Cost Transparency
• Effects of Drugs on the State of Consciousness
• Response to a Journal Article on Drug Control Policy
• A Right to Experimental Drugs
• Ilaris(R)-Drug Usage in U.S. and Australia
• Legalization of Marijuana and Other Illegal Drugs
• The Problem of Increased Morbidity From Adverse Drug Events in Older Adults
• Drug Abuse and Addiction: Risk Factors
• Bacterial Cells and Chemotherapeutic Drugs
• Research Drug Safety Approaches
• Detention of a Minor While Using Drugs
• The Relations Between Drug Abuse and Criminal Justice
• Cocaine as a Drug Chosen for Medical Research
• Drug and Alcohol Abuse in Organizations
• Specialty Drugs Costs and Insurance
• Legalization of Marijuana: The Pros and Cons of the Drug
• Drug Abuse: Impaired American Society
• The Issue of Drug Abuse in the Community of Kinsburg
• Caffeine and Performance of Drugs in Adolescents
• Support Services and the Case Review: Drug and Alcohol Addiction
• Health Reform Bill on Drugs in the United States
• The Theme of Drug Abuse in Egan’s Book
• Research Design for a New Drug That Reduces Appetite
• Arguments For and Against Allowing Drug Use in Sports
• Drugs in Perspective: Models of Addiction
• The Money Factor in Drug and Alcohol Treatment
• The Problem of Prescription Drug Abuse in the United States
• Performance Enhancing Drugs and the Student Athletes
• Clandestine Drug Laboratory Dangers
• Drug Use, Dealing and Violence
• Global Trends Affecting a Local Drug and Alcohol Rehab Centers
• Drugs to Wipe Out Traumatic Memories
• Mexican Drug Cartels: A Transnational Threat
• Information Technology and Mexican Drug Cartels
• The Relationship Between Drugs and Addiction to Crime
• Investigating the Issue of Drug Trafficking Through the Points
• Profession of US Drug Enforcement Agent
• Random Drug Test on College Athletes
• Drugs and Society Violent Crime: Public Drunkenness
• Opioid Drug Regulation: Legislative Letter
• American Prohibition and the War Against Drugs
• Drug Abuse and Drug Addiction and Various Policies Related to Drugs
• Drug Abuse and Crime Correlation
• Mandatory Job Drug Test Should Be Allowed
• Physical Privacy and Drug Testing
• Sports Violations: Drug Use in Baseball
• Anti-Drugs, Alcohol and Tobacco Education Programs
• Food and Drug Administration History
• “Blood for Sale” and “Drug Dilemmas”: Articles Reviews
• Legalizing Drugs, an Irrational and Harmful Choice
• Drug Abuse Among Teenagers
• Pharmacology: Drug Licensing Opportunity
• Mifepristone Drug: To Approve or to Disapprove?
• Criminal Justice Ethics: Police Corruption & Drug Sales
• Prescribed Drugs With Complementary and Alternative Medicines
• Current Sources of Evidence-Based Standards and Guidelines for Prescribing Psychiatric Drugs
• Drug Addiction Is a Chronic Disease
• Drug Theme in “Sonny’s Blues” by James Baldwin
• Drug Trafficking: Investigation on Frank Lucas
• Law: Drug Treatment and Testing Orders
• Drug Use in the Workplace: The Case of Acme-Antiroadrunner Inc.
• Violence in the 20th-Century Latin America: Colombian Drug Wars, Dictatorship in Chile, and Undiscovered Personal Tragedies
• Drug Abuse Case: Jenny G
• Nurse Misconduct and Drug Diversion as Legal Issue
• E-Prescribing Drug Technology in the Healthcare
• Computerized Provider Order Entry Against Drug Errors
• Drug Prescription Policy Analysis
• Prescription Drug Misuse in Elderly Patients
• Improper Drug Administration as a Nursing Practice Issue
• Food and Drug Administration – Regulatory Agency
• Fear Appeal in Anti-Drug Abuse Public Campaign
• Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking Offenders
• Soderbergh’s Traffic and the U.S. War on Drugs
• Public Policy Meeting: Prescription Drug Supply and Cost
• Mandatory Drug Testing for Welfare Recipients
• Health Policy: 340B Drug Pricing Program
• Brain Gain: The Underground World of Neuroenhancing Drugs
• War on Drugs Through a Socio-Political Framework
• Drug-Dealing Organizations in Latin American Politics
• Drugs and Society: Drug Use and Its Impact on Culture and Society
• Random Drug Testing in Schools
• Psychoactive Drugs, Society, and Human Behaviour
• Black Theology and Its Impact on Drug Addiction
• Drug and Alcohol Abuse Treatment Effectiveness
• Drug Trafficking Reduction in the United States
• Undercover Police Investigations in Drug-Related Crimes
• “Adolescent Alcoholism and Drug Addiction” by Choate
• Behind the War on Drugs
• Drug Test on Welfare Recipients
• Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Aspirin
• Drug Abuse Treatment in Nursing
• Pramlintide as Anti-Diabetic Drug
• Antiseizure Medications and Antipsychotic Drugs
• Eli Lilly and Company: Drug Firm Analysis
• The Drug Enforcement Administration Business Model
• Addressing the Growing Cost of the Prescription Drugs
• Nurse Practitioner as a Drug Prescriber
• Pharmacy and Policy: Inappropriate Prescription of Drugs
• Shoppers Drug Mart Corporation’s Retail and Services
• Teenage Drug and Substance Abuse
• Drug Abuse Among Homeless People in Miami
• The Problem of Drug Use and Heroin Addiction in US
• Using Free and Secure Trade to Smuggle Drugs
• Food and Drug Administration Fast-Track Approval
• Healthcare Financing and Drug Addiction
• Ethics of Abortion and Over-the-Counter Drugs
• Drug Therapy: Nicotine Interference with Contraceptives
• Drugs Comparison: Montelukast, Flovent and Albuterol
• Prescription Drug Use in the United States
• Drug Safety Approach in Advanced Nursing Practice
• Drug Abuse, HIV/AIDS, and Songs on Social Issues
• Drug War Failure and Associated Problems
• Adverse Drug Events: Evidence-Based Project
• Miami-Dade Community Needs: Alcohol and Drug Addiction
• Can Hospitals Manufacture Drugs in the US?
• Prescription Drugs Prices and Services in Florida
• Female Drug Abuser’s Recovery Care Plan
• Nonmedical Use of Drugs and Negative Sexual Events
• The War on Drugs and the Corrections System
• Drug Dependency and Behavioral Addictions
• Drug-Drug and Food-Drug Interactions
• Casinos: Occupational Safety and Drug-Free Workplace
• Drug Safety Approach in Administration and Nursing
• Adverse Drug Events and Nurses’ Awareness
• Drug War’s Impact on the US Correction System
• American Drug War and Its Ineffectiveness
• How Mexico Drug Cartels Are Supporting Conflicts?
• Sentencing Policies on Drug Offences
• Drug Dealing Reasons in East Harlem, New York City
• Drug Courts Policy and Its Evaluation
• Drugs and Jazz in James Baldwin’s “Sonny’s Blues”
• American Great Wall to Reduce the Number of Illegal Immigrants and Illegal Drugs
• Analysis of Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis: Characteristics, Treatment and Prevention
• Illicit Drug Use Among American Youths
• Minimizing Prescription Drug Abuse in Oklahoma
• Performance Enhancing Drugs and Professional Sport
• Sociology: Prevention of Alcohol and Drug Problem
• Crisis of Chemical Dependence: Drug Abuse
• Drugs and Prison Overcrowding

This article has covered:

Cite this post

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 429 Drugs Essay Topics & Research Questions + Examples. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/drugs-essay-topics/

"429 Drugs Essay Topics & Research Questions + Examples." StudyCorgi , 9 Sept. 2021, studycorgi.com/ideas/drugs-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2021) '429 Drugs Essay Topics & Research Questions + Examples'. 9 September.

1. StudyCorgi . "429 Drugs Essay Topics & Research Questions + Examples." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/drugs-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "429 Drugs Essay Topics & Research Questions + Examples." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/drugs-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "429 Drugs Essay Topics & Research Questions + Examples." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/drugs-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Drugs were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 21, 2024 .

Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.

We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.

Brief introduction to this section that descibes Open Access especially from an IntechOpen perspective

Want to get in touch? Contact our London head office or media team here

Our team is growing all the time, so we’re always on the lookout for smart people who want to help us reshape the world of scientific publishing.

Home > Books > Substance Use Disorder - New Research Perspectives in the Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prognosis

Quantitative Assessment Methods for the Severity of Drug Dependences and Corresponding Rehabilitation Programs

Submitted: 18 May 2022 Reviewed: 26 May 2022 Published: 30 June 2022

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.105582

Cite this chapter

There are two ways to cite this chapter:

From the Edited Volume

Substance Use Disorder - New Research Perspectives in the Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prognosis

Edited by Patricia Sampedro-Piquero, Román Darío Moreno Fernández and Clara Zancada-Menéndez

To purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India: CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd. www.cbspd.com | [email protected]

Chapter metrics overview

257 Chapter Downloads

Impact of this chapter

Total Chapter Downloads on intechopen.com

Total Chapter Views on intechopen.com

Drug use is a worldwide issue, and how to treat it is even a greater challenge. It is important for drug dependences to receive interventions and treatments in time. Before receiving treatments, an effective screening or diagnosis assessment is necessary, and patients should have an assessment to understand the severity of drug use–related disorders. For more than 40 years, the instruments to assess the severity of drug dependence have been developed well, and different quantitative methods can cover almost every field of the symptoms in different periods and stages of drug addiction. This chapter reviews more than 20 drug dependence screening and diagnosis assessments and different types of treatments. These quantitative assessments can provide drug dependences a comprehensive diagnosis of their drug use–related disorders. The treatments should be designed for different level of drug dependence.

• drug dependence
• assessments

Author Information

• Institute of Intelligent Machines, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PR China

Yu-Xiang Qian

• Anhui Vocational College of Police Officers, PR China

Zeng-Hui Ding *

Cun-feng yuan.

• Bureau of Drug Rehabilitation Administration, Ministry of Justice of the People’s Republic of China, PR China

Xian-Jun Yang

• Anhui Mental Health Center, PR China

Yi-Ning Sun

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Drug dependence has become a worldwide issue, and 31 million individuals are suffering from its negative effect [ 1 ]. Even worse, according to National Center for Health Statistics, 70,630 people were killed by drug-involved overdose in 2019 [ 2 ]. Moreover, yearly economy effect from illicit drug use is around 193 billion dollars in the United States [ 3 ]. It is important for drug dependences to receive interventions and treatments in time. Before receiving treatments, an effective screening or diagnosis assessment is necessary [ 4 ]. This review covers quantitative assessment methods for drug dependences and the corresponding treatments. It concluded more than 20 quantitative instruments that are put into three main categories, screening, severity diagnosis assessments, and treatment outcomes assessments. In addition, three different types of treatments, conventional treatments, emergency treatments, and novel treatment, are discussed.

2. Assessments

2.1 screening.

Screening instruments usually are brief and easy to conduct. They are considered as “flagging,” because it’s the fundament of further assessments or treatments [ 5 , 6 ]. The screening instruments tend to diagnose the presence of potential drug use–related disorders in specific fields, such as psychopathology, physiology, and social ability. The answers of screening questions are usually “yes” or “no.”

World Health Organization (WHO) developed The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST) to screen and manage substance use and related issues. ASSIST has eight items to detect more than nine types of substance and scored 0.58–0.90 in test-retest reliability [ 7 , 8 ]. Brown et al. proposed a two-phase assessment, A Two-item Conjoint Screen for Alcohol and Other Drug Problems (TICS) for screening alcohol and drug disorders [ 9 ]. TICS has nine questions in phase 1 and five questions in phase 2. One item’s answer is positive or negative, and the rest is never, rarely, sometimes, or often. TICS can screen around 80% drug dependences [ 9 ]. There is an approach, named Prenatal Substance Abuse Screen (5Ps), developed for prenatal females. The woman needs treatments if there is a “yes” in any of the five items. The overall accuracy of whether the woman needs treatments in 5Ps 0.776 [ 10 ].

Some screening techniques would contain more items to obtain more information. Skinner designed The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST), as a screening and treatment evaluation instrument for drug dependences [ 11 ]. It has 28 items, including background, drug use history, social stability, and psychology. The answer for each item is “yes” or “no” and scored 1 point for “yes,” 0 for “no,” except for items 4,5, and 7, for which a “no” response is given a score of “1.” The cutoff point is 6 and 12. If the score of a patient is larger than 5 or larger than 11, they will be considered to be “might” or “definitely” have drug use disorders, respectively. The reliability of DAST was 0.86–0.91 in Internal Consistency Reliability [ 11 ]. DAST-10 and DAST-20 are two shortened versions of DAST and drug use disorders can be screened faster in these two [ 12 ]. Another one is CAGE-adapted to Include Drugs (CAGE-AID) [ 13 ]. CAGE is derived from four sections: Cut down, Annoyed, Guilty, and Eye-opener. The result indicates clinical significance, if two or greater questions are “yes” [ 13 ]. CAGE-AID had general good to excellent performance in different subjects [ 14 , 15 ].

2.2 Severity diagnosis assessments

Severity diagnosis assessments are to recognize the drug use–related disorders and estimate the level of the disorders. These assessments contain multiple items and have score for each item. Usually, the higher score represents the greater level of severity. Since 1970s, scientists have been studying on the assessments to diagnose the severity of drug dependence. After 40 years, a number of addiction severity assessments have been developed. Addiction severity index (ASI) is one of the most famous ones. ASI was proposed by A. Thomas McLellan and his colleagues (1980). It is a structured clinical interview, focusing on several areas, including medical status, employment status, alcohol use, drug use, legal status, family relationships, social relationships, and psychological functioning. Higher score in ASI means the higher level of severity and greater indication of accepting treatment [ 16 ]. This instrument has been used more than 30 years and is considered as gold standard in measuring the severity of drug addiction. The reliability of ASI has been tested by different studies. For example, both McLellan et al. and Hodgins et al. claim that ASI is generally reliable, and most parts are good to excellent, in addiction severity assessment [ 17 , 18 ]. Now, ASI has developed into sixth version, ASI-6. There are also several adjusted versions of ASI, such as The Addiction Severity Index, Lite version (ASI-Lite) [ 19 ] and Addiction Severity Index self-report form (ASI-SR) [ 20 ].

Psychiatric disorders are the main concerned part in drug dependence severity assessments. Some psychological disorders assessments are directly utilized in drug dependence. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is an assessment for psychiatric disorders. The first version of DSM, DSM-1, was designed by American Psychiatric Association in 1952, and then it has been adjusted into several versions, DSM-II, DSM-III, DSM-III-R, DSM-IV, DSM-IV-TR, and DSM-5 [ 21 ]. Although DSM series were developed to measure mental disorders, they were widely used in drug disorders [ 22 ] and as a benchmark or to compare with other drug-dependent severity assessments [ 23 , 24 ]. DSM series are reliable in drug dependence severity assessments. For example, DSM-5 performed good to excellent in alcohol, opioid, cocaine, and cannabis use disorders [ 25 ]. DSM-III-R and DSM-IV had good to excellent reliability in most items in opiates, cannabis, and cocaine [ 26 ]. Composite International Diagnostic Interview Substance Abuse Module (CIDI-SAM) is derived from another famous interview psychiatric instrument CICI. CIDI-SAM can be utilized to test alcohol, tobacco, and nine classes of psychoactive drug disorders. The performance of CIDI-SAM was excellent in most target substance in the reliability test [ 23 ].

Based on DSM series, some other drug dependence scales have been developed. Substance Dependence Severity Scale (SDSS) is to test drug dependences’ mental disorders, based on DSM-IV and ICD (mental health tests), as well as drug use history, such as frequency, recency, and amount of consumption in last 30 days [ 24 ]. It has 11 items to assess the severity and frequency, scored from 0 to 49, and higher score means higher severity level. SDSS had excellent performance in most items in alcohol, cocaine, heroin, and sedatives in test-retest. Semi-structured Assessment for Drug Dependence and Alcoholism (SSADDA) and The Chemical, Use, Abuse, and Dependence Scale (CUAD) are also DSM-based instruments. SSADDA has seven criteria to test a large range of indexes, including drug use history, social activities, and physical and psychological problems. SSADDA performed excellent in nicotine and opioid dependence, good in alcohol and cocaine, and fair in cannabis, sedatives, and stimulants [ 27 ]. CUAD relies heavily on the American Psychiatric Association’s (1987) Diagnostic and DSM-III-R for substance use disorders [ 28 , 29 ]. CUAD has maximum 80 items and has Substance Severity Score for each substance they used and Total Severity Score for all substance they used. Different from assessments mentioned above, CUAD has different score weight for different items. For example, for items 16 and 17, each item scores 4 points, but 3 points for item 15, if they are true. In test-retest reliability, CUAD performed with excellence [ 29 ].

Evaluating the severity of withdrawal symptoms is as important as assessing the severity when patients are using drugs. There are a group of assessments focusing on the severity of opiate dependence in withdrawal. Severity of Opiate Dependence Questionnaire (SODQ) is a self-completion questionnaire that contains five sections for opiate dependence. It assesses opiate use, physical and affective symptoms in withdrawal, withdrawal-relief drug use, and rapidity of reinstatement of withdrawal symptoms after a period of abstinence. This assessment concerns more about the severity in withdrawal. The reliability was from 0.70 to 0.88 in Cronbach’s alpha [ 30 ]. The Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS) is an 11-item clinician-administered instrument to assess opioid withdrawal severity [ 31 ]. COWS also has different score weights on different items. The possible maximum score is 48. The score represents the level of severity, 5–12 points: “mild,” 13–24: “moderate,” 25–36: “moderately severe,” and more than 36: severe (more than 36, 33). The reliability of overall items in Cronbach’s alpha is 0.78 [ 31 ]. There are several similar withdrawal scales focusing on opiates, such as The Himmelsbach Scale, The Opiate Withdrawal Scale, Subjective Opiate Withdrawal Scale, Objective Opiate Withdrawal Scale, Short Opiate Withdrawal Scale, and The Subjective Opiate Withdrawal Questionnaire [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ]. Clinical Drug Use Scale (DUS) can assess the drug dependence severity in different stages. It is a self-report instrument with excellent reliability to scale abstinence, consumption without impairment, abuse, dependence, and dependence with institutionalization [ 37 , 38 ].

Some instruments tend to use a large number of questions to obtain detailed information from drug dependences and some tend to use a small number of items to diagnose patients’ severity as soon as possible. Similar to CUAD, 80 items, Substance Abuse Outcomes Module (SAOM) is a 113-item self-report scale. It covers patient characteristic, patient outcomes, and process of care. This assessment takes 20 minutes on average [ 39 ]. On the other hand, The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS), Leeds Dependence Questionnaire (LDQ), SDSS, Drug use disorder (DUD), and COWS have much fewer items. SDS has five items to measure the level of drug dependence, mainly focusing on psychological components [ 40 ]. (LDQ) has 10 self-completion items, which are sensitive to severity change over time in opiate and alcohol dependences [ 41 ]. In both SDS and LDQ , each of the items can be scored from 0 to 3 and higher score represents higher level of drug dependence [ 40 , 41 ]. DUD is a self-report measurement to assess drug use and dependence criteria for marijuana, cocaine, and painkiller. It tried to minimize the subjects’ bias while designing [ 42 ]. The number of items does not represent the reliability. No matter large number items assessments, CUAD and SAOM or small number items SDS, LDQ , DUD, and COWS, both had good to excellent performance in reliability test, details in Table 1 .

The list of screening and severity diagnosis assessments.

the reliability test is test-retest, if there is no indication; the coefficient is larger than 0.75, the reliability is excellent, 0.6–0.74 is good and 0.4–0.59 is fair.

one section might contain more than one item.

2.3 Treatment outcomes assessments

Evaluating drug use–related disorders during treatment is crucial and treatments can be according to this. The assessments mentioned in severity diagnosis assessments can also be utilized during treatment. However, here are some methods that have been designed for it. SAOM, The Substance Abuse Treatment Scale (SATS), Australian Treatment Outcomes Profile (ATOP), Treatment Outcomes Profile (TOP) are focusing on the treatment outcomes in drug dependences. SATS measures the treatment progress for drug dependences. SATS and TOP monitor and assess patients with eight scales and 38 items, respectively [ 43 , 44 ]. TOP covers more fields including substance use, health risk behavior, offending, and health and social functioning. In reliability test [ 45 ], SAT had excellence in test-retest [ 43 ]. Eight items of TOP reached 0.75, and eight items are below 0.6 [ 45 ]. ATOP was proposed by Australia researchers to assess alcohol or drug use and its risk profile, general health, and well-being. ATOP contains 22 items and averagely scored more than 0.7 in test-retest [ 46 ]. In test-retest, ATOP had 19 items excellent, 1 item good, and 2 poor.

Zilm and Sellers (1978) proposed a quantitative technique to assess the level of physical dependence of narcotics, with administering naloxone [ 47 ]. They gave an equation of objective severity scoring index (OSSI). However, this method has not been tested in reliability or validity, and Zilm and Sellers claim it relies on the experience of executors.

2.4 Assessments selecting

All assessments are listed in Table 1 . It concludes the target substance, number of questions, assessment approach, and reliability. The reliability is from test-retest, and the reliability coefficient below 0.40 is Poor; 0.40 to 0.59 is Fair, 0.60–0.74 is Good, and 0.75–1.00 is Excellent [ 48 ]. There are other assessments, such as Antisocial Personality Disorder, CIDI, General Health Questionnaire, Primary Care Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Screen, Health of the Nation Outcome Scales, and Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test, designed for psychological or alcoholic diagnosis and are not discussed in detail in this review.

Two main approaches of drug use disorder severity assessments are interview and self-report. In terms of reliability, there is no significant difference between interview and self-report. Several studies have proved that self-report assessments are as reliable as interview ones [ 49 , 50 , 51 ]. Compared with interview, self-report is more cost-effective and convenient, but the understanding of questions might affect the accuracy of self-report. Moreover, self-report instrument is more likely to collect honest answers and face-to-face interview might be unsuccessful to, because the questions would make the interviewees uncomfortable [ 52 ]. In interview assessments, there are two types, semi-structured and fully structured. Both of them have advantages and disadvantages. Fully structured interview does not need clinical judgment, and as a result, it does not need experienced clinicians. Semi-structured interview, in contrast, can obtain more detailed information of patients’ status, but more human cost and time cost [ 53 ].

Specific to each instrument, the reliability has been listed above, and all assessments are generally reliable. Some studies compared different assessments and found no significant difference in general, but disagreement in specific field [ 54 , 55 ]. For example, the reliabilities of SDSS for alcohol, cocaine, heroin, and sedatives were excellent, but for cannabis, it was just fair [ 24 ]. SSADDA is more sensitive to cocaine and opioid [ 27 ]. In addition, the validity of assessments may not vary between different races. Taking DSM-IV as an example, Horton et al. reported that there is no significant difference between African-Americans and Caucasians, when using this assessment [ 55 ]. Taken together, when screening instruments or severity assessments were selected, factors, including genders, different stages of drug use or withdrawal, reliability in different drugs, time, human resource and economic cost, and the condition of patients, should be considered. It is important to choose one or more assessments, based on patients’ conditions to get accurate results.

3. Treatments

The treatments for drug dependence can be classified into three categories, conventional treatments (non-emergency), emergency (overdose) treatments, and novel treatments. Psychosocial interventions and medication managing are the most common techniques in conventional treatments. Patients need pharmacological intervention to reverse death when they are in overdose. In addition, physical activities, brain stimulation, virtual reality (VR), and mindfulness are considered as novel treatments for drug dependence. The drug dependences may need a combined treatment to make the therapeutic process more effective.

3.1 Conventional treatments

WHO and The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime gave the standards of the treatments for drug use disorders (Standards). In order to screen out unqualified (ineffective, even harmful) treatments, Standards required the treatments of drug disorders to meet: (1) stopping or dropping drug use; (2) improving health, well-being, and social functioning of the affected individuals; (3) preventing future harms by reducing the risk of complications and relapse [ 4 ]. According to Standards, the traditional treatments can be categorized into psychosocial interventions, medication managing treatments and overdose or emergency treatments.

3.1.1 Psychosocial interventions

Psychosocial interventions are to address psychological and psychosocial issues related to drug use disorders. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) helps patients identify self-defeating thoughts and behaviors. It can contribute to address mental illnesses caused or related to drug use [ 4 , 56 ]. Previous studies provided data-based evidence to support the effectiveness of CBT in drug dependence [ 57 , 58 , 59 ]. Contingency management (CM) is to reinforce patients’ positive behaviors, such as keeping abstinence, treatment attendance, and compliance with medication, by providing them rewards. Different from other treatments, the effect of CM may be not directly shown in drug use reduction, but shown in combined treatments [ 4 , 60 ].

Moreover, building connection with other individuals and obtaining supports from others are crucial in psychological therapy. Family-orientated treatment approaches (FOTAs) are to realize the importance of family relationships and cultures. FOTA has been proved that it can be an effective and promising method for drug use disorders [ 61 ]. Mutual-help groups (MHP) are frequently used in drug rehabilitation centers, and there are famous drug-focused mutual-help groups, such as Narcotics Anonymous and Cocaine Anonymous. Twelve-step oriented MHP is a nonprofessional, mental support, emphasizing “sharing” and peer-led treatment [ 4 , 62 ]. Evidence from different types of studies, meta-analysis, randomized controlled trials, and observational studies illustrated the effects of MHP, including reducing drug use, improving mental health, and decreasing relapse rate [ 63 , 64 , 65 ]. There are also some other psychosocial interventions, such as contingency management, the community reinforcement approach, and motivational interviewing and motivational enhancement therapy.

3.1.2 Medication managing treatments

Medication managing, also called substitution therapy, is useful and effective in managing and treating drug-related disorders. Pharmacological techniques treat drug disorders, usually through agonist approaches, antagonist approaches, targeting negative reinforcement of drugs, and targeting psychiatric and cognitive disorders [ 66 ]. Different drugs have different targeted medicines. For opioid dependence, WHO suggests two main pharmacological treatments: (1) opioid agonist maintenance treatment with long-acting opioids (extended-release opioids), methadone and buprenorphine, this method should be combined with psychosocial treatments; (2) detoxification, with naltrexone, an opioid antagonist [ 67 ]. Some other synthetic oral opioids such as L-alpha-acetyl-methadol and slow-release morphine are also considered as effective agents for opioids withdrawal [ 68 ]. Long-acting benzodiazepine is a helpful medicine for sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal. In addition, for methamphetamine and cocaine withdrawal, Provigil and immunotherapies would be the most useful agents, respectively [ 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 ]. These medicines will reduce withdrawal symptoms and reduce drug use, rather than being an alternative addiction for another [ 72 ].

3.1.3 Conventional treatments selecting

The conventional treatments do not have a specific program for patients in different levels of severity. Taking cocaine dependence as example, Hser et al. claim that different treatments, including outpatient methadone maintenance, outpatient drug-free, long-term residential and short-term inpatient, did not have significant difference on different severity of cocaine [ 73 ]. In general, a combined treatment is more effective. Drug-free treatments are more suitable for less severe drug dependence, and high level of drug dependence is challenge for any treatments.

Different groups may need different treatments. For pregnant women, almost all pharmacological treatments, except methadone, are unavailable, and stimulants and cannabis substitution drug is very limited, even nonexistent [ 74 , 75 ]. Psychosocial intervention might be a better method [ 75 ]. Moreover, the treatments should be changed based on different ages. Treatment Improvement Protocol suggests that the elderly with drug addiction should accept age-specific treatments and combined pharmacological and psychosocial treatment is necessary. Building and rebuilding of self-esteem and social support network are important [ 76 ]. Adolescents with drug addiction may confront worse psychiatric comorbidity, and this issue is more common in family having alcohol and drug problems and mental health problems [ 77 , 78 ]. Family dysfunction and mental health problems are more common and worse in girls, compared with boys [ 79 , 80 ]. Therefore, the treatments for adolescents may focus more on psychiatric issues, and solving family issues would benefit the treatment outcomes, especially for female adolescents.

Treatments also need to consider about ethical issues. A large proportion of dependences are not willing to accept or seek treatments [ 45 , 81 ]. Compulsory drug treatment is not legal in some nations, and how to convince drug dependences to receive treatments is a challenge. Johnson intervention, which is an organized and rehearsed meeting to let the drug dependence understand the treatment benefits and nontreatment risks, can be a choice [ 82 ]. In addition, patients should choose the treatments they prefer. For example, according to Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study, cocaine dependent did not like methadone maintenance. Patients who have used but are not dependent on heroin and cocaine like drug-free treatments more. Heroin dependence, or cocaine and heroin dependence, tends to be treated in methadone maintenance program [ 73 ].

3.2 Overdose or emergency treatments

Opioids and stimulants overdose can cause irreversible damage, even death. Opioid dependences are more likely to experience overdose, especially using it by injection [ 4 ]. WHO suggests that naloxone, a life-saving drug, can be timely administrated to reserve the opioid overdose [ 83 ]. For stimulants overdose, WHO recommends using benzodiazepines and sometimes antipsychotic medications to manage syndromes and ameliorate symptoms [ 4 ]. Gorelick claim that pharmacokinetic, which is to maintain the target drug under its minimum effective concentration at the site of action, treatment can be effective for acute drug overdose [ 84 ]. The immunotherapies are antagonizing the effects of drug through pharmacokinetic mechanisms. This approach involves the use of nicotine-specific antibodies that bind nicotine in serum, resulting in a decrease in nicotine distribution to the brain and an increase in nicotine’s elimination half-life [ 85 ].

3.3 Novel treatments

Psychosocial and pharmacological interventions are treating drug disorders through reducing negative symptoms, decreasing craving, or managing the effect of target drugs. New treatment methods bring prospects for the cure of addiction, and it is helpful for developing personalized and comprehensive treatment.

Recent studies have highlighted the potential of brain stimulation as an innovative, safe, and cost-effective treatment for some SUDs. These include: (i) transcranial electrical stimulation; (ii) transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS); (iii) transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS); and (iv) deep brain stimulation (DBS). Stimulation therapies may achieve their effect through direct or indirect modulation of brain regions involved in addiction, either acutely or through plastic changes in neuronal transmission. Although these mechanisms are not well understood, further identification of the underlying neurobiology of addiction and rigorous evaluation of brain stimulation methods has the potential for unlocking an effective, long-term treatment of addiction.

Exercise may also provide a new treatment idea. In recent years, exercises are considered as a novel treatment for drug addiction. Lynch et al. concluded that exercises can reduce the reinforcing effects of drugs and may prevent the relapse [ 86 ]. Exercise can increase dopamine level in several parts of brain [ 87 ], bring happiness [ 88 ], and improve mental health and self-esteem [ 89 ]. More importantly, some studies found that exercises can affect dopamine in the reward pathway, even repair the decreased dopamine receptors [ 86 , 90 , 91 , 92 ]. Furthermore, the side effects that resulted by drug use are not only psychiatric disorders and brain damage, but also the physical impairment, such as impaired respiratory system and bone loss [ 93 , 94 ]. Exercise can benefit the physical health is well known. Drug dependences should accept the risk evaluation of exercise before having physical activities. The effects of exercises on drug use disorders still need more clinical studies, especially on the dopamine system. Besides, depending on the age, type of drug, age of onset, it is necessary to design appropriate exercise plans according to individual health characteristics [ 95 ]. It reported a significant increase in glutamate and GABA signaling in the visual cortex following exercise, as well as an increase in glutamate in the ACC after exercise in adult rats, and exercise-induced expansion of cortical pools can be seen for both glutamate and GABA neurons [ 96 ]. Additional, high-intensity interval training has been noted to possess benefits even greater than those of standard moderate exercise [ 97 ]. However, appropriate exercise intensity and exercise mode for patient with different age, gender, type of drug still need more in-depth research.

Besides, VR technology has emerged as a powerful tool for the research and intervention of addiction [ 98 ]. It’s a tool to study how proximal multi-sensorial cues, contextual environmental cues, as well as their interaction (complex cues), modulate addictive behaviors. Moreover, VR simulations can be personalized. They are currently refined for psychotherapeutic interventions. Embodiment, eye-tracking, and neurobiological factors represent novel future directions. The progress of VR applications has bred auspicious ways to advance the understanding of treatment mechanisms underlying addictions.

Last but not least, mindfulness-based relapse prevention (MBRP) has been shown as effective in treating substance use disorders [ 99 ]. Study results suggest that mindfulness meditation practice may produce endogenous theta stimulation in the prefrontal cortex, thereby enhancing inhibitory control over opioid dose escalation behaviors [ 100 ]. However, it necessary to examine the following mediators of intervention outcome: mindfulness skills, emotion regulation skills, executive functioning skills, savoring, and positive and negative affect.

4. Conclusion and outlook

For more than 40 years, the instruments to assess the severity of drug dependence have been developed well, and different quantitative methods can cover almost every field of the symptoms in different periods and stages of drug addiction. Patients, medical workers, or researchers can choose suitable assessments, based on their conditions. The comprehensive and convenient techniques might leave one problem that is how to convince the dependences to do the screening or diagnosis tests. As mentioned in Treatments section, most drug dependences do not want to accept treatments. This needs efforts from drug dependences themselves, their family, the community, and whole society.

Drug addiction is a chronic disease [ 101 ], it needs chronic treatments. The interventions or treatments for drug dependence might be in a dilemma caused by medical development. Existing treatments are focusing on addressing the symptoms of drug use–related disorders, rather than the root of addiction. Drug addiction, also called drug use disorders, is defined as a complex, but treatable, disease that affects brain functions modulated by genetic, developmental, and environmental factors. People with addiction use drugs often tend to continue despite harmful consequences [ 101 , 102 ]. The brain function damage caused by drug use has been proved. For example, chronic methamphetamine use can result in hippocampal volumes decrease and severe gray-matter deficits [ 103 ]. Moreover, dopamine receptors and transporters deficits are the consequence of drug use [ 104 , 105 ]. Conventional treatments, psychosocial interventions, and medicines can only ameliorate withdrawal symptoms, reduce craving or improve psychological health, but not repair the brain or dopamine functions. Exercise or brain stimulation might be a supportive method to contribute to brain system recovering. So far, it is far more from the real rehabilitation. We need more novel treatments to contribute to the functional recovery. Furthermore, existing treatments do not subdivide patients of different level of severity or different groups of patients. Future work can design treatments based on the characteristics of the patients.

This work was supported by Anhui University Natural Science Research Project (No. KJ2020A1057), the major science and technology projects in Anhui Province (No. 202103a07020004).

• 1. 2018 WDR. Executive Summary Conclusions and Policy Implications: The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2018. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/wdr2018/en/topics.html
• 2. Statistics NCfH. Overdose Death Rates. 2021. Available from: https://www.drugabuse.gov/drug-topics/trends-statistics/overdose-death-rates
• 3. Center NDI. National Drug Threat Assessment. Washington, DC: U.S.: Department of Justice; 2011
• 4. World Health Organization, Crime UNOoD. International standards for the treatment of drug use disorders: Revised edition incorporating results of field-testing. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2020
• 5. SAMHSA. Screening and Assessment of Co-Occurring Disorders in the Justice System. Rockville: HHS Publication; 2015
• 6. Sharon D, Dingle Genevieve JLN. Screening and Assessment of Comorbidity. Interventions for Addictions: Comprehensive Addictive Behaviors and Disorders. Oxford, United Kingdom: Elsevier; 2013
• 7. Group WAW. The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): Development, reliability and feasibility. Addiction. 2002; 97 (9):1183-1194
• 8. Organization WH. The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST). 2010
• 9. Brown RL, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. A two-item conjoint screen for alcohol and other drug problems. Journal of American Board Family Practice. 2001; 14 (2):95-106
• 10. Chasnoff IJ, Wells AM, McGourty RF, LK B. Validation of the 4P’s Plus © screen for substance use in pregnancy validation of the 4P’s Plus. Journal of Perinatology. 2007; 27 (12):744-748
• 11. Skinner HA. The drug abuse screening test. Addictive Behaviors. 1982; 7 (4):363-371
• 12. Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2007; 32 (2):189-198
• 13. Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: Criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wisconsin Medical Journal. 1995; 94 (3):135-140
• 14. Basu D, Ghosh A, Hazari N, Parakh P. Use of Family CAGE-AID questionnaire to screen the family members for diagnosis of substance dependence. Indian Journal of Medical Research. 2016; 143 (6):722-730
• 15. Leonardson GR, Ness FK, Daniels MC, Kemper E, Koplin BA, Leonardson GA. Validity and reliability of the audit and cage-aid in northern plains American Indians. Psychological Reports. 2005; 97 (1):161-166
• 16. McLellan AT, Luborsky L, Woody GE, O’Brien CP. An improved evaluation instrument for substance abuse patients: The addiction severity index. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases. 1980; 168 (1):26-33
• 17. Hodgins DC, El-Guebaly N. More data on the Addiction Severity Index: Reliability and validity with the mentally ill substance abuser. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1992; 180 (3):197-201
• 18. McLellan AT, Luborsky L, Cacciola J, Griffith J, Evans F, Barr HL, et al. New data from the Addiction Severity Index: Reliability and validity in three centers. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1985; 173 (7):412-423
• 19. Organization WH. Addiction Severity Index - Lite Version (ASI-Lite)
• 20. Ljungvall H, Persson A, Åsenlöf P, Heilig M, Ekselius L. Reliability of the Addiction Severity Index self-report form (ASI-SR): A self-administered questionnaire based on the Addiction Severity Index composite score domains. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry. 2020; 74 (1):9-15
• 21. Association AP. DSM History. Available from: https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm/history-of-the-dsm
• 22. Houts AC. Fifty years of psychiatric nomenclature: Reflections on the 1943 War Department Technical Bulletin, Medical 203. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2000; 56 (7):935-967
• 23. Cottler LB, Robins LN, Helzer JE. The reliability of the CIDI-SAM: A comprehensive substance abuse interview. British Journal of Addiction. 1989; 84 (7):801-814
• 24. Gloria M, Carpenter KM, Cockerham MS, Trautman KD, Blaine J, Hasin S. Substance Dependence Severity Scale (SDSS): Reliability and validity of a clinician-administered interview for DSM-IV substance use disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2000; 59 (1):63-75
• 25. Denis CM, Gelernter J, Hart AB, Kranzler HR. Inter-observer reliability of DSM-5 substance use disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2015; 153 :229-235
• 26. Easton C, Meza E, Mager D, Ulüg B, Kilic C, Göğüş A, et al. Test-retest reliability of the alcohol and drug use disorder sections of the schedules for clinical assessment in neuropsychiatry (SCAN). Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 1997; 47 (3):187-194
• 27. Pierucci-Lagha A, Gelernter J, GraceChan AA, Cubells JF, Farrer L, et al. Reliability of DSM-IV diagnostic criteria using the semi-structured assessment for drug dependence and alcoholism (SSADDA). Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2007; 91 (1):85-90
• 28. Association AP. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders III Revised. AP, Washington, DC; 1987
• 29. McGovern MP, DH M. The Chemical Use, Abuse, and Dependence Scale (CUAD). Rationale, reliability, and validity. Journal of Substances and Abuse Treatment. 1992; 9 (1):27-38
• 30. Sutherland G, Edwards G, Taylor C, Phillips G, Gossop M, Brady R. The measurement of opiate dependence. British Journal of Addiction. 1986; 81 :485-494
• 31. Andrew Tompkins D, Bigelow GE, Harrison JA, Johnson RE, Fudala PJ, Strain EC. Concurrent validation of the Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS) and single-item indices against the Clinical Institute Narcotic Assessment (CINA) opioid withdrawal instrument. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2009; 105 (1-2):154-159
• 32. Wesson DR, Ling W. The Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2003; 35 (2):253-259
• 33. Himmelsbach K. The morphine abstinence syndrome, its nature and treatment. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1941; 15 (5):829-839
• 34. Bradley BP, Gossop M, Phillips GT, Legarda JJ. The Development of an Opiate Withdrawal Scale (OWS). British Journal of Addiction. 1987; 82 (10):1139-1142
• 35. Gossop M. The development of a short opiate withdrawal scale (SOWS). Addictive Behaviors. 1990; 15 (5):487-490
• 36. Loimer N, Linzmayer L, Grünberger J. Comparison between observer assessment and self rating of withdrawal distress during opiate detoxification. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 1991; 28 (3):265-268
• 37. Drake RE, Mueser K, McHugo GJ. Outcomes Assessment in Clinical Practice. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1996
• 38. Møller T, Linaker OM. Using brief self-reports and clinician scales to screen for substance use disorders in psychotic patients. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry. 2009; 64 (2):130-135
• 39. Richard Smith G, Burnam A, Mosley CL, Hollenberg JA, Mancino M, Grimes W. Reliability and validity of the substance abuse outcomes module. Psychiatric Services. 2006; 57 (10):1452-1460
• 40. Gossop M, Darke S, Griffiths P, Hando J, Powis B, Hall W, et al. The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS): Psychometric properties of the SDS in English and Australian samples of heroin, cocaine and amphetamine users. Addiction. 1995; 90 (5):607-614
• 41. Raistrick D, Bradshaw J, Tober G, Weiner J, Allison J, Healey C. Development of the Leeds Dependence Questionnaire (LDQ): A questionnaire to measure alcohol and opiate dependence in the context of a treatment evaluation package. Addiction. 1994; 89 (5):563-572
• 42. Michael Scherer C, Furr-Holden D, Voas RB. Drug use disorder (DUD) questionnaire: Scale development and validation. Evaluation Review. 2013; 37 (1):35-58
• 43. Mchugo GJ, Drake RE, Burton HL, Ackerson T. A scale for assessing the stage of substance abuse treatment in persons with severe mental illness. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease. 1996; 183 (12):762-767
• 44. Marsden J, Farrell M, Bradbury C, Dale-Perera A, Eastwood B, Roxburgh M, et al. Development of the treatment outcomes profile. Addiction. 2008; 103 (9):1450-1460
• 45. Health NSoDUa. Results from the 2008, National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings 2008
• 46. Deacon RM, Mammen K, Bruno R, Mills L, Dunlop A, Holmes J, et al. Assessing the concurrent validity, inter-rater reliability and test–re-test reliability of the Australian Treatment Outcomes Profile (ATOP) in alcohol and opioid treatment populations. Addiction. 2020; 116 (5):1245-1255
• 47. Zilm DH, Sellers EM. The quantitative assessment of physical dependence on opiates[J]. Drug & Alcohol Dependence. 1978; 3 (6):419-428
• 48. Joseph L, Levin B, Paik MC. Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc; 1981
• 49. Motiuk M, Motiuk L, Bonta J. A comparison between self-report and interview-based inventories in offender classification. Criminal Justice and Behavior. 1992; 19 :143-159
• 50. Stuart A, Pasco J, Jacka F, Brennan S, Berk M, Williams L. Comparison of self-report and structured clinical interview in the identification of depression. Comprehensive Psychiatry. 2013; 55 (4):866-869
• 51. Lopes AD, Vilar Furtado R, Silva Cayii CL, Malfatti CA. Comparison of self-report and interview administration methods based on the Brazilian versions of the Western Ontario Rotator Cuff Index and Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand Questionnaire in patients with rotator cuff disorders. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2009; 64 (2):121-125
• 52. Treatment CfSA. Substance Abuse Treatment: Addressing the Specific Needs of Women. Chapter 4: Screening and Assessment. 2009 Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83253/
• 53. Samet S, Waxman R, Hatzenbuehler M, Hasin DS. Assessing addiction: Concepts and instruments. Addiction Science and Clinical Practices. 2007; 4 (1):19-31
• 54. Compton WM, Cottler LB, Dorsey KB, Spitznagel EL, Mager DE. Comparing assessments of DSM-IV substance dependence disorders using CIDI-SAM and SCAN. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 1996; 41 (3):179-187
• 55. Horton J, Compton W, Cottler LB. Reliability of substance use disorder diagnoses among African–Americans and Caucasians. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2000; 57 (3):203-209
• 56. Centers AA. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Techniques and Addiction Treatment 2020. Available from: https://americanaddictioncenters.org/cognitive-behavioral-therapy?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=570a44de24cf03e4a5da9209dc74df8097732668-1613747602-0-AW2aefpBoLgIvUV2ezPvTp56xm5mo-qTNkLOpoeP0vl9mYcPPjXVCwHRjZ6xls3lGhXCCqPI8daI0jdPZJi4DimZ5jlfZBT95FpjCKl_rSo163cW-PtGSWay1MrPwGAa8ZqE_UsbK0DqVk1hgY4Bc2cLQO7W8XeaJGzQ5nIm_JdS5b2ka7GR-xLrCQjQZcnnsT_tpr0PLiZjEnmJ36BJ6eyyVfOMmdRUMUEpDXGNCl2WRW1vTDWiihmAjBj21YJGVMyvUZuS--pGJpbLlg28CB0UsHMeAnfn_vWiRvM9Cs_Ypp066s7c-2A_Chif7gK5mhuJTywgLE0f66Q8n483CV81H5PtmllOwWvbuY16DvV5oCmpiGk0zN75hBU2avGSD5w55MnXPbFWnCImMG3ELRs
• 57. Dutra L, Stathopoulou G, Basden SL, Leyro TM, Powers MB, Otto MW. A meta-analytic review of psychosocial interventions for substance use disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2008; 165 (2):179-187
• 58. Magill M, Ray LA. Cognitive-behavioral treatment with adult alcohol and illicit drug users: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. 2009; 70 (4):516-527
• 59. Ladan Z, Mehdi B, Farkhondeh S, Ebrahim MS. Anger management in substance abuse based on cognitive behavioral therapy: An interventional study. BMC Psychiatry. 2017; 17 (1):375
• 60. Prendergast M, Podus D, Finney J, Greenwell L, Roll J. Contingency management for treatment of substance use disorders: A meta-analysis. Addiction. 2006; 101 (11):1546-1560
• 61. Stanton DM. Family treatment approaches to drug abuse problems: A review. Family Process. 1979; 18 (3):251-280
• 62. Kelly JF, Yeterian JD. 4—Mutual-help groups. In: O’Donohue WT, Cummings NA, editors. Evidence-Based Adjunctive Treatments. San Diego: Academic Press; 2008. pp. 61-105
• 63. Crits-Christoph P, Siqueland L, Blaine J, Frank A, Luborsky L, Onken LS, et al. Psychosocial treatments for cocaine dependence: National Institute on Drug Abuse Collaborative Cocaine Treatment Study. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1999; 56 (6):493-502
• 64. Weiss RD, Griffin ML, Gallop RJ, Najavits LM, Frank A, Crits-Christoph P, et al. The effect of 12-step self-help group attendance and participation on drug use outcomes among cocaine-dependent patients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2005; 77 (2):177-184
• 65. Fiorentine R, Hilhouse MP. Drug treatment and 12-step program participation: The additive effects of integrated recovery activities. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2000; 18 (1):65-74
• 66. Potenza MN, Sofuoglu M, Carroll KM, Rounsaville BJ. Neuroscience of behavioral and pharmacological treatments for addictions. Neuron. 2011; 69 (4):695-712
• 67. Organization WH. Guidelines for the psychosocially assisted pharmacological treatment of opioid dependence. 2009. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241547543
• 68. Organization WH. Neuroscience of psychoactive substance use and dependence. 2004. Available from: https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/en/Neuroscience.pdf
• 69. Kinsey BM, Kosten TR. Active immunotherapy for the treatment of cocaine dependence. Drugs Future. 2010; 35 (4):301-306
• 70. Karila L, Weinstein A, Aubin HJ, Benyamina A, Reynaud M, Batki SL. Pharmacological approaches to methamphetamine dependence: A focused review. Brithish Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2010; 69 (6):578-592
• 71. Orson FM, Kinsey BM, Singh RAK, Wu Y, Gardner T, Kosten TR. Substance abuse vaccines. Annals of the New York Academy Science. 2008; 1141 :257-269
• 72. Association AP. Opioid Use Disorder. 2018. Available from: https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/addiction/opioid-use-disorder/opioid-use-disorder
• 73. Hser YI, Anglin MD, Fletcher B. Comparative treatment effectiveness: Effects of program modality and client drug dependence history on drug use reduction. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 1998; 15 (6):513-523
• 74. Rayburn WF, Bogenschutz MP. Pharmacotherapy for pregnant women with addictions. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2004; 191 (6):1885-1897
• 75. Saia KA, Schiff D, Wachman EM, Mehta P, Vilkins A, Sia M, et al. Caring for pregnant women with opioid use disorder in the USA: Expanding and improving treatment. Current Obstetrics and Gynecology Reports. 2016; 5 (3):257-263
• 76. F B. TIP 26: Substance Abuse Among Older Adults: Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series 26 1998. Available from: http://adaiclearinghouse.net/downloads/TIP-26-Substance-Abuse-Among-Older-Adults-67.pdf
• 77. Rowe CL, Liddle HA, Greenbaum PE, Henderson CE. Impact of psychiatric comorbidity on treatment of adolescent drug abusers. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2004; 26 (2):129-140
• 78. Grella CE, Hser Y-I, Joshi V. Drug treatment outcomes for adolescents with comorbid mental and substance use disorders. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 2001; 189 (6)
• 79. Dakof GA. Understanding gender differences in adolescent drug abuse: Issues of comorbidity and family functioning. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2000; 32 (1):25-32
• 80. Rao UMA, Daley SE, Hammen C. Relationship between depression and substance use disorders in adolescent women during the transition to adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2000; 39 (2):215-222
• 81. Makarenko I, Mazhnaya A, Polonsky M, Marcus R, Bojko MJ, Filippovych S, et al. Determinants of willingness to enroll in opioid agonist treatment among opioid dependent people who inject drugs in Ukraine. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2016; 165 :213-220
• 82. Johnson V. Intervention: How to Help Someone Who Doesn’ t Want Help. MN, USA: Johnson Institute; 1986
• 83. Organization WH. Opioid overdose. 2020. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/opioid-overdose
• 84. Gorelick DA. Pharmacokinetic strategies for treatment of drug overdose and addiction. Future Medicine Chemistry. 2012; 4 (2):227-243
• 85. LeSage MG, Keyler DE, Pentel PR. Current status of immunologic approaches to treating tobacco dependence: Vaccines and nicotine-specific antibodies. The AAPS Journal. 2006; 8 (1):E65-E75
• 86. Lynch WJ, Peterson AB, Sanchez V, Abel J, Smith MA. Exercise as a novel treatment for drug addiction: A neurobiological and stage-dependent hypothesis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2013; 37 (8):1622-1644
• 87. Foley TE, Fleshner M. Neuroplasticity of dopamine circuits after exercise: Implications for central fatigue. Neuromolecular Medicine. 2008; 10 (2):67-80
• 88. Zhang Z-J, Chen W-Y. A systematic review of the relationship between physical activity and happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies. 2019; 20
• 89. Matta Mello Portugal E, Cevada T, Sobral Monteiro-Junior R, Teixeira Guimarães T, da Cruz RE, Lattari E, et al. Neuroscience of exercise: From neurobiology mechanisms to mental health. Neuropsychobiology. 2013; 68 (1):1-14
• 90. Greenwood BN, Foley TE, Le TV, Strong PV, Loughridge AB, Day HEW, et al. Long-term voluntary wheel running is rewarding and produces plasticity in the mesolimbic reward pathway. Behavioural Brain Research. 2011; 217 (2):354-362
• 91. Robison LS, Swenson S, Hamilton J, Thanos PK. Exercise reduces dopamine D1R and increases D2R in rats: Implications for addiction. Medical Science Sports and Exercise. 2018; 50 (8):1596-1602
• 92. Robertson CL, Ishibashi K, Chudzynski J, Mooney LJ, Rawson RA, Dolezal BA, et al. Effect of exercise training on striatal dopamine D2/D3 receptors in methamphetamine users during behavioral treatment. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016; 41 (6):1629-1636
• 93. Tashkin DP. Airway effects of marijuana, cocaine, and other inhaled illicit agents. Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine. 2001; 7 (2)
• 94. Ding Z-H, Chen Y-Y, Wang X, Zhou X, Xu Y, Ma Z-C, et al. A comparison of bone quality and its determinants in young opioid-dependent women with healthy control group. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2017; 175 :232-236
• 95. Ding ZH, Ma ZC, Yang XJ, Sun YN. Effect of eight-month exercise intervention on bone outcomes of young opioid-dependent women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18 (21)
• 96. Rahman N, Mihalkovic A, Geary O, Haffey R, Hamilton J, Thanos PK. Chronic aerobic exercise: Autoradiographic assessment of GABA(a) and muopioid receptor binding in adult rats. Pharmacology and Biochemical. 2020; 196
• 97. Richard M, Gretchen C, Dione F, et al. Acute modulation of cortical glutamate and GABA content by physical activity. Journal of Neuroscience the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 2016
• 98. Mazza M, Kammler-Sucker K, Lemenager T, Kiefer F, Lenz B. Virtual reality: A powerful technology to provide novel insight into treatment mechanisms of addiction. Translational Psychiatry. 2021; 11 (1)
• 99. Hudak J, Hanley AW, Marchand WR, Nakamura Y, Yabko B, Garland EL. Correction: Endogenous theta stimulation during meditation predicts reduced opioid dosing following treatment with Mindfulness Oriented Recovery Enhancement. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2021; 46 (8):1544
• 100. Hz A, Lu SB, Lr B, Lc C, Sl B, Lz D, et al. Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of mindfulness-based relapse prevention for opioid use disorders. Contemporary and Clinical Trials. 2020; 99
• 101. Medicine ASoA. Definition of Addiction. 2019. Available from: https://www.asam.org/Quality-Science/definition-of-addiction
• 102. Association AP. What Is a Substance Use Disorder? 2020
• 103. Thompson PM, Hayashi KM, Simon SL, Geaga JA, Hong MS, Sui Y, et al. Structural abnormalities in the brains of human subjects who use methamphetamine. Journal of Neuroscience. 2004; 24 (26):6028-6036
• 104. Gupta S, Kulhara P. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of drug dependence: An overview and update. Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 2007; 49 (2):85-90
• 105. McCann UD, Kuwabar H, Kumar A, Palermo M, Abbey R, Brasic J, et al. Persistent cognitive and dopamine transporter deficits in abstinent methamphetamine users. Synapse. 2008; 62 (2):91-100

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Continue reading from the same book

Substance use disorder.

Edited by Patricia Sampedro-Piquero

Published: 08 February 2023

By Sandeep Sitaram Kadu

220 downloads

By Anilendu Pramanik and Sayan Mondal

126 downloads

By Alojz Nociar and Stanislava Šaffová

67 downloads

IntechOpen Author/Editor? To get your discount, log in .

Discounts available on purchase of multiple copies. View rates

Local taxes (VAT) are calculated in later steps, if applicable.

Support: [email protected]

• Privacy Policy

Home » 500+ Quantitative Research Titles and Topics

500+ Quantitative Research Titles and Topics

Table of Contents

Quantitative research involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships among variables. This method is widely used in social sciences, psychology , economics , and other fields where researchers aim to understand human behavior and phenomena through statistical analysis. If you are looking for a quantitative research topic, there are numerous areas to explore, from analyzing data on a specific population to studying the effects of a particular intervention or treatment. In this post, we will provide some ideas for quantitative research topics that may inspire you and help you narrow down your interests.

Quantitative Research Titles

Quantitative Research Titles are as follows:

Business and Economics

• “Statistical Analysis of Supply Chain Disruptions on Retail Sales”
• “Quantitative Examination of Consumer Loyalty Programs in the Fast Food Industry”
• “Predicting Stock Market Trends Using Machine Learning Algorithms”
• “Influence of Workplace Environment on Employee Productivity: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Economic Policies on Small Businesses: A Regression Analysis”
• “Customer Satisfaction and Profit Margins: A Quantitative Correlation Study”
• “Analyzing the Role of Marketing in Brand Recognition: A Statistical Overview”
• “Quantitative Effects of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumer Trust”
• “Price Elasticity of Demand for Luxury Goods: A Case Study”
• “The Relationship Between Fiscal Policy and Inflation Rates: A Time-Series Analysis”
• “Factors Influencing E-commerce Conversion Rates: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Examining the Correlation Between Interest Rates and Consumer Spending”
• “Standardized Testing and Academic Performance: A Quantitative Evaluation”
• “Teaching Strategies and Student Learning Outcomes in Secondary Schools: A Quantitative Study”
• “The Relationship Between Extracurricular Activities and Academic Success”
• “Influence of Parental Involvement on Children’s Educational Achievements”
• “Digital Literacy in Primary Schools: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Learning Outcomes in Blended vs. Traditional Classrooms: A Comparative Analysis”
• “Correlation Between Teacher Experience and Student Success Rates”
• “Analyzing the Impact of Classroom Technology on Reading Comprehension”
• “Gender Differences in STEM Fields: A Quantitative Analysis of Enrollment Data”
• “The Relationship Between Homework Load and Academic Burnout”
• “Assessment of Special Education Programs in Public Schools”
• “Role of Peer Tutoring in Improving Academic Performance: A Quantitative Study”

Medicine and Health Sciences

• “The Impact of Sleep Duration on Cardiovascular Health: A Cross-sectional Study”
• “Analyzing the Efficacy of Various Antidepressants: A Meta-Analysis”
• “Patient Satisfaction in Telehealth Services: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Dietary Habits and Incidence of Heart Disease: A Quantitative Review”
• “Correlations Between Stress Levels and Immune System Functioning”
• “Smoking and Lung Function: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Influence of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults”
• “Antibiotic Resistance Patterns in Community Hospitals: A Quantitative Study”
• “The Efficacy of Vaccination Programs in Controlling Disease Spread: A Time-Series Analysis”
• “Role of Social Determinants in Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Impact of Hospital Design on Patient Recovery Rates”
• “Quantitative Analysis of Dietary Choices and Obesity Rates in Children”

Social Sciences

• “Examining Social Inequality through Wage Distribution: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Parental Divorce on Child Development: A Longitudinal Study”
• “Social Media and its Effect on Political Polarization: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “The Relationship Between Religion and Social Attitudes: A Statistical Overview”
• “Influence of Socioeconomic Status on Educational Achievement”
• “Quantifying the Effects of Community Programs on Crime Reduction”
• “Public Opinion and Immigration Policies: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Analyzing the Gender Representation in Political Offices: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Mass Media on Public Opinion: A Regression Analysis”
• “Influence of Urban Design on Social Interactions in Communities”
• “The Role of Social Support in Mental Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Examining the Relationship Between Substance Abuse and Employment Status”

Engineering and Technology

• “Performance Evaluation of Different Machine Learning Algorithms in Autonomous Vehicles”
• “Material Science: A Quantitative Analysis of Stress-Strain Properties in Various Alloys”
• “Impacts of Data Center Cooling Solutions on Energy Consumption”
• “Analyzing the Reliability of Renewable Energy Sources in Grid Management”
• “Optimization of 5G Network Performance: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Quantifying the Effects of Aerodynamics on Fuel Efficiency in Commercial Airplanes”
• “The Relationship Between Software Complexity and Bug Frequency”
• “Machine Learning in Predictive Maintenance: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Wearable Technologies and their Impact on Healthcare Monitoring”
• “Quantitative Assessment of Cybersecurity Measures in Financial Institutions”
• “Analysis of Noise Pollution from Urban Transportation Systems”
• “The Influence of Architectural Design on Energy Efficiency in Buildings”

Quantitative Research Topics

Quantitative Research Topics are as follows:

• The effects of social media on self-esteem among teenagers.
• A comparative study of academic achievement among students of single-sex and co-educational schools.
• The impact of gender on leadership styles in the workplace.
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic performance of students.
• The effect of mindfulness meditation on stress levels in college students.
• The relationship between employee motivation and job satisfaction.
• The effectiveness of online learning compared to traditional classroom learning.
• The correlation between sleep duration and academic performance among college students.
• The impact of exercise on mental health among adults.
• The relationship between social support and psychological well-being among cancer patients.
• The effect of caffeine consumption on sleep quality.
• A comparative study of the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy in treating depression.
• The relationship between physical attractiveness and job opportunities.
• The correlation between smartphone addiction and academic performance among high school students.
• The impact of music on memory recall among adults.
• The effectiveness of parental control software in limiting children’s online activity.
• The relationship between social media use and body image dissatisfaction among young adults.
• The correlation between academic achievement and parental involvement among minority students.
• The impact of early childhood education on academic performance in later years.
• The effectiveness of employee training and development programs in improving organizational performance.
• The relationship between socioeconomic status and access to healthcare services.
• The correlation between social support and academic achievement among college students.
• The impact of technology on communication skills among children.
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction programs in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression.
• The relationship between employee turnover and organizational culture.
• The correlation between job satisfaction and employee engagement.
• The impact of video game violence on aggressive behavior among children.
• The effectiveness of nutritional education in promoting healthy eating habits among adolescents.
• The relationship between bullying and academic performance among middle school students.
• The correlation between teacher expectations and student achievement.
• The impact of gender stereotypes on career choices among high school students.
• The effectiveness of anger management programs in reducing violent behavior.
• The relationship between social support and recovery from substance abuse.
• The correlation between parent-child communication and adolescent drug use.
• The impact of technology on family relationships.
• The effectiveness of smoking cessation programs in promoting long-term abstinence.
• The relationship between personality traits and academic achievement.
• The correlation between stress and job performance among healthcare professionals.
• The impact of online privacy concerns on social media use.
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders.
• The relationship between teacher feedback and student motivation.
• The correlation between physical activity and academic performance among elementary school students.
• The impact of parental divorce on academic achievement among children.
• The effectiveness of diversity training in improving workplace relationships.
• The relationship between childhood trauma and adult mental health.
• The correlation between parental involvement and substance abuse among adolescents.
• The impact of social media use on romantic relationships among young adults.
• The effectiveness of assertiveness training in improving communication skills.
• The relationship between parental expectations and academic achievement among high school students.
• The correlation between sleep quality and mood among adults.
• The impact of video game addiction on academic performance among college students.
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating eating disorders.
• The relationship between job stress and job performance among teachers.
• The correlation between mindfulness and emotional regulation.
• The impact of social media use on self-esteem among college students.
• The effectiveness of parent-teacher communication in promoting academic achievement among elementary school students.
• The impact of renewable energy policies on carbon emissions
• The relationship between employee motivation and job performance
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating eating disorders
• The correlation between physical activity and cognitive function in older adults
• The effect of childhood poverty on adult health outcomes
• The impact of urbanization on biodiversity conservation
• The relationship between work-life balance and employee job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in treating trauma
• The correlation between parenting styles and child behavior
• The effect of social media on political polarization
• The impact of foreign aid on economic development
• The relationship between workplace diversity and organizational performance
• The effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy in treating borderline personality disorder
• The correlation between childhood abuse and adult mental health outcomes
• The effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive function
• The impact of trade policies on international trade and economic growth
• The relationship between employee engagement and organizational commitment
• The effectiveness of cognitive therapy in treating postpartum depression
• The correlation between family meals and child obesity rates
• The effect of parental involvement in sports on child athletic performance
• The impact of social entrepreneurship on sustainable development
• The relationship between emotional labor and job burnout
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating dementia
• The correlation between social media use and academic procrastination
• The effect of poverty on childhood educational attainment
• The impact of urban green spaces on mental health
• The relationship between job insecurity and employee well-being
• The effectiveness of virtual reality exposure therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between childhood trauma and substance abuse
• The effect of screen time on children’s social skills
• The impact of trade unions on employee job satisfaction
• The relationship between cultural intelligence and cross-cultural communication
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy in treating chronic pain
• The correlation between childhood obesity and adult health outcomes
• The effect of gender diversity on corporate performance
• The impact of environmental regulations on industry competitiveness.
• The impact of renewable energy policies on greenhouse gas emissions
• The relationship between workplace diversity and team performance
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating substance abuse
• The correlation between parental involvement and social skills in early childhood
• The effect of technology use on sleep patterns
• The impact of government regulations on small business growth
• The relationship between job satisfaction and employee turnover
• The effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic motivation in adolescents
• The effect of social media on political engagement
• The impact of urbanization on mental health
• The relationship between corporate social responsibility and consumer trust
• The correlation between early childhood education and social-emotional development
• The effect of screen time on cognitive development in young children
• The impact of trade policies on global economic growth
• The relationship between workplace diversity and innovation
• The effectiveness of family therapy in treating eating disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and college persistence
• The effect of social media on body image and self-esteem
• The impact of environmental regulations on business competitiveness
• The relationship between job autonomy and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in treating phobias
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic achievement in college
• The effect of social media on sleep quality
• The impact of immigration policies on social integration
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee well-being
• The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy in treating personality disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and executive function skills
• The effect of parental involvement on STEM education outcomes
• The impact of trade policies on domestic employment rates
• The relationship between job insecurity and mental health
• The effectiveness of exposure therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and social mobility
• The effect of social media on intergroup relations
• The impact of urbanization on air pollution and respiratory health.
• The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and language development
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in STEM fields
• The impact of trade policies on income inequality
• The relationship between workplace diversity and customer satisfaction
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and civic engagement in adolescents
• The effect of social media on mental health among teenagers
• The impact of public transportation policies on traffic congestion
• The relationship between job stress and job performance
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and cognitive development
• The effect of parental involvement on academic motivation in college
• The impact of environmental regulations on energy consumption
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee engagement
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in vocational education
• The effect of social media on academic achievement in college
• The impact of tax policies on economic growth
• The relationship between job flexibility and work-life balance
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and social competence
• The effect of parental involvement on career readiness in high school
• The impact of immigration policies on crime rates
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee retention
• The effectiveness of play therapy in treating trauma
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in online learning
• The effect of social media on body dissatisfaction among women
• The impact of urbanization on public health infrastructure
• The relationship between job satisfaction and job performance
• The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between early childhood education and social skills in adolescence
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in the arts
• The impact of trade policies on foreign investment
• The relationship between workplace diversity and decision-making
• The effectiveness of exposure and response prevention therapy in treating OCD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in special education
• The impact of zoning laws on affordable housing
• The relationship between job design and employee motivation
• The effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation therapy in treating traumatic brain injury
• The correlation between early childhood education and social-emotional learning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in foreign language learning
• The impact of trade policies on the environment
• The relationship between workplace diversity and creativity
• The effectiveness of emotion-focused therapy in treating relationship problems
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in music education
• The effect of social media on interpersonal communication skills
• The impact of public health campaigns on health behaviors
• The relationship between job resources and job stress
• The effectiveness of equine therapy in treating substance abuse
• The correlation between early childhood education and self-regulation
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in physical education
• The impact of immigration policies on cultural assimilation
• The relationship between workplace diversity and conflict resolution
• The effectiveness of schema therapy in treating personality disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in career and technical education
• The effect of social media on trust in government institutions
• The impact of urbanization on public transportation systems
• The relationship between job demands and job stress
• The correlation between early childhood education and executive functioning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in computer science
• The effectiveness of cognitive processing therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in homeschooling
• The effect of social media on cyberbullying behavior
• The impact of urbanization on air quality
• The effectiveness of dance therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and math achievement
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in health education
• The impact of global warming on agriculture
• The effectiveness of narrative therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in character education
• The effect of social media on political participation
• The impact of technology on job displacement
• The relationship between job resources and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating addiction
• The correlation between early childhood education and reading comprehension
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in environmental education
• The impact of income inequality on social mobility
• The relationship between workplace diversity and organizational culture
• The effectiveness of solution-focused brief therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in physical therapy education
• The effect of social media on misinformation
• The impact of green energy policies on economic growth
• The relationship between job demands and employee well-being
• The correlation between early childhood education and science achievement
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in religious education
• The impact of gender diversity on corporate governance
• The relationship between workplace diversity and ethical decision-making
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in dental hygiene education
• The effect of social media on self-esteem among adolescents
• The impact of renewable energy policies on energy security
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in social studies
• The impact of trade policies on job growth
• The relationship between workplace diversity and leadership styles
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in online vocational training
• The effect of social media on self-esteem among men
• The impact of urbanization on air pollution levels
• The effectiveness of music therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and math skills
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in language arts
• The impact of immigration policies on labor market outcomes
• The effectiveness of hypnotherapy in treating phobias
• The effect of social media on political engagement among young adults
• The impact of urbanization on access to green spaces
• The relationship between job crafting and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of exposure therapy in treating specific phobias
• The correlation between early childhood education and spatial reasoning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in business education
• The impact of trade policies on economic inequality
• The effectiveness of narrative therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in nursing education
• The effect of social media on sleep quality among adolescents
• The impact of urbanization on crime rates
• The relationship between job insecurity and turnover intentions
• The effectiveness of pet therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and STEM skills
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in culinary education
• The impact of immigration policies on housing affordability
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee satisfaction
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction in treating chronic pain
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in art education
• The effect of social media on academic procrastination among college students
• The impact of urbanization on public safety services.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

500+ Nursing Research Topic Ideas

500+ Economics Research Topics

300+ Interesting Research Topics

1100+ Research Paper Topics

500+ History Research Paper Topics

300+ American History Research Paper Topics

Breadcrumbs Section. Click here to navigate to respective pages.

Quantitative Drug Design

DOI link for Quantitative Drug Design

Get Citation

Since the publication of the first edition, the field has changed dramatically. Scientists can now explicitly consider 3D features in quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) studies and often have the 3D structure of the macromolecular target to guide the 3D QSAR. Improvements in computer hardware and software have also made the methods

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 | 14  pages, overview of quantitative drug design, chapter 2 | 16  pages, noncovalent interactions in biological systems, chapter 3 | 18  pages, preparation of 3d structures of molecules for 3d qsar, chapter 4 | 42  pages, calculating physical properties of molecules, chapter 5 | 16  pages, biological data, chapter 6 | 24  pages, form of equations that relate potency and physical properties, chapter 7 | 26  pages, statistical basis of regression and partial least-squares analysis, chapter 8 | 18  pages, strategy for the statistical evaluation of a data set of related molecules, chapter 9 | 12  pages, detailed examples of qsar calculations on erythromycin esters, chapter 10 | 54  pages, case studies, chapter 11 | 26  pages, methods to approach other structure–activity problems.

• Privacy Policy
• Terms & Conditions
• Cookie Policy
• Taylor & Francis Online
• Taylor & Francis Group
• Students/Researchers
• Librarians/Institutions

Connect with us

Registered in England & Wales No. 3099067 5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG © 2024 Informa UK Limited

Advertisement

• Previous Issue
• Previous Article
• Next Article

Clarifying the Research Purpose

Methodology, measurement, data analysis and interpretation, tools for evaluating the quality of medical education research, research support, competing interests, quantitative research methods in medical education.

Submitted for publication January 8, 2018. Accepted for publication November 29, 2018.

• Split-Screen
• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data
• Peer Review
• Open the PDF for in another window
• Cite Icon Cite
• Get Permissions
• Search Site

John T. Ratelle , Adam P. Sawatsky , Thomas J. Beckman; Quantitative Research Methods in Medical Education. Anesthesiology 2019; 131:23–35 doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0000000000002727

Download citation file:

• Ris (Zotero)
• Reference Manager

There has been a dramatic growth of scholarly articles in medical education in recent years. Evaluating medical education research requires specific orientation to issues related to format and content. Our goal is to review the quantitative aspects of research in medical education so that clinicians may understand these articles with respect to framing the study, recognizing methodologic issues, and utilizing instruments for evaluating the quality of medical education research. This review can be used both as a tool when appraising medical education research articles and as a primer for clinicians interested in pursuing scholarship in medical education.

Image: J. P. Rathmell and Terri Navarette.

There has been an explosion of research in the field of medical education. A search of PubMed demonstrates that more than 40,000 articles have been indexed under the medical subject heading “Medical Education” since 2010, which is more than the total number of articles indexed under this heading in the 1980s and 1990s combined. Keeping up to date requires that practicing clinicians have the skills to interpret and appraise the quality of research articles, especially when serving as editors, reviewers, and consumers of the literature.

While medical education shares many characteristics with other biomedical fields, substantial particularities exist. We recognize that practicing clinicians may not be familiar with the nuances of education research and how to assess its quality. Therefore, our purpose is to provide a review of quantitative research methodologies in medical education. Specifically, we describe a structure that can be used when conducting or evaluating medical education research articles.

Clarifying the research purpose is an essential first step when reading or conducting scholarship in medical education. 1   Medical education research can serve a variety of purposes, from advancing the science of learning to improving the outcomes of medical trainees and the patients they care for. However, a well-designed study has limited value if it addresses vague, redundant, or unimportant medical education research questions.

What is the research topic and why is it important? What is unknown about the research topic? Why is further research necessary?

What is the conceptual framework being used to approach the study?

What is the statement of study intent?

What are the research methodology and study design? Are they appropriate for the study objective(s)?

Which threats to internal validity are most relevant for the study?

What is the outcome and how was it measured?

Can the results be trusted? What is the validity and reliability of the measurements?

How were research subjects selected? Is the research sample representative of the target population?

Was the data analysis appropriate for the study design and type of data?

What is the effect size? Do the results have educational significance?

Fortunately, there are steps to ensure that the purpose of a research study is clear and logical. Table 1   2–5   outlines these steps, which will be described in detail in the following sections. We describe these elements not as a simple “checklist,” but as an advanced organizer that can be used to understand a medical education research study. These steps can also be used by clinician educators who are new to the field of education research and who wish to conduct scholarship in medical education.

Steps in Clarifying the Purpose of a Research Study in Medical Education

Literature Review and Problem Statement

A literature review is the first step in clarifying the purpose of a medical education research article. 2 , 5 , 6   When conducting scholarship in medical education, a literature review helps researchers develop an understanding of their topic of interest. This understanding includes both existing knowledge about the topic as well as key gaps in the literature, which aids the researcher in refining their study question. Additionally, a literature review helps researchers identify conceptual frameworks that have been used to approach the research topic. 2  

When reading scholarship in medical education, a successful literature review provides background information so that even someone unfamiliar with the research topic can understand the rationale for the study. Located in the introduction of the manuscript, the literature review guides the reader through what is already known in a manner that highlights the importance of the research topic. The literature review should also identify key gaps in the literature so the reader can understand the need for further research. This gap description includes an explicit problem statement that summarizes the important issues and provides a reason for the study. 2 , 4   The following is one example of a problem statement:

“Identifying gaps in the competency of anesthesia residents in time for intervention is critical to patient safety and an effective learning system… [However], few available instruments relate to complex behavioral performance or provide descriptors…that could inform subsequent feedback, individualized teaching, remediation, and curriculum revision.” 7  

This problem statement articulates the research topic (identifying resident performance gaps), why it is important (to intervene for the sake of learning and patient safety), and current gaps in the literature (few tools are available to assess resident performance). The researchers have now underscored why further research is needed and have helped readers anticipate the overarching goals of their study (to develop an instrument to measure anesthesiology resident performance). 4  

The Conceptual Framework

Following the literature review and articulation of the problem statement, the next step in clarifying the research purpose is to select a conceptual framework that can be applied to the research topic. Conceptual frameworks are “ways of thinking about a problem or a study, or ways of representing how complex things work.” 3   Just as clinical trials are informed by basic science research in the laboratory, conceptual frameworks often serve as the “basic science” that informs scholarship in medical education. At a fundamental level, conceptual frameworks provide a structured approach to solving the problem identified in the problem statement.

Conceptual frameworks may take the form of theories, principles, or models that help to explain the research problem by identifying its essential variables or elements. Alternatively, conceptual frameworks may represent evidence-based best practices that researchers can apply to an issue identified in the problem statement. 3   Importantly, there is no single best conceptual framework for a particular research topic, although the choice of a conceptual framework is often informed by the literature review and knowing which conceptual frameworks have been used in similar research. 8   For further information on selecting a conceptual framework for research in medical education, we direct readers to the work of Bordage 3   and Irby et al. 9  

To illustrate how different conceptual frameworks can be applied to a research problem, suppose you encounter a study to reduce the frequency of communication errors among anesthesiology residents during day-to-night handoff. Table 2 10 , 11   identifies two different conceptual frameworks researchers might use to approach the task. The first framework, cognitive load theory, has been proposed as a conceptual framework to identify potential variables that may lead to handoff errors. 12   Specifically, cognitive load theory identifies the three factors that affect short-term memory and thus may lead to communication errors:

Conceptual Frameworks to Address the Issue of Handoff Errors in the Intensive Care Unit

Intrinsic load: Inherent complexity or difficulty of the information the resident is trying to learn ( e.g. , complex patients).

Extraneous load: Distractions or demands on short-term memory that are not related to the information the resident is trying to learn ( e.g. , background noise, interruptions).

Germane load: Effort or mental strategies used by the resident to organize and understand the information he/she is trying to learn ( e.g. , teach back, note taking).

Using cognitive load theory as a conceptual framework, researchers may design an intervention to reduce extraneous load and help the resident remember the overnight to-do’s. An example might be dedicated, pager-free handoff times where distractions are minimized.

The second framework identified in table 2 , the I-PASS (Illness severity, Patient summary, Action list, Situational awareness and contingency planning, and Synthesis by receiver) handoff mnemonic, 11   is an evidence-based best practice that, when incorporated as part of a handoff bundle, has been shown to reduce handoff errors on pediatric wards. 13   Researchers choosing this conceptual framework may adapt some or all of the I-PASS elements for resident handoffs in the intensive care unit.

Note that both of the conceptual frameworks outlined above provide researchers with a structured approach to addressing the issue of handoff errors; one is not necessarily better than the other. Indeed, it is possible for researchers to use both frameworks when designing their study. Ultimately, we provide this example to demonstrate the necessity of selecting conceptual frameworks to clarify the research purpose. 3 , 8   Readers should look for conceptual frameworks in the introduction section and should be wary of their omission, as commonly seen in less well-developed medical education research articles. 14  

Statement of Study Intent

After reviewing the literature, articulating the problem statement, and selecting a conceptual framework to address the research topic, the final step in clarifying the research purpose is the statement of study intent. The statement of study intent is arguably the most important element of framing the study because it makes the research purpose explicit. 2   Consider the following example:

This study aimed to test the hypothesis that the introduction of the BASIC Examination was associated with an accelerated knowledge acquisition during residency training, as measured by increments in annual ITE scores. 15  

This statement of study intent succinctly identifies several key study elements including the population (anesthesiology residents), the intervention/independent variable (introduction of the BASIC Examination), the outcome/dependent variable (knowledge acquisition, as measure by in In-training Examination [ITE] scores), and the hypothesized relationship between the independent and dependent variable (the authors hypothesize a positive correlation between the BASIC examination and the speed of knowledge acquisition). 6 , 14  

The statement of study intent will sometimes manifest as a research objective, rather than hypothesis or question. In such instances there may not be explicit independent and dependent variables, but the study population and research aim should be clearly identified. The following is an example:

“In this report, we present the results of 3 [years] of course data with respect to the practice improvements proposed by participating anesthesiologists and their success in implementing those plans. Specifically, our primary aim is to assess the frequency and type of improvements that were completed and any factors that influence completion.” 16  

The statement of study intent is the logical culmination of the literature review, problem statement, and conceptual framework, and is a transition point between the Introduction and Methods sections of a medical education research report. Nonetheless, a systematic review of experimental research in medical education demonstrated that statements of study intent are absent in the majority of articles. 14   When reading a medical education research article where the statement of study intent is absent, it may be necessary to infer the research aim by gathering information from the Introduction and Methods sections. In these cases, it can be useful to identify the following key elements 6 , 14 , 17   :

Population of interest/type of learner ( e.g. , pain medicine fellow or anesthesiology residents)

Independent/predictor variable ( e.g. , educational intervention or characteristic of the learners)

Dependent/outcome variable ( e.g. , intubation skills or knowledge of anesthetic agents)

Relationship between the variables ( e.g. , “improve” or “mitigate”)

Occasionally, it may be difficult to differentiate the independent study variable from the dependent study variable. 17   For example, consider a study aiming to measure the relationship between burnout and personal debt among anesthesiology residents. Do the researchers believe burnout might lead to high personal debt, or that high personal debt may lead to burnout? This “chicken or egg” conundrum reinforces the importance of the conceptual framework which, if present, should serve as an explanation or rationale for the predicted relationship between study variables.

Research methodology is the “…design or plan that shapes the methods to be used in a study.” 1   Essentially, methodology is the general strategy for answering a research question, whereas methods are the specific steps and techniques that are used to collect data and implement the strategy. Our objective here is to provide an overview of quantitative methodologies ( i.e. , approaches) in medical education research.

The choice of research methodology is made by balancing the approach that best answers the research question against the feasibility of completing the study. There is no perfect methodology because each has its own potential caveats, flaws and/or sources of bias. Before delving into an overview of the methodologies, it is important to highlight common sources of bias in education research. We use the term internal validity to describe the degree to which the findings of a research study represent “the truth,” as opposed to some alternative hypothesis or variables. 18   Table 3   18–20   provides a list of common threats to internal validity in medical education research, along with tactics to mitigate these threats.

Threats to Internal Validity and Strategies to Mitigate Their Effects

Experimental Research

The fundamental tenet of experimental research is the manipulation of an independent or experimental variable to measure its effect on a dependent or outcome variable.

True Experiment

True experimental study designs minimize threats to internal validity by randomizing study subjects to experimental and control groups. Through ensuring that differences between groups are—beyond the intervention/variable of interest—purely due to chance, researchers reduce the internal validity threats related to subject characteristics, time-related maturation, and regression to the mean. 18 , 19  

Quasi-experiment

There are many instances in medical education where randomization may not be feasible or ethical. For instance, researchers wanting to test the effect of a new curriculum among medical students may not be able to randomize learners due to competing curricular obligations and schedules. In these cases, researchers may be forced to assign subjects to experimental and control groups based upon some other criterion beyond randomization, such as different classrooms or different sections of the same course. This process, called quasi-randomization, does not inherently lead to internal validity threats, as long as research investigators are mindful of measuring and controlling for extraneous variables between study groups. 19  

Single-group Methodologies

All experimental study designs compare two or more groups: experimental and control. A common experimental study design in medical education research is the single-group pretest–posttest design, which compares a group of learners before and after the implementation of an intervention. 21   In essence, a single-group pre–post design compares an experimental group ( i.e. , postintervention) to a “no-intervention” control group ( i.e. , preintervention). 19   This study design is problematic for several reasons. Consider the following hypothetical example: A research article reports the effects of a year-long intubation curriculum for first-year anesthesiology residents. All residents participate in monthly, half-day workshops over the course of an academic year. The article reports a positive effect on residents’ skills as demonstrated by a significant improvement in intubation success rates at the end of the year when compared to the beginning.

This study does little to advance the science of learning among anesthesiology residents. While this hypothetical report demonstrates an improvement in residents’ intubation success before versus after the intervention, it does not tell why the workshop worked, how it compares to other educational interventions, or how it fits in to the broader picture of anesthesia training.

Single-group pre–post study designs open themselves to a myriad of threats to internal validity. 20   In our hypothetical example, the improvement in residents’ intubation skills may have been due to other educational experience(s) ( i.e. , implementation threat) and/or improvement in manual dexterity that occurred naturally with time ( i.e. , maturation threat), rather than the airway curriculum. Consequently, single-group pre–post studies should be interpreted with caution. 18  

Repeated testing, before and after the intervention, is one strategy that can be used to reduce the some of the inherent limitations of the single-group study design. Repeated pretesting can mitigate the effect of regression toward the mean, a statistical phenomenon whereby low pretest scores tend to move closer to the mean on subsequent testing (regardless of intervention). 20   Likewise, repeated posttesting at multiple time intervals can provide potentially useful information about the short- and long-term effects of an intervention ( e.g. , the “durability” of the gain in knowledge, skill, or attitude).

Observational Research

Unlike experimental studies, observational research does not involve manipulation of any variables. These studies often involve measuring associations, developing psychometric instruments, or conducting surveys.

Association Research

Association research seeks to identify relationships between two or more variables within a group or groups (correlational research), or similarities/differences between two or more existing groups (causal–comparative research). For example, correlational research might seek to measure the relationship between burnout and educational debt among anesthesiology residents, while causal–comparative research may seek to measure differences in educational debt and/or burnout between anesthesiology and surgery residents. Notably, association research may identify relationships between variables, but does not necessarily support a causal relationship between them.

Psychometric and Survey Research

Psychometric instruments measure a psychologic or cognitive construct such as knowledge, satisfaction, beliefs, and symptoms. Surveys are one type of psychometric instrument, but many other types exist, such as evaluations of direct observation, written examinations, or screening tools. 22   Psychometric instruments are ubiquitous in medical education research and can be used to describe a trait within a study population ( e.g. , rates of depression among medical students) or to measure associations between study variables ( e.g. , association between depression and board scores among medical students).

Psychometric and survey research studies are prone to the internal validity threats listed in table 3 , particularly those relating to mortality, location, and instrumentation. 18   Additionally, readers must ensure that the instrument scores can be trusted to truly represent the construct being measured. For example, suppose you encounter a research article demonstrating a positive association between attending physician teaching effectiveness as measured by a survey of medical students, and the frequency with which the attending physician provides coffee and doughnuts on rounds. Can we be confident that this survey administered to medical students is truly measuring teaching effectiveness? Or is it simply measuring the attending physician’s “likability”? Issues related to measurement and the trustworthiness of data are described in detail in the following section on measurement and the related issues of validity and reliability.

Measurement refers to “the assigning of numbers to individuals in a systematic way as a means of representing properties of the individuals.” 23   Research data can only be trusted insofar as we trust the measurement used to obtain the data. Measurement is of particular importance in medical education research because many of the constructs being measured ( e.g. , knowledge, skill, attitudes) are abstract and subject to measurement error. 24   This section highlights two specific issues related to the trustworthiness of data: the validity and reliability of measurements.

Validity regarding the scores of a measurement instrument “refers to the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of the [instrument’s results] for the proposed use of the [instrument].” 25   In essence, do we believe the results obtained from a measurement really represent what we were trying to measure? Note that validity evidence for the scores of a measurement instrument is separate from the internal validity of a research study. Several frameworks for validity evidence exist. Table 4 2 , 22 , 26   represents the most commonly used framework, developed by Messick, 27   which identifies sources of validity evidence—to support the target construct—from five main categories: content, response process, internal structure, relations to other variables, and consequences.

Sources of Validity Evidence for Measurement Instruments

Reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency of scores for a measurement instrument. 22 , 25 , 28   For an instrument to be reliable, we would anticipate that two individuals rating the same object of measurement in a specific context would provide the same scores. 25   Further, if the scores for an instrument are reliable between raters of the same object of measurement, then we can extrapolate that any difference in scores between two objects represents a true difference across the sample, and is not due to random variation in measurement. 29   Reliability can be demonstrated through a variety of methods such as internal consistency ( e.g. , Cronbach’s alpha), temporal stability ( e.g. , test–retest reliability), interrater agreement ( e.g. , intraclass correlation coefficient), and generalizability theory (generalizability coefficient). 22 , 29  

Example of a Validity and Reliability Argument

This section provides an illustration of validity and reliability in medical education. We use the signaling questions outlined in table 4 to make a validity and reliability argument for the Harvard Assessment of Anesthesia Resident Performance (HARP) instrument. 7   The HARP was developed by Blum et al. to measure the performance of anesthesia trainees that is required to provide safe anesthetic care to patients. According to the authors, the HARP is designed to be used “…as part of a multiscenario, simulation-based assessment” of resident performance. 7  

Content Validity: Does the Instrument’s Content Represent the Construct Being Measured?

To demonstrate content validity, instrument developers should describe the construct being measured and how the instrument was developed, and justify their approach. 25   The HARP is intended to measure resident performance in the critical domains required to provide safe anesthetic care. As such, investigators note that the HARP items were created through a two-step process. First, the instrument’s developers interviewed anesthesiologists with experience in resident education to identify the key traits needed for successful completion of anesthesia residency training. Second, the authors used a modified Delphi process to synthesize the responses into five key behaviors: (1) formulate a clear anesthetic plan, (2) modify the plan under changing conditions, (3) communicate effectively, (4) identify performance improvement opportunities, and (5) recognize one’s limits. 7 , 30  

Response Process Validity: Are Raters Interpreting the Instrument Items as Intended?

In the case of the HARP, the developers included a scoring rubric with behavioral anchors to ensure that faculty raters could clearly identify how resident performance in each domain should be scored. 7  

Internal Structure Validity: Do Instrument Items Measuring Similar Constructs Yield Homogenous Results? Do Instrument Items Measuring Different Constructs Yield Heterogeneous Results?

Item-correlation for the HARP demonstrated a high degree of correlation between some items ( e.g. , formulating a plan and modifying the plan under changing conditions) and a lower degree of correlation between other items ( e.g. , formulating a plan and identifying performance improvement opportunities). 30   This finding is expected since the items within the HARP are designed to assess separate performance domains, and we would expect residents’ functioning to vary across domains.

Relationship to Other Variables’ Validity: Do Instrument Scores Correlate with Other Measures of Similar or Different Constructs as Expected?

As it applies to the HARP, one would expect that the performance of anesthesia residents will improve over the course of training. Indeed, HARP scores were found to be generally higher among third-year residents compared to first-year residents. 30  

Consequence Validity: Are Instrument Results Being Used as Intended? Are There Unintended or Negative Uses of the Instrument Results?

While investigators did not intentionally seek out consequence validity evidence for the HARP, unanticipated consequences of HARP scores were identified by the authors as follows:

“Data indicated that CA-3s had a lower percentage of worrisome scores (rating 2 or lower) than CA-1s… However, it is concerning that any CA-3s had any worrisome scores…low performance of some CA-3 residents, albeit in the simulated environment, suggests opportunities for training improvement.” 30  

That is, using the HARP to measure the performance of CA-3 anesthesia residents had the unintended consequence of identifying the need for improvement in resident training.

Reliability: Are the Instrument’s Scores Reproducible and Consistent between Raters?

The HARP was applied by two raters for every resident in the study across seven different simulation scenarios. The investigators conducted a generalizability study of HARP scores to estimate the variance in assessment scores that was due to the resident, the rater, and the scenario. They found little variance was due to the rater ( i.e. , scores were consistent between raters), indicating a high level of reliability. 7  

Sampling refers to the selection of research subjects ( i.e. , the sample) from a larger group of eligible individuals ( i.e. , the population). 31   Effective sampling leads to the inclusion of research subjects who represent the larger population of interest. Alternatively, ineffective sampling may lead to the selection of research subjects who are significantly different from the target population. Imagine that researchers want to explore the relationship between burnout and educational debt among pain medicine specialists. The researchers distribute a survey to 1,000 pain medicine specialists (the population), but only 300 individuals complete the survey (the sample). This result is problematic because the characteristics of those individuals who completed the survey and the entire population of pain medicine specialists may be fundamentally different. It is possible that the 300 study subjects may be experiencing more burnout and/or debt, and thus, were more motivated to complete the survey. Alternatively, the 700 nonresponders might have been too busy to respond and even more burned out than the 300 responders, which would suggest that the study findings were even more amplified than actually observed.

When evaluating a medical education research article, it is important to identify the sampling technique the researchers employed, how it might have influenced the results, and whether the results apply to the target population. 24  

Sampling Techniques

Sampling techniques generally fall into two categories: probability- or nonprobability-based. Probability-based sampling ensures that each individual within the target population has an equal opportunity of being selected as a research subject. Most commonly, this is done through random sampling, which should lead to a sample of research subjects that is similar to the target population. If significant differences between sample and population exist, those differences should be due to random chance, rather than systematic bias. The difference between data from a random sample and that from the population is referred to as sampling error. 24  

Nonprobability-based sampling involves selecting research participants such that inclusion of some individuals may be more likely than the inclusion of others. 31   Convenience sampling is one such example and involves selection of research subjects based upon ease or opportuneness. Convenience sampling is common in medical education research, but, as outlined in the example at the beginning of this section, it can lead to sampling bias. 24   When evaluating an article that uses nonprobability-based sampling, it is important to look for participation/response rate. In general, a participation rate of less than 75% should be viewed with skepticism. 21   Additionally, it is important to determine whether characteristics of participants and nonparticipants were reported and if significant differences between the two groups exist.

Interpreting medical education research requires a basic understanding of common ways in which quantitative data are analyzed and displayed. In this section, we highlight two broad topics that are of particular importance when evaluating research articles.

The Nature of the Measurement Variable

Measurement variables in quantitative research generally fall into three categories: nominal, ordinal, or interval. 24   Nominal variables (sometimes called categorical variables) involve data that can be placed into discrete categories without a specific order or structure. Examples include sex (male or female) and professional degree (M.D., D.O., M.B.B.S., etc .) where there is no clear hierarchical order to the categories. Ordinal variables can be ranked according to some criterion, but the spacing between categories may not be equal. Examples of ordinal variables may include measurements of satisfaction (satisfied vs . unsatisfied), agreement (disagree vs . agree), and educational experience (medical student, resident, fellow). As it applies to educational experience, it is noteworthy that even though education can be quantified in years, the spacing between years ( i.e. , educational “growth”) remains unequal. For instance, the difference in performance between second- and third-year medical students is dramatically different than third- and fourth-year medical students. Interval variables can also be ranked according to some criteria, but, unlike ordinal variables, the spacing between variable categories is equal. Examples of interval variables include test scores and salary. However, the conceptual boundaries between these measurement variables are not always clear, as in the case where ordinal scales can be assumed to have the properties of an interval scale, so long as the data’s distribution is not substantially skewed. 32  

Understanding the nature of the measurement variable is important when evaluating how the data are analyzed and reported. Medical education research commonly uses measurement instruments with items that are rated on Likert-type scales, whereby the respondent is asked to assess their level of agreement with a given statement. The response is often translated into a corresponding number ( e.g. , 1 = strongly disagree, 3 = neutral, 5 = strongly agree). It is remarkable that scores from Likert-type scales are sometimes not normally distributed ( i.e. , are skewed toward one end of the scale), indicating that the spacing between scores is unequal and the variable is ordinal in nature. In these cases, it is recommended to report results as frequencies or medians, rather than means and SDs. 33  

Consider an article evaluating medical students’ satisfaction with a new curriculum. Researchers measure satisfaction using a Likert-type scale (1 = very unsatisfied, 2 = unsatisfied, 3 = neutral, 4 = satisfied, 5 = very satisfied). A total of 20 medical students evaluate the curriculum, 10 of whom rate their satisfaction as “satisfied,” and 10 of whom rate it as “very satisfied.” In this case, it does not make much sense to report an average score of 4.5; it makes more sense to report results in terms of frequency ( e.g. , half of the students were “very satisfied” with the curriculum, and half were not).

Effect Size and CIs

In medical education, as in other research disciplines, it is common to report statistically significant results ( i.e. , small P values) in order to increase the likelihood of publication. 34 , 35   However, a significant P value in itself does necessarily represent the educational impact of the study results. A statement like “Intervention x was associated with a significant improvement in learners’ intubation skill compared to education intervention y ( P < 0.05)” tells us that there was a less than 5% chance that the difference in improvement between interventions x and y was due to chance. Yet that does not mean that the study intervention necessarily caused the nonchance results, or indicate whether the between-group difference is educationally significant. Therefore, readers should consider looking beyond the P value to effect size and/or CI when interpreting the study results. 36 , 37  

Effect size is “the magnitude of the difference between two groups,” which helps to quantify the educational significance of the research results. 37   Common measures of effect size include Cohen’s d (standardized difference between two means), risk ratio (compares binary outcomes between two groups), and Pearson’s r correlation (linear relationship between two continuous variables). 37   CIs represent “a range of values around a sample mean or proportion” and are a measure of precision. 31   While effect size and CI give more useful information than simple statistical significance, they are commonly omitted from medical education research articles. 35   In such instances, readers should be wary of overinterpreting a P value in isolation. For further information effect size and CI, we direct readers the work of Sullivan and Feinn 37   and Hulley et al. 31  

In this final section, we identify instruments that can be used to evaluate the quality of quantitative medical education research articles. To this point, we have focused on framing the study and research methodologies and identifying potential pitfalls to consider when appraising a specific article. This is important because how a study is framed and the choice of methodology require some subjective interpretation. Fortunately, there are several instruments available for evaluating medical education research methods and providing a structured approach to the evaluation process.

The Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument (MERSQI) 21   and the Newcastle Ottawa Scale-Education (NOS-E) 38   are two commonly used instruments, both of which have an extensive body of validity evidence to support the interpretation of their scores. Table 5 21 , 39   provides more detail regarding the MERSQI, which includes evaluation of study design, sampling, data type, validity, data analysis, and outcomes. We have found that applying the MERSQI to manuscripts, articles, and protocols has intrinsic educational value, because this practice of application familiarizes MERSQI users with fundamental principles of medical education research. One aspect of the MERSQI that deserves special mention is the section on evaluating outcomes based on Kirkpatrick’s widely recognized hierarchy of reaction, learning, behavior, and results ( table 5 ; fig .). 40   Validity evidence for the scores of the MERSQI include its operational definitions to improve response process, excellent reliability, and internal consistency, as well as high correlation with other measures of study quality, likelihood of publication, citation rate, and an association between MERSQI score and the likelihood of study funding. 21 , 41   Additionally, consequence validity for the MERSQI scores has been demonstrated by its utility for identifying and disseminating high-quality research in medical education. 42  

Kirkpatrick’s hierarchy of outcomes as applied to education research. Reaction = Level 1, Learning = Level 2, Behavior = Level 3, Results = Level 4. Outcomes become more meaningful, yet more difficult to achieve, when progressing from Level 1 through Level 4. Adapted with permission from Beckman and Cook, 2007. 2  

The Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument for Evaluating the Quality of Medical Education Research

The NOS-E is a newer tool to evaluate the quality of medication education research. It was developed as a modification of the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale 43   for appraising the quality of nonrandomized studies. The NOS-E includes items focusing on the representativeness of the experimental group, selection and compatibility of the control group, missing data/study retention, and blinding of outcome assessors. 38 , 39   Additional validity evidence for NOS-E scores includes operational definitions to improve response process, excellent reliability and internal consistency, and its correlation with other measures of study quality. 39   Notably, the complete NOS-E, along with its scoring rubric, can found in the article by Cook and Reed. 39  

A recent comparison of the MERSQI and NOS-E found acceptable interrater reliability and good correlation between the two instruments 39   However, noted differences exist between the MERSQI and NOS-E. Specifically, the MERSQI may be applied to a broad range of study designs, including experimental and cross-sectional research. Additionally, the MERSQI addresses issues related to measurement validity and data analysis, and places emphasis on educational outcomes. On the other hand, the NOS-E focuses specifically on experimental study designs, and on issues related to sampling techniques and outcome assessment. 39   Ultimately, the MERSQI and NOS-E are complementary tools that may be used together when evaluating the quality of medical education research.

Conclusions

This article provides an overview of quantitative research in medical education, underscores the main components of education research, and provides a general framework for evaluating research quality. We highlighted the importance of framing a study with respect to purpose, conceptual framework, and statement of study intent. We reviewed the most common research methodologies, along with threats to the validity of a study and its measurement instruments. Finally, we identified two complementary instruments, the MERSQI and NOS-E, for evaluating the quality of a medical education research study.

Bordage G: Conceptual frameworks to illuminate and magnify. Medical education. 2009; 43(4):312–9.

Cook DA, Beckman TJ: Current concepts in validity and reliability for psychometric instruments: Theory and application. The American journal of medicine. 2006; 119(2):166. e7–166. e116.

Franenkel JR, Wallen NE, Hyun HH: How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. 9th edition. New York, McGraw-Hill Education, 2015.

Hulley SB, Cummings SR, Browner WS, Grady DG, Newman TB: Designing clinical research. 4th edition. Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2011.

Irby BJ, Brown G, Lara-Alecio R, Jackson S: The Handbook of Educational Theories. Charlotte, NC, Information Age Publishing, Inc., 2015

Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational Research Association & American Psychological Association, 2014)

Swanwick T: Understanding medical education: Evidence, theory and practice, 2nd edition. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.

Sullivan GM, Artino Jr AR: Analyzing and interpreting data from Likert-type scales. Journal of graduate medical education. 2013; 5(4):541–2.

Sullivan GM, Feinn R: Using effect size—or why the P value is not enough. Journal of graduate medical education. 2012; 4(3):279–82.

Tavakol M, Sandars J: Quantitative and qualitative methods in medical education research: AMEE Guide No 90: Part II. Medical teacher. 2014; 36(10):838–48.

Support was provided solely from institutional and/or departmental sources.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Citing articles via

Most viewed, email alerts, related articles, social media, affiliations.

• ASA Practice Parameters
• Online First
• Author Resource Center
• About the Journal
• Editorial Board
• Rights & Permissions
• Online ISSN 1528-1175
• Print ISSN 0003-3022
• Anesthesiology
• ASA Monitor

• Terms & Conditions Privacy Policy
• Manage Cookie Preferences
• © Copyright 2024 American Society of Anesthesiologists

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods

What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods

Published on June 12, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio).

Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.

• What is the demographic makeup of Singapore in 2020?
• How has the average temperature changed globally over the last century?
• Does environmental pollution affect the prevalence of honey bees?
• Does working from home increase productivity for people with long commutes?

Table of contents

Quantitative research methods, quantitative data analysis, advantages of quantitative research, disadvantages of quantitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about quantitative research.

You can use quantitative research methods for descriptive, correlational or experimental research.

• In descriptive research , you simply seek an overall summary of your study variables.
• In correlational research , you investigate relationships between your study variables.
• In experimental research , you systematically examine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

Correlational and experimental research can both be used to formally test hypotheses , or predictions, using statistics. The results may be generalized to broader populations based on the sampling method used.

To collect quantitative data, you will often need to use operational definitions that translate abstract concepts (e.g., mood) into observable and quantifiable measures (e.g., self-ratings of feelings and energy levels).

Note that quantitative research is at risk for certain research biases , including information bias , omitted variable bias , sampling bias , or selection bias . Be sure that you’re aware of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data to prevent them from impacting your work too much.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Once data is collected, you may need to process it before it can be analyzed. For example, survey and test data may need to be transformed from words to numbers. Then, you can use statistical analysis to answer your research questions .

Descriptive statistics will give you a summary of your data and include measures of averages and variability. You can also use graphs, scatter plots and frequency tables to visualize your data and check for any trends or outliers.

Using inferential statistics , you can make predictions or generalizations based on your data. You can test your hypothesis or use your sample data to estimate the population parameter .

First, you use descriptive statistics to get a summary of the data. You find the mean (average) and the mode (most frequent rating) of procrastination of the two groups, and plot the data to see if there are any outliers.

You can also assess the reliability and validity of your data collection methods to indicate how consistently and accurately your methods actually measured what you wanted them to.

Quantitative research is often used to standardize data collection and generalize findings . Strengths of this approach include:

• Replication

Repeating the study is possible because of standardized data collection protocols and tangible definitions of abstract concepts.

• Direct comparisons of results

The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different groups of participants. Results can be compared statistically.

• Large samples

Data from large samples can be processed and analyzed using reliable and consistent procedures through quantitative data analysis.

• Hypothesis testing

Using formalized and established hypothesis testing procedures means that you have to carefully consider and report your research variables, predictions, data collection and testing methods before coming to a conclusion.

Despite the benefits of quantitative research, it is sometimes inadequate in explaining complex research topics. Its limitations include:

• Superficiality

Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent complex concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a number in quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.

• Narrow focus

Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other relevant observations.

• Structural bias

Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative research. Missing data , imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling methods are biases that can lead to the wrong conclusions.

• Lack of context

Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails to consider historical and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

• Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved August 7, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/quantitative-research/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

Other students also liked, descriptive statistics | definitions, types, examples, inferential statistics | an easy introduction & examples, what is your plagiarism score.

Alcohol consumption and social harm: quantitative research methodology

Cite this chapter.

• G. Gmel &
• E. Gutjahr  

493 Accesses

3 Citations

1 Altmetric

This chapter highlights methodological shortcomings of quantitative research into the association of alcohol consumption and social harm. It is organized according to the four key areas of epidemiological research: assessment/measurement (a) of outcome, (b) of exposure, and (c) of covariates, and study design [1, 2]; it considers also several less known designs of research into alcohol-related social harm, and indicates some future research directions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Unable to display preview.  Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Alcohol Consumption and Suicidal Behavior: Current Research Evidence and Potential for Prevention

What Are the Health Implications of Alcohol Consumption?

Jick, H. et al . (1998) Principles of epidemiological research on adverse and beneficial drug effects. Lancet 352 , 1767–1770.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Rothman, K.J. and Greenland, S. (1998) Modern Epidemiology , Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, PA.

Google Scholar  

English, D.R. et al . (1995) The Quantification of Drug Caused Morbidity and Mortality in Australia , Canberra, Commonwealth Department of Human Services and Health.

Rehm, J. (2000) Alcohol intake assessment: the facts are even more sobering. American Journal of Epidemiology 151 , 436–438.

Room, R. et al . (1995) The risk of harm to oneself from drinking, Canada 1989. Addiction 90 , 499–513.

Midanik, L.T. et al . (1996) Risk functions for alcohol-related problems in a 1988 US national sample. Addiction 91 , 1427–1437.

Bondy, S.J. (1996) Overview of studies on drinking patterns and consequences. Addiction 91 , 1663–1674.

Plant, M.A. et al .,eds. (1997) Alcohol: Minimising the Harm: What Works? Free Association Books, London.

Rehm, J. et al . (1996) On the emerging paradigm of drinking patterns and their social and health consequences. Addiction 91 (11), 1615–1621.

Grant, M. and Litvak, J., eds. (1998) Drinking Patterns and Their Consequences , Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC.

Rehm, J. and Gmel, G. (1999) Patterns of alcohol consumption and social consequences. Results from an 8-year follow-up study in Switzerland. Addiction 94 (6), 899–912.

Roizen, J. (1997) Epidemiological issues in alcohol-related violence, in Recent Developments in Alcoholism (ed. M. Galanter), Plenum Press, New York/London, pp. 7–37 (13).

Cahalan, D. and Room, R. (1974) Problem Drinking Among American Men , Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies, New Brunswick, NJ.

Herd, D. (1994) Predicting drinking problems among black and white men: results from a national survey. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 55 , 61–71.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Schuckit, M.A. et al . (1995) The time course of development of alcohol-related problems in men and women. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 56 , 218–225.

Burton, T.L. and Williamson, D.L. (1995) Harmful effects of drinking and the use and perceived effectiveness of treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 56 , 611–615.

Single, E. (1994) Implications of potential health benefits of moderate drinking for specific elements of alcohol policy: towards a harm-reduction approach for alcohol. Contemporary Drug Problems 21 (2), 275–285.

Rehm, J. et al . (1999) A reliability and validity analysis of an alcohol-related harm scale for surveys. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 60 (2), 203–208.

Bailey, S.L. (1999) The measurement of problem drinking in young adulthood. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 60 (2), 234–244.

Midanik, L.T. (1999) Drunkenness, feeling the effects and 5+ measures. Addiction 94 (6), 887–897.

Wright, J. and Feinstein, A. (1992) A comparative contrast of clinimetric and psychometric methods for constructing indexes and rating scales. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 45 , 1201–1218.

Stockwell, T. et al . (1996) Unravelling the preventive paradox for acute alcohol problems. Drug and Alcohol Review 15 , 7–5.

Skog, O.-J. (1999) The prevention paradox revisited. Addiction 94 (5), 751–757.

Heath, D.B. (1998) Cultural variations among drinking patterns, in Drinking Patterns and Their Consequences (eds M. Grant and J. Litvak ), Taylor and Francis, Bristol, PA, pp. 103–128.

Lemmens, P.H. (1998) Measuring Lifetime Drinking Histories. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 22 (2), 29S - 36S.

Article   Google Scholar  

Berger, M.C. and Leigh, J.P. (1988) The effect of alcohol use on wages. Applied Economics 20 , 1343–1351.

Sindelar, J. (1998) Social costs of alcohol. Journal of Drug Issues 28 (3), 763–780.

Harwood, H.J. et al . (1984) Economic Costs to Society of Alcohol and Drug Abuse and Mental Illness : 1980 , Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC (Report to Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration ).

Dawson, D.A. (1998) Measuring alcohol consumption: limitations and prospects for improvement. Addiction 93 (7), 965–968.

Midanik, L.T. et al . (1998) Comments on Dawson’s `Measuring alcohol consumption: limitations and prospects for improvement’. Addiction 93 (7), 969–977.

Bohlscheid-Thomas, S. et al . (1997) Reproducibility and relative validity of energy and macronutrient intake of a food frequency questionnaire developed for the German part of the EPIC project. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. International Journal of Epidemiology 26 (Suppl 1), S71–S81.

Kroke, A. et al . (1999) Validation of a self-administered food-frequency questionnaire administered in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) Study: comparison of energy, protein and macronutrient intakes estimated with the doubly labeled water, urinary nitrogen, and repeated 24-h dietary recall methods. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70 (4), 439–447.

Kaaks, R. et al . (1997) Pilot phase studies on the accuracy of dietary intake measurements in the EPIC project: overall evaluation of results. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. International Journal of Epidemiology 26 (Suppl 1), S26 - S36.

Room, R. (1990) Measuring alcohol consumption in the United States: methods and rationales. Research Advances in Alcohol and Drug Problems 10 , 39–80.

Rehm, J. (1988) Measuring quantity, frequency, and volume of drinking. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 22 (2), 4S - 14S.

Feunekes, G.I.J. et al . (1999) Alcohol intake assessment: the sober facts. American Journal of Epidemiology 150 (1), 105–112.

Rehm, J. et al . (1999) Assessment methods for alcohol consumption, prevalence of high risk drinking and harm: a sensitivity analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology 28 , 219–224.

Polich. J.M. et al . (1980) The Course of Alcoholism: Four Years Later , Rand Corporation, Santa Monica.

Johnstone, B.M. et al . (1996) Determinants of life-course variation in the frequency of alcohol consumption: meta-analysis of studies from the collaborative alcohol-related longitudinal project. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 57 (5), 494–506.

Lemmens. P.H. et al . (1997) Measurement of lifetime exposure to alcohol: data quality of a self-administered questionnaire and impact on risk assessment. Contemporary Drug Problems 24 , 581–600.

Johnson, F.W. et al . (1998) Drinking over the life course within gender and ethnic groups: a hyperparametric analysis. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 59 (5), 568–580.

Ferraroni, M. et al . (1996) Validity and reproducibility of alcohol consumption in Italy. International Journal of Epidemiology 25 (4), 775–782.

Lowik, M.R. et al . (1999) Dependence of dietary intake estimates on the time frame of assessment. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 30 (2 Pt 2), 548–856.

Wechsler, H. et al . (1994) Health and behavioural consequences of binge drinking in college–a national survey of students at 140 campuses. Journal of the American Medical Association 272 , 1671–1677.

Knupfer, G. (1984) The risks of drunkenness (or, ebrietas resurrecta). A comparison of frequent intoxication indices and of population sub-groups as to problem risks. British Journal of Addiction 79 (2), 185–196.

Conigrave, K.M. et al . (1995) Predictive capacity of the AUDIT questionnaire for alcohol-related harm. Addiction 90 (11), 1479–1485.

Schuckit, M.A. et al . (1993) Clinical course of alcoholism in 636 male inpatients. American Journal of Psychiatry 150 , 786–792.

Norman, P. et al . (1998) Understanding binge drinking among young people: an application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Health Education Research 13 (2), 163–169.

Conrod, P.J. et al . (1997) Validation of a measure of excessive drinking: frequency per year that BAL exceeds 0.08%. Substance Use and Misuse 32 (5), 587–607.

Dawson, D.A. (1996) Temporal drinking patterns and variation in social consequences. Addiction 91 (11), 1623–1635.

Simpura, J. (1987) Finnish Drinking Habits: Results from Interview Surveys Held in 1968, 1976 and 1984 ,Finnish Foundation for Alcohol Studies, Helsinki.

Single, E. and Wortley, S. (1993) Drinking in various settings as it relates to demographic variables and level of consumption: findings from a national survey in Canada. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 54 , 590–599.

Knibbe, R. (1998) Measuring Drinking Context. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 22 (2), 15S - 20S.

Rossow, I. (1996) Alcohol-related violence: the impact of drinking pattern and drinking context. Addiction 91 (11), 1651–1661.

Room, R. (1996) Alcohol consumption and social harm–conceptual issues and historical perspectives. Contemporary Drug Problems 23 , 373–388.

Rehm, J. and Fischer, B. (1997) Measuring harm: implications for alcohol epidemiology, in Alcohol: Minimising the Harm: What Works? (eds M.A. Plant et al .,eds), Free Association Books, London, pp. 248–261.

Kallinen, H. and Gustafson, R. (1998) Alcohol and disinhibition. European Addiction Research 4 (4), 150–162.

Gureje, O. et cd. (1997) Problems related to alcohol use: a cross-cultural perspective. Culture , Medicine and Psychiatry 21 (2), 199–211.

Schmidt, L. and Room, R. (1999) Cross-cultural applicability in international classifications and research on alcohol dependence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 60 (4), 448–462.

Bloomfield, K. et al . (1999) Alcohol Consumption and Alcohol Problems among Women in European Countries . Berlin. Institute for Medical Informatics, Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Free University of Berlin (Project Final Report).

Graham, K. et al . (1996) Circumstances when drinking leads to aggression: an aver; ie;V of research findings. Contemporary Drug Problems 23 , 493–557.

Graham. K. et al . (1998) Current directions in research on understanding and preventing intoxicated aggression. Addiction 93 (5), 659–676.

Moskowitz. H. and Robinson, C. (1988) Effects of Low Doses of Alcohol on Driving-Related Skills : A Review of the Evidence , US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.

Kruger, H.1’. et al .,eds. (1993) Alcohol , Drugs and Traffic Safety - T’92 . Verlag TUV Rheinland, Cologne, Germany (Effects of low alcohol dosages: a review of the literature), pp. 763–778.

Eckhardt, M.J. et al . (1998) Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 22 , 998–1040.

McKay. D. and Schare, M.L. (1999) The effects of alcohol and alcohol expectancies on subjective reports and physiological reactivity: a meta-analysis. Addictive Behaviors 24 (5), 633–647.

Voas, R.B. (1993) Issues in cross-national comparisons of crash data. Addiction 88 (7), 959–967.

Cherpitel, C.J. (1993) Alcohol and injuries: a review of international emergency room studies. Addiction 88 (7), 923–937.

Borges, G. et al . (1998) Male drinking and violence-related injury in the emergency room. Addiction 93 (1), 103–112.

Pernanen, K. (1991) Alcohol in Human Violence , Guilford Press, New York.

Colhoun, H. et al . (1997) Ecological analysis of collectivity of alcohol consumption in England: importance of average drinker. British Medical Journal 314 , 1164–1168.

Morgenstern, H. (1998) Ecologic studies, in Modern Epidemiology (eds K.J. Rothman and S. Greenland ), Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 459–480.

Dunham, R.G. (1983) Rethinking the measurement of drinking patterns. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 44 (3), 485–493.

Mundt, J.C. et al . (1995) Cycles of alcohol dependence: frequency-domain analyses of daily drinking logs for matched alcohol-dependent and nondependent subjects. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 56 , 491–449.

Perrine, M.W. et al . (1995) Validation of daily self-reported alcohol consumption using interactive voice response (IVR) technology. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 56 , 487–490.

Searles, J.S. et al . (1995) Self-report of drinking using touch-tone telephone: extending the limits of reliable daily contact. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 56 (4), 375–382.

Finney, H. (1981) Improving the reliability of retrospective survey measures. Evaluation Review 5 (2), 207–229.

Takatsuka, N. et al . (1996) Validation of recalled food intake in the past in a Japanese population. Journal of Epidemiology 6 (1), 9–13.

Grant, K.A. et al . (1997) Are reconstructed self-reports of drinking reliable. Addiction 92 (5), 601–606.

Skinner, H.A. and Sheu, W.J. (1982) Reliability of alcohol use indices: the lifetime drinking history and the MAST. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 43 , 1157–1170.

Sobell, L.C. et al . (1988) The reliability of alcohol abusers’ self-reports of drinking and life events that occurred in the distant past. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 49 , 225–232.

McCann, S. et al . (1999) Recent alcohol intake as estimated by the Health Habits and History Questionnaire, the Harvard Semiquantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire, and a more detailed Alcohol Intake Questionnaire. American Journal of Epidemiology 150 (4), 335–340.

Sobell, L.C. et al . (1996) The reliability of the alcohol timeline followback when administered by telephone and by computer. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 42 (1), 49–54.

Bryk, A.S. and Raudenbush, S.W. (1992) Hierarchical Linear Models , Sage Publications, Newbury Park.

Hox, J.J. (1995) Applied Multilevel Analysis , TT-Publikaties, Amsterdam.

Rehm, J. and Gmel, G. (2000) Gaps and needs in international alcohol epidemiology. Journal of Substance Use 5 , 6–13

Borkenstein, R.F. et al . (1964) The Role of the Drinking Driver in Traffic Accidents , Department of Police Administration, Bloomington, IN.

Perrine, M.W. et al . (1971) Alcohol and Highway Safety: Behavioral and Medical Aspects ,National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC (DOTHS-800–599).

Hurst, P.M. et al . (1994) The Grand Rapids Dip revisited. Accident Analysis and Prevention 26 (5), 647–654.

Krüger, H.-P., ed. (1995) Das Unfallrisiko unter Alkohol: Analyse — Konsequenzen — Massnahme [Risks of Accidents under the Influence of Alcohol: Analysis — Consequences — Actions], Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart.

Rehm, J. (1993) Methodological approaches and problems in research into alcohol-related accidents and injuries. Addiction 88 (7), 885–896.

Brookoff, D. et al . (1997) Characteristics of participants in domestic violence. Assessment at the scene of domestic assault. JAMA 277 (17), 1369–1373.

Download references

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Institute for Social Planning and Social Management, University of Applied Sciences, Bern, Switzerland

Harald Klingemann

Swiss Institute for the Prevention of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems, Lausanne, Switzerland

Gerhard Gmel

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2001 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Gmel, G., Gutjahr, E. (2001). Alcohol consumption and social harm: quantitative research methodology. In: Klingemann, H., Gmel, G. (eds) Mapping the Social Consequences of Alcohol Consumption. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9725-8_4

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9725-8_4

Publisher Name : Springer, Dordrecht

Print ISBN : 978-90-481-5626-9

Online ISBN : 978-94-015-9725-8

eBook Packages : Springer Book Archive

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• My Bibliography
• Collections
• Citation manager

Save citation to file

Email citation, add to collections.

• Create a new collection
• Add to an existing collection

Add to My Bibliography

Your saved search, create a file for external citation management software, your rss feed.

• Search in PubMed
• Search in NLM Catalog
• Add to Search

Qualitative research: contributions to the study of drug use, drug abuse, and drug use(r)-related interventions

Affiliation.

• 1 Departments of Anthropology, Family and Community Medicine and Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA. [email protected]
• PMID: 15587954
• DOI: 10.1081/ja-200033233

This article describes how qualitative social science research has and can contribute to the emerging field of drug and alcohol studies. An eight-stage model of formative-reformative research is presented as a heuristic to outline the different ways in which qualitative research may be used to better understand micro and macro dimensions of drug use and distribution; more effectively design, monitor and evaluate drug use(r)-related interventions; and address the politics of drug/drug program representation. Tobacco is used as an exemplar to introduce the reader to the range of research issues that a qualitative researcher may focus upon during the initial stage of formative research. Ethnographic research on alcohol use among Native Americans is highlighted to illustrate the importance of closely examining ethnicity as well as class when investigating patterns of drug use. To familiarize the reader with qualitative research, we describe the range of methods commonly employed and the ways in which qualitative research may complement as well as contribute to quantitative research. In describing the later stages of the formative-reformative process, we consider both the use of qualitative research in the evaluation and critical assessment of drug use(r)-intervention programs, and the role of qualitative research in critically assessing the politics of prevention programs. Finally, we discuss the challenges faced by qualitative researchers when engaging in transdisciplinary research.

PubMed Disclaimer

Similar articles

• Using social networks to understand and prevent substance use: a transdisciplinary perspective. Valente TW, Gallaher P, Mouttapa M. Valente TW, et al. Subst Use Misuse. 2004;39(10-12):1685-712. doi: 10.1081/ja-200033210. Subst Use Misuse. 2004. PMID: 15587948 Review.
• Stage theory and research on tobacco, alcohol, and other drug use. Werch CE, Anzalone D. Werch CE, et al. J Drug Educ. 1995;25(2):81-98. doi: 10.2190/Q3YY-M40L-H4A2-8404. J Drug Educ. 1995. PMID: 7658298 Review.
• The motivation, skills, and decision-making model of "drug abuse" prevention. Sussman S, Earleywine M, Wills T, Cody C, Biglan T, Dent CW, Newcomb MD. Sussman S, et al. Subst Use Misuse. 2004;39(10-12):1971-2016. doi: 10.1081/ja-200034769. Subst Use Misuse. 2004. PMID: 15587955 Review.
• A transdisciplinary focus on drug abuse prevention: an introduction. Sussman S, Stacy AW, Johnson CA, Pentz MA, Robertson E. Sussman S, et al. Subst Use Misuse. 2004;39(10-12):1441-56. doi: 10.1081/ja-200033194. Subst Use Misuse. 2004. PMID: 15587943
• Prevention of adolescent substance abuse through social skill development. Pentz MA. Pentz MA. NIDA Res Monogr. 1983;47:195-232. NIDA Res Monogr. 1983. PMID: 6419116
• Different phases of ATS use call for different interventions: a large qualitative study in Europe. Liebregts N, Rigoni R, Petruželka B, Barták M, Rowicka M, Zurhold H, Schiffer K. Liebregts N, et al. Harm Reduct J. 2022 Apr 12;19(1):36. doi: 10.1186/s12954-022-00617-5. Harm Reduct J. 2022. PMID: 35413972 Free PMC article.
• Vanilla bisquits and lobola bridewealth: parallel discourses on early pregnancy and schooling in rural Zambia. Blystad A, Moland KM, Munsaka E, Sandøy I, Zulu J. Blystad A, et al. BMC Public Health. 2020 Oct 1;20(1):1485. doi: 10.1186/s12889-020-09555-y. BMC Public Health. 2020. PMID: 32998733 Free PMC article.
• Building cooperative learning to address alcohol and other drug abuse in Mpumalanga, South Africa: a participatory action research process. Oladeinde O, Mabetha D, Twine R, Hove J, Van Der Merwe M, Byass P, Witter S, Kahn K, D'Ambruoso L. Oladeinde O, et al. Glob Health Action. 2020;13(1):1726722. doi: 10.1080/16549716.2020.1726722. Glob Health Action. 2020. PMID: 32116156 Free PMC article.
• Which individual, social and environmental influences shape key phases in the amphetamine type stimulant use trajectory? A systematic narrative review and thematic synthesis of the qualitative literature. O'Donnell A, Addison M, Spencer L, Zurhold H, Rosenkranz M, McGovern R, Gilvarry E, Martens MS, Verthein U, Kaner E. O'Donnell A, et al. Addiction. 2019 Jan;114(1):24-47. doi: 10.1111/add.14434. Epub 2018 Oct 12. Addiction. 2019. PMID: 30176077 Free PMC article.
• Strengthening validity in studies of pelvic floor disorders through qualitative research: an example from Ethiopia. Blystad A, Rortveit G, Gjerde JL, Muleta M, Moland KM. Blystad A, et al. Int Urogynecol J. 2018 May;29(5):679-684. doi: 10.1007/s00192-017-3515-0. Epub 2017 Nov 18. Int Urogynecol J. 2018. PMID: 29151168

Publication types

• Search in MeSH

Related information

• PubChem Compound
• PubChem Substance

LinkOut - more resources

Full text sources.

• Taylor & Francis
• MedlinePlus Consumer Health Information
• MedlinePlus Health Information

• Citation Manager

NCBI Literature Resources

MeSH PMC Bookshelf Disclaimer

The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited.

500 Quantitative Research Titles and Topics for Students and Researchers

• February 28, 2024

Are you a student or researcher looking for a quantitative research topic? Look no further! We have compiled a list of 500 research titles and topics across various disciplines to help you find inspiration and get started on your research journey.

1. Business and Economics

Explore the world of business and economics with these quantitative research topics:

• “Statistical Analysis of Supply Chain Disruptions on Retail Sales”
• “Quantitative Examination of Consumer Loyalty Programs in the Fast Food Industry”
• “Predicting Stock Market Trends Using Machine Learning Algorithms”
• “Influence of Workplace Environment on Employee Productivity: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Economic Policies on Small Businesses: A Regression Analysis”
• “Customer Satisfaction and Profit Margins: A Quantitative Correlation Study”
• “Analyzing the Role of Marketing in Brand Recognition: A Statistical Overview”
• “Quantitative Effects of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumer Trust”
• “Price Elasticity of Demand for Luxury Goods: A Case Study”
• “The Relationship Between Fiscal Policy and Inflation Rates: A Time-Series Analysis”
• “Factors Influencing E-commerce Conversion Rates: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Examining the Correlation Between Interest Rates and Consumer Spending”

2. Education

For those interested in the field of education, consider these quantitative research topics:

• “Standardized Testing and Academic Performance: A Quantitative Evaluation”
• “Teaching Strategies and Student Learning Outcomes in Secondary Schools: A Quantitative Study”
• “The Relationship Between Extracurricular Activities and Academic Success”
• “Influence of Parental Involvement on Children’s Educational Achievements”
• “Digital Literacy in Primary Schools: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Learning Outcomes in Blended vs. Traditional Classrooms: A Comparative Analysis”
• “Correlation Between Teacher Experience and Student Success Rates”
• “Analyzing the Impact of Classroom Technology on Reading Comprehension”
• “Gender Differences in STEM Fields: A Quantitative Analysis of Enrollment Data”
• “The Relationship Between Homework Load and Academic Burnout”
• “Assessment of Special Education Programs in Public Schools”
• “Role of Peer Tutoring in Improving Academic Performance: A Quantitative Study”

3. Medicine and Health Sciences

Delve into the world of medicine and health sciences with these quantitative research topics:

• “The Impact of Sleep Duration on Cardiovascular Health: A Cross-sectional Study”
• “Analyzing the Efficacy of Various Antidepressants: A Meta-Analysis”
• “Patient Satisfaction in Telehealth Services: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Dietary Habits and Incidence of Heart Disease: A Quantitative Review”
• “Correlations Between Stress Levels and Immune System Functioning”
• “Smoking and Lung Function: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Influence of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults”
• “Antibiotic Resistance Patterns in Community Hospitals: A Quantitative Study”
• “The Efficacy of Vaccination Programs in Controlling Disease Spread: A Time-Series Analysis”
• “Role of Social Determinants in Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Impact of Hospital Design on Patient Recovery Rates”
• “Quantitative Analysis of Dietary Choices and Obesity Rates in Children”

4. Social Sciences

Explore the social sciences with these quantitative research topics:

• “Examining Social Inequality through Wage Distribution: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Parental Divorce on Child Development: A Longitudinal Study”
• “Social Media and its Effect on Political Polarization: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “The Relationship Between Religion and Social Attitudes: A Statistical Overview”
• “Influence of Socioeconomic Status on Educational Achievement”
• “Quantifying the Effects of Community Programs on Crime Reduction”
• “Public Opinion and Immigration Policies: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Analyzing the Gender Representation in Political Offices: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Mass Media on Public Opinion: A Regression Analysis”
• “Influence of Urban Design on Social Interactions in Communities”
• “The Role of Social Support in Mental Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Examining the Relationship Between Substance Abuse and Employment Status”

5. Engineering and Technology

For those interested in engineering and technology, consider these quantitative research topics:

• “Performance Evaluation of Different Machine Learning Algorithms in Autonomous Vehicles”
• “Material Science: A Quantitative Analysis of Stress-Strain Properties in Various Alloys”
• “Impacts of Data Center Cooling Solutions on Energy Consumption”
• “Analyzing the Reliability of Renewable Energy Sources in Grid Management”
• “Optimization of 5G Network Performance: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Quantifying the Effects of Aerodynamics on Fuel Efficiency in Commercial Airplanes”
• “The Relationship Between Software Complexity and Bug Frequency”
• “Machine Learning in Predictive Maintenance: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Wearable Technologies and their Impact on Healthcare Monitoring”
• “Quantitative Assessment of Cybersecurity Measures in Financial Institutions”
• “Analysis of Noise Pollution from Urban Transportation Systems”
• “The Influence of Architectural Design on Energy Efficiency in Buildings”

Research topics in Biological Science, Physics, Chemistry, Nursing, Political Science, Statistics and Cybersecurity 👇👇👇

4. Physics Research Topics for PhD

Quantum computing: theory and applications. Topological phases of matter and their applications in quantum information science. Quantum field theory and its applications to high-energy physics. Experimental investigations of the Higgs boson and other particles in the Standard Model. Theoretical and experimental study of dark matter and dark energy. Applications of quantum optics in quantum information science and quantum computing. Nanophotonics and nanomaterials for quantum technologies. Development of advanced laser sources for fundamental physics and engineering applications. Study of exotic states of matter and their properties using high energy physics techniques. Quantum information processing and communication using optical fibers and integrated waveguides. Advanced computational methods for modeling complex systems in physics. Development of novel materials with unique properties for energy applications. Magnetic and spintronic materials and their applications in computing and data storage. Quantum simulations and quantum annealing for solving complex optimization problems. Gravitational waves and their detection using interferometry techniques. Study of quantum coherence and entanglement in complex quantum systems. Development of novel imaging techniques for medical and biological applications. Nanoelectronics and quantum electronics for computing and communication. High-temperature superconductivity and its applications in power generation and storage. Quantum mechanics and its applications in condensed matter physics. Development of new methods for detecting and analyzing subatomic particles. Atomic, molecular, and optical physics for precision measurements and quantum technologies. Neutrino physics and its role in astrophysics and cosmology. Quantum information theory and its applications in cryptography and secure communication. Study of topological defects and their role in phase transitions and cosmology. Experimental study of strong and weak interactions in nuclear physics. Study of the properties of ultra-cold atomic gases and Bose-Einstein condensates. Theoretical and experimental study of non-equilibrium quantum systems and their dynamics. Development of new methods for ultrafast spectroscopy and imaging. Study of the properties of materials under extreme conditions of pressure and temperature.

10. Materials Chemistry Research Topics

Development of new advanced materials for energy storage and conversion Synthesis and characterization of nanomaterials for environmental remediation Design and fabrication of stimuli-responsive materials for drug delivery Investigation of electrocatalytic materials for fuel cells and electrolysis Fabrication of flexible and stretchable electronic materials for wearable devices Development of novel materials for high-performance electronic devices Exploration of organic-inorganic hybrid materials for optoelectronic applications Study of corrosion-resistant coatings for metallic materials Investigation of biomaterials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine Synthesis and characterization of metal-organic frameworks for gas storage and separation Design and fabrication of new materials for water purification Investigation of carbon-based materials for supercapacitors and batteries Synthesis and characterization of self-healing materials for structural applications Development of new materials for catalysis and chemical reactions Exploration of magnetic materials for spintronic devices Investigation of thermoelectric materials for energy conversion Study of 2D materials for electronic and optoelectronic applications Development of sustainable and eco-friendly materials for packaging Fabrication of advanced materials for sensors and actuators Investigation of materials for high-temperature applications such as aerospace and nuclear industries.

11. Nuclear Chemistry Research Topics

Nuclear fission and fusion reactions Nuclear power plant safety and radiation protection Radioactive waste management and disposal Nuclear fuel cycle and waste reprocessing Nuclear energy and its impact on climate change Radiation therapy for cancer treatment Radiopharmaceuticals for medical imaging Nuclear medicine and its role in diagnostics Nuclear forensics and nuclear security Isotopic analysis in environmental monitoring and pollution control Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Radiation damage in materials and radiation effects on electronic devices Nuclear data evaluation and validation Nuclear reactors design and optimization Nuclear fuel performance and irradiation behavior Nuclear energy systems integration and optimization Neutron and gamma-ray detection and measurement techniques Nuclear astrophysics and cosmology Nuclear weapons proliferation and disarmament.

12. Medicinal Chemistry Research Topics

Drug discovery and development Design and synthesis of novel drugs Medicinal chemistry of natural products Structure-activity relationships (SAR) of drugs Rational drug design using computational methods Target identification and validation Drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics (DMPK) Drug delivery systems Development of new antibiotics Design of drugs for the treatment of cancer Development of drugs for the treatment of neurological disorders Medicinal chemistry of peptides and proteins Development of drugs for the treatment of infectious diseases Discovery of new antiviral agents Design of drugs for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases Medicinal chemistry of enzyme inhibitors Development of drugs for the treatment of inflammatory diseases Design of drugs for the treatment of metabolic disorders Medicinal chemistry of anti-cancer agents Development of drugs for the treatment of rare diseases. 13. Medicinal Chemistry Research Topics

Drug discovery and development Design and synthesis of novel drugs Medicinal chemistry of natural products Structure-activity relationships (SAR) of drugs Rational drug design using computational methods Target identification and validation Drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics (DMPK) Drug delivery systems Development of new antibiotics Design of drugs for the treatment of cancer Development of drugs for the treatment of neurological disorders Medicinal chemistry of peptides and proteins Development of drugs for the treatment of infectious diseases Discovery of new antiviral agents Design of drugs for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases Medicinal chemistry of enzyme inhibitors Development of drugs for the treatment of inflammatory diseases Design of drugs for the treatment of metabolic disorders Medicinal chemistry of anti-cancer agents Development of drugs for the treatment of rare diseases.

14. Cyber Security Research Topics

The role of machine learning in detecting cyber threats The impact of cloud computing on cyber security Cyber warfare and its effects on national security The rise of ransomware attacks and their prevention methods Evaluating the effectiveness of network intrusion detection systems The use of blockchain technology in enhancing cyber security Investigating the role of cyber security in protecting critical infrastructure The ethics of hacking and its implications for cyber security professionals Developing a secure software development lifecycle (SSDLC) The role of artificial intelligence in cyber security Evaluating the effectiveness of multi-factor authentication Investigating the impact of social engineering on cyber security The role of cyber insurance in mitigating cyber risks Developing secure IoT (Internet of Things) systems Investigating the challenges of cyber security in the healthcare industry Evaluating the effectiveness of penetration testing Investigating the impact of big data on cyber security The role of quantum computing in breaking current encryption methods Developing a secure BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) policy The impact of cyber security breaches on a company’s reputation The role of cyber security in protecting financial transactions Evaluating the effectiveness of anti-virus software The use of biometrics in enhancing cyber security Investigating the impact of cyber security on the supply chain The role of cyber security in protecting personal privacy Developing a secure cloud storage system Evaluating the effectiveness of firewall technologies Investigating the impact of cyber security on e-commerce The role of cyber security in protecting intellectual property Developing a secure remote access policy Investigating the challenges of securing mobile devices The role of cyber security in protecting government agencies Evaluating the effectiveness of cyber security training programs Investigating the impact of cyber security on the aviation industry The role of cyber security in protecting online gaming platforms Developing a secure password management system Investigating the challenges of securing smart homes The impact of cyber security on the automotive industry The role of cyber security in protecting social media platforms Developing a secure email systeM

14b. Cybersecurity Research Topic

Evaluating the effectiveness of encryption methods

Investigating the impact of cyber security on the hospitality industry The role of cyber security in protecting online education platforms Developing a secure backup and recovery strategy Investigating the challenges of securing virtual environments The impact of cyber security on the energy sector The role of cyber security in protecting online voting systems Developing a secure chat platform Investigating the impact of cyber security on the entertainment industry The role of cyber security in protecting online dating platforms Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Cybersecurity Quantum Cryptography and Post-Quantum Cryptography Internet of Things (IoT) Security Developing a framework for cyber resilience in critical infrastructure Understanding the fundamentals of encryption algorithms Cyber security challenges for small and medium-sized businesses Developing secure coding practices for web applications Investigating the role of cyber security in protecting online privacy Network security protocols and their importance Social engineering attacks and how to prevent them Investigating the challenges of securing personal devices and home networks Developing a basic incident response plan for cyber attacks The impact of cyber security on the financial sector Understanding the role of cyber security in protecting critical infrastructure Mobile device security and common vulnerabilities Investigating the challenges of securing cloud-based systems Cyber security and the Internet of Things (IoT) Biometric authentication and its role in cyber security Developing secure communication protocols for online messaging platforms The importance of cyber security in e-commerce Understanding the threats and vulnerabilities associated with social media platforms Investigating the role of cyber security in protecting intellectual property The basics of malware analysis and detection Developing a basic cyber security awareness training program Understanding the threats and vulnerabilities associated with public Wi-Fi networks Investigating the challenges of securing online banking systems The importance of password management and best practices Cyber security and cloud computing Understanding the role of cyber security in protecting national security Investigating the challenges of securing online gaming platforms The basics of cyber threat intelligence Developing secure authentication mechanisms for online services The impact of cyber security on the healthcare sector Understanding the basics of digital forensics Investigating the challenges of securing smart home devices The role of cyber security in protecting against cyberbullying Developing secure file transfer protocols for sensitive information Understanding the challenges of securing remote work environments Investigating the role of cyber security in protecting against identity theft The basics of network intrusion detection and prevention systems Developing secure payment processing systems Understanding the role of cyber security in protecting against ransomware attacks

14d. Cybersecurity Research Topic

Investigating the challenges of securing public transportation systems The basics of network segmentation and its importance in cyber security Developing secure user access management systems Understanding the challenges of securing supply chain networks The role of cyber security in protecting against cyber espionage Investigating the challenges of securing online educational platforms The importance of data backup and disaster recovery planning Developing secure email communication protocols Understanding the basics of threat modeling and risk assessment Investigating the challenges of securing online voting systems The role of cyber security in protecting against cyber terrorism Developing secure remote access protocols for corporate networks. Investigating the challenges of securing artificial intelligence systems The role of machine learning in enhancing cyber threat intelligence Evaluating the effectiveness of deception technologies in cyber security Investigating the impact of cyber security on the adoption of emerging technologies The role of cyber security in protecting smart cities Developing a risk-based approach to cyber security governance Investigating the impact of cyber security on economic growth and innovation The role of cyber security in protecting human rights in the digital age Developing a secure digital identity system Investigating the impact of cyber security on global political stability The role of cyber security in protecting the Internet of Things (IoT) Developing a secure supply chain management system Investigating the challenges of securing cloud-native applications The role of cyber security in protecting against insider threats Developing a secure software-defined network (SDN) Investigating the impact of cyber security on the adoption of mobile payments The role of cyber security in protecting against cyber warfare Developing a secure distributed ledger technology (DLT) system Investigating the impact of cyber security on the digital divide The role of cyber security in protecting against state-sponsored attacks Developing a secure Internet infrastructure Investigating the challenges of securing industrial control systems (ICS) The role of cyber security in protecting against cyber terrorism Developing a secure quantum communication system Investigating the impact of cyber security on global trade and commerce The role of cyber security in protecting against cyber espionage Developing a secure decentralized authentication system Investigating the challenges of securing edge computing systems The role of cyber security in protecting against cyberbullying Developing a secure hybrid cloud system Investigating the impact of cyber security on the adoption of smart cities The role of cyber security in protecting against cyber propaganda Developing a secure blockchain-based voting system Investigating the challenges of securing cyber-physical systems (CPS) The role of cyber security in protecting against cyber hate speech Developing a secure machine learning system Investigating the impact of cyber security on the adoption of autonomous vehicles The role of cyber security in protecting against cyber stalking Developing a secure data-driven decision-making system Investigating the challenges of securing social media platforms The role of cyber security in protecting against cyberbullying in schools Developing a secure open source software ecosystem Investigating the impact of cyber security on the adoption of smart homes The role of cyber security in protecting against cyber fraud Developing a secure software supply chain Investigating the challenges of securing cloud-based healthcare systems The role of cyber security in protecting against cyber harassment Developing a secure multi-party computation system Investigating the impact of cyber security on the adoption of virtual and augmented reality technologies. Cybersecurity in Cloud Computing Environments Cyber Threat Intelligence and Analysis Blockchain Security Data Privacy and Protection Cybersecurity in Industrial Control Systems Mobile Device Security The importance of cyber security in the digital age The ethics of cyber security and privacy The role of government in regulating cyber security Cyber security threats and vulnerabilities in the healthcare sector Understanding the risks associated with social media and cyber security The impact of cyber security on e-commerce Investigating the challenges of securing cloud-based systems Cyber security and the Internet of Things (IoT) The effectiveness of cyber security awareness training programs The impact of cyber security on the financial sector The role of biometric authentication in cyber security Understanding the basics of digital forensics Investigating the challenges of securing smart home devices The importance of password management in cyber security The basics of network security protocols and their importance The challenges of securing online gaming platforms The role of cyber security in protecting national security The impact of cyber security on the legal sector Investigating the challenges of securing online educational platforms The ethics of cyber warfare

15. Nursing Research Topic Ideas

The effectiveness of telemedicine in providing nursing care. The relationship between nurse staffing levels and patient outcomes. The impact of nurse-led interventions on medication adherence in chronic disease management. The effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in reducing burnout among nurses. The influence of cultural competence on patient satisfaction with nursing care. The effects of virtual reality simulation training on nursing students’ clinical competencies. The impact of nurse practitioner-led care on chronic disease management in primary care. The effectiveness of nurse-led discharge planning on patient outcomes. The influence of nurse-to-patient ratios on the incidence of hospital-acquired infections. The effectiveness of nurse-led health coaching on lifestyle modifications in patients with chronic diseases. The effects of interprofessional collaboration on patient outcomes in acute care settings. The impact of nurse-led patient education on medication adherence in older adults. The relationship between nurse work environment and patient safety outcomes. The effectiveness of nurse-led cognitive-behavioral therapy on anxiety and depression in patients with chronic pain. The influence of nurse staffing levels on patient satisfaction with nursing care. The effects of a nurse-led palliative care program on quality of life for patients with terminal illnesses. The impact of nurse-led group therapy on social support and quality of life in patients with chronic illnesses. The effectiveness of nurse-led motivational interviewing on smoking cessation in patients with mental health disorders. The relationship between nurse staffing levels and patient length of stay in acute care settings. The effects of nurse-led behavioral interventions on weight loss and management in patients with obesity. The influence of nurse-led interventions on self-care management in patients with heart failure. The effectiveness of nurse-led mindfulness-based stress reduction programs on caregiver burden in family caregivers of patients with dementia. The impact of nurse-led interventions on pain management in patients with sickle cell disease. The relationship between nurse staffing levels and patient readmission rates. The effects of nurse-led motivational interviewing on medication adherence in patients with hypertension. The influence of nurse-led telehealth programs on glycemic control in patients with diabetes. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on patient outcomes in postoperative care. The impact of nurse-led interventions on patient satisfaction with hospital food services. The relationship between nurse staffing levels and patient falls in acute care settings. The effects of nurse-led interventions on patient anxiety and stress in the preoperative period. The influence of nurse-led interventions on wound healing in patients with chronic ulcers. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on postpartum depression in new mothers. The impact of nurse-led transitional care on hospital readmissions in older adults. The relationship between nurse work environment and nurse retention. The effects of nurse-led music therapy on anxiety and depression in patients with dementia. The influence of nurse-led mindfulness-based interventions on sleep quality in patients with insomnia. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on symptom management in patients with cancer. The impact of nurse-led interventions on patient satisfaction with care coordination. The relationship between nurse staffing levels and patient mortality in critical care settings. The effects of nurse-led interventions on patient outcomes in end-of-life care. The impact of mindfulness meditation on the mental health of nursing students. The effect of patient education on the adherence to medication regimens in older adults. The role of nurse-led interventions in improving physical activity levels in sedentary individuals.

15 b. Nursing Research Topic ideas

Nursing Research Topic Ideas Nursing Research Topic Ideas are as follows:

15c. Nursing Research Topic

The role of nurses in promoting sexual health education among adolescents. The effect of a nurse-led peer support program on mental health outcomes in individuals with substance use disorders. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing hospital-acquired pressure ulcers. The effectiveness of nurse-led education on nutrition and physical activity in pregnant women. The role of nurses in addressing health disparities in marginalized communities. The effect of nurse-led mindfulness interventions on the mental health of healthcare providers. The impact of a nurse-led program on medication adherence and quality of life in individuals with HIV/AIDS. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions in reducing healthcare-associated infections in long-term care facilities. The role of nurses in promoting palliative care for individuals with advanced dementia. The effect of a nurse-led exercise program on cognitive function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing falls in hospitalized older adults. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on reducing medication errors in hospitalized patients. The role of nurses in promoting sexual and reproductive health among LGBTQ+ individuals. The effect of nurse-led interventions on improving medication adherence in individuals with mental health conditions. The impact of nurse-led coaching on self-care management in individuals with chronic kidney disease. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on improving sleep quality in individuals with chronic pain. The role of nurses in promoting oral health in individuals with intellectual disabilities. The effect of nurse-led interventions on reducing the incidence of hospital-acquired delirium. The impact of a nurse-led program on the self-care management of individuals with heart failure. The effectiveness of nurse-led education on self-care management in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The role of nurses in promoting healthy lifestyle behaviors in adolescents with type 1 diabetes. The effect of a nurse-led program on the prevention of central line-associated bloodstream infections. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing healthcare costs for individuals with chronic conditions. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on improving the quality of life of individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The role of nurses in promoting early detection and management of sepsis in hospitalized patients. The effect of nurse-led education on promoting breastfeeding among new mothers. The impact of a nurse-led program on the management of chronic pain in individuals with sickle cell disease. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on improving medication adherence in individuals with heart failure. The role of nurses in promoting health literacy and patient empowerment among individuals with low health literacy. The effect of a nurse-led program on the prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infections. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing readmission rates in individuals with heart failure. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on improving medication adherence in individuals with chronic kidney disease. The role of nurses in promoting self-care management among individuals with depression. The effect of a nurse-led program on improving the quality of life of individuals with spinal cord injuries. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing medication errors in outpatient settings. The effectiveness of nurse-led education on promoting healthy lifestyle behaviors among older adults with chronic conditions. The role of nurses in promoting self-management among individuals with schizophrenia. The effect of nurse-led interventions on improving mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic pain. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing hospital length of stay for individuals with heart failure. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on improving the quality of life of individuals with chronic hepatitis C. The role of nurses in promoting pain management strategies for patients with sickle cell disease. The effect of a nurse-led education program on improving the quality of life for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and their caregivers. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing healthcare-associated infections in the neonatal intensive care unit. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on improving self-care management and quality of life for patients with chronic kidney disease. The role of nurses in promoting patient safety through effective communication strategies. The effect of a nurse-led program on reducing readmission rates in patients with congestive heart failure. The impact of nurse-led interventions on improving end-of-life care for patients with advanced cancer. The effectiveness of nurse-led education on improving the nutritional status of patients with diabetes. The role of nurses in promoting evidence-based practices for the prevention and treatment of pressure ulcers. The effect of nurse-led interventions on reducing anxiety and depression in patients with chronic pain. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing medication errors in the emergency department. The effectiveness of nurse-led education on promoting tobacco cessation among patients with respiratory diseases. The role of nurses in promoting culturally competent care for patients from diverse backgrounds. The effect of a nurse-led program on improving sleep quality and quantity for patients with sleep disorders. The impact of nurse-led interventions on improving self-management and quality of life for patients with heart failure. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on reducing the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients. The role of nurses in promoting early recognition and management of sepsis in the emergency department. The effect of nurse-led education on improving patient satisfaction with pain management. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing healthcare costs for patients with chronic conditions. The effectiveness of nurse-led education on promoting adherence to medication regimens among patients with HIV/AIDS. The role of nurses in promoting patient-centered care for patients with chronic diseases. The effect of a nurse-led program on improving pain management in patients with dementia. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing the incidence of falls in hospitalized patients. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on improving wound healing in patients with chronic wounds. The role of nurses in promoting early detection and management of delirium in hospitalized patients. The effect of nurse-led education on improving patient outcomes after cardiac surgery. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing healthcare-associated infections in long-term care facilities. The effectiveness of nurse-led education on promoting healthy eating behaviors among adolescents with obesity. The role of nurses in promoting patient safety through effective hand hygiene practices. The effect of a nurse-led program on improving functional status and quality of life for patients with Parkinson’s disease. The impact of nurse-led interventions on reducing readmission rates in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The effectiveness of nurse-led interventions on improving patient outcomes after hip replacement surgery. The role of nurses in promoting effective communication between patients and healthcare providers.

16. Political Science Research Topics

The effects of globalization on national sovereignty The role of political parties in shaping policy outcomes The impact of the media on political decision-making The effectiveness of international organizations in promoting global cooperation The relationship between democracy and economic development The influence of interest groups on political outcomes The role of political ideology in shaping policy preferences The impact of identity politics on political discourse The challenges of democratic governance in developing countries The role of social media in shaping political attitudes and behavior The impact of immigration on electoral politics The influence of religion on political participation and voting behavior The effects of gerrymandering on electoral outcomes The role of the judiciary in shaping public policy The impact of campaign finance regulations on electoral outcomes The effects of lobbying on policy outcomes The role of civil society in promoting democratic accountability The impact of political polarization on democratic governance The influence of public opinion on policy decisions The effectiveness of international sanctions in promoting human rights The relationship between corruption and economic development The role of the media in promoting government transparency The impact of social movements on political change The effects of terrorism on domestic and international politics The role of gender in shaping political outcomes The influence of international law on state behavior The impact of environmental policy on economic development The role of NGOs in promoting global governance The effects of globalization on human rights The relationship between economic inequality and political polarization The role of education in promoting democratic citizenship The impact of nationalism on international politics The influence of international trade on state behavior The effects of foreign aid on economic development The role of political institutions in promoting democratic stability The impact of electoral systems on political representation The effects of colonialism on contemporary political systems The relationship between religion and state power The role of human rights organizations in promoting democratic accountability

18. Statistics Research Topics

Analysis of the effectiveness of different marketing strategies on consumer behavior. An investigation into the relationship between economic growth and environmental sustainability. A study of the effects of social media on mental health and well-being. A comparative analysis of the educational outcomes of public and private schools. The impact of climate change on agriculture and food security. A survey of the prevalence and causes of workplace stress in different industries. A statistical analysis of crime rates in urban and rural areas. An evaluation of the effectiveness of alternative medicine treatments. A study of the relationship between income inequality and health outcomes. A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of different weight loss programs. An investigation into the factors that affect job satisfaction among employees. A statistical analysis of the relationship between poverty and crime. A study of the factors that influence the success of small businesses. A survey of the prevalence and causes of childhood obesity. An evaluation of the effectiveness of drug addiction treatment programs. A statistical analysis of the relationship between gender and leadership in organizations. A study of the relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement. An investigation into the causes and consequences of income inequality. A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of different types of therapy for mental health conditions. A survey of the prevalence and causes of substance abuse among teenagers. An evaluation of the effectiveness of online education compared to traditional classroom learning. A statistical analysis of the impact of globalization on different industries. A study of the relationship between social media use and political polarization. An investigation into the factors that influence customer loyalty in the retail industry. A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of different types of advertising. A survey of the prevalence and causes of workplace discrimination. An evaluation of the effectiveness of different types of employee training programs. A statistical analysis of the relationship between air pollution and health outcomes. A study of the factors that affect employee turnover rates. An investigation into the causes and consequences of income mobility. A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of different types of leadership styles. A survey of the prevalence and causes of mental health disorders among college students. An evaluation of the effectiveness of different types of cancer treatments. A statistical analysis of the impact of social media influencers on consumer behavior. A study of the factors that influence the adoption of renewable energy sources. An investigation into the relationship between alcohol consumption and health outcomes. A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of different types of conflict resolution strategies. A survey of the prevalence and causes of childhood poverty. An evaluation of the effectiveness of different types of diversity training programs. A statistical analysis of the relationship between immigration and economic growth. A study of the factors that influence customer satisfaction in the service industry. An investigation into the causes and consequences of urbanization. A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of different types of economic policies. A survey of the prevalence and causes of elder abuse. An evaluation of the effectiveness of different types of rehabilitation programs for prisoners. A statistical analysis of the impact of automation on different industries. A study of the factors that influence employee productivity in the workplace. An investigation into the causes and consequences of gentrification. A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of different types of humanitarian aid. A survey of the prevalence and causes of homelessness. Exploring the relationship between socioeconomic status and access to healthcare services

These are just a few examples from our extensive list of quantitative research titles and topics. Whether you are interested in business, education, medicine, social sciences, engineering, or technology, there is something for everyone. Remember to choose a topic that aligns with your interests and expertise, and conduct thorough research to contribute to the existing body of knowledge in your field. Good luck!

Share this:

• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on X (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Telegram (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on WhatsApp (Opens in new window)

Related Tags

• academic research
• quantitative research
• research topics

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

You May Also Like

A Self-Guide for Immigrating to Canada as an International Student

• February 26, 2024

Apply for Free to Mount Allison University’s Graduate Programs in New Brunswick, Canada

• March 2, 2024

Compulsory and Supporting Documents Needed for U.S. Student Visa Interview

How to Apply for Scholarships as an International Student in Austria

• February 24, 2024

Important Update for Accepted International Applicants to NBCC for Fall 2024 Academic Intake

• March 10, 2024

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• v.10(4); 2008 Dec

Concepts and Challenges in Quantitative Pharmacology and Model-Based Drug Development

Liping zhang.

Bristol Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey USA

Marc Pfister

Bernd meibohm.

Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 874 Union Avenue, Suite 5p, Memphis, Tennessee 38163 USA

Model-based drug development (MBDD) has been recognized as a concept to improve the efficiency of drug development. The acceptance of MBDD from regulatory agencies, industry, and academia has been growing, yet today’s drug development practice is still distinctly distant from MBDD. This manuscript is aimed at clarifying the concept of MBDD and proposing practical approaches for implementing MBDD in the pharmaceutical industry. The following concepts are defined and distinguished: PK–PD modeling, exposure–response modeling, pharmacometrics, quantitative pharmacology, and MBDD. MBDD is viewed as a paradigm and a mindset in which models constitute the instruments and aims of drug development efforts. MBDD covers the whole spectrum of the drug development process instead of being limited to a certain type of modeling technique or application area. The implementation of MBDD requires pharmaceutical companies to foster innovation and make changes at three levels: (1) to establish mindsets that are willing to get acquainted with MBDD, (2) to align processes that are adaptive to the requirements of MBDD, and (3) to create a closely collaborating organization in which all members play a role in MBDD. Pharmaceutical companies that are able to embrace the changes MBDD poses will likely be able to improve their success rate in drug development, and the beneficiaries will ultimately be the patients in need.

INTRODUCTION

It is widely acknowledged that the drug development process currently employed by the pharmaceutical industry is ailing. This is illustrated by two apparent paradoxes: (1) despite an approximately eightfold increase in inflation-adjusted expenditures for research and development over the last 35 years, the number of yearly approvals for new molecular entities in the US has been stagnant ( 1 ); (2) while disciplines such as systems biology, genomics, chemistry, and biotechnology have made tremendous progress over the past few decades, the attrition rate for chemical entities in drug development remains high, with 40–50% of development programs being discontinued even in clinical Phase III ( 2 , 3 ). The problems leading to this inefficiency of the drug development process have drawn the attention of many different parties and stakeholders, and efforts have been brought forward to diagnose and remediate them ( 2 – 5 ). The Critical Path Initiative led by the US Food and Drug Administration is one of these efforts, which proposes the utilization of model-based approaches to improve drug development knowledge management and decision making ( 6 ).

The concept of model-based drug development (MBDD) originated some time ago as the application of quantitative assessments of drug disposition and drug action evolved ( 7 – 13 ) and was landmarked by the “learn-confirm paradigm” proposed by Lewis Sheiner in 1997 ( 14 ). The acceptance of MBDD has been growing over the last decade: Various consortiums and working groups have been formed (e.g., American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists (AAPS) Quantitative Pharmacology (QX) Task Force), conferences and workshops are being held (e.g., American Conference on Pharmacometrics, NIH/NIGMS Quantitative and Systems Pharmacology Workshop, symposia by AAPS and the American College of Clinical Pharmacology), training programs have been established ( 15 ), and companies are actively hiring scientists that have modeling skills ( 15 ). Yet, there is still a considerable gap between today’s drug development practices and MBDD for a multitude of reasons. The purpose of this article is twofold: first, we would like to clarify the concept of MBDD and distinguish it from other related concepts, techniques, and disciplines; second, we would like to dissect the challenges in implementing MBDD in the pharmaceutical industry and propose approaches to alleviate if not to overcome them. These two objectives seem to be apart from each other: the first one focuses on general concepts, while the second one deals with practical implementation. In the following paragraphs, however, we will show how the two objectives are interrelated and why they are both important.

MODEL-BASED DRUG DEVELOPMENT: GETTING THE DEFINITION STRAIGHT

To promote a more widespread acceptance of MBDD, it is important to have an agreed-upon set of standard definitions for the terms that are often associated with MBDD, as inconsistencies in the definition and usage of these terms not only confuse the stakeholders and, thus, hinder the progress of MBDD but also hamper the presentation in communications with outside groups. In the following, we present our understanding of “pharmacokinetic (PK)–pharmacodynamic (PD) modeling,” “exposure–response modeling,” “pharmacometrics,” “quantitative pharmacology,” and “MBDD,” with the full awareness that there will be disagreement with these descriptions. Our intention is to call for consensus on the definitions of these terms rather than promoting our understanding as the standard. Different opinions on the definitions of these terms give evidence for the need for standardization. We welcome discussion and debate on this topic. The following definitions have not necessarily originated from us, but they reflect our point of view:

Modeling in the context of drug development and MBDD is the use of mathematical means to describe the aspects of a system and/or a process, thereby focusing on the factors believed to be important. The complexity of a model is determined by its intended use. A given model involves a variety of abstract structures and may take many forms or their combinations, such as stochastic models, dynamical systems, statistical models, and differential equations. Although inexplicit, the models in “PK–PD modeling,” “exposure–response modeling,” or “pharmacometrics” refer usually to subject-matter-specific and assumption-rich modeling. This is in contrast to the more general statistical modeling that is less dependent on subject area and assumption and is frequently used for hypothesis testing.

The difference between these two types of modeling is illustrated in the following example: To demonstrate that drug exposure is proportional with respect to doses across a given range, PK modeling could be performed showing that a linear compartmental PK model adequately describes the drug concentration-time profiles for all tested doses within the range. Alternatively, statistical modeling could be done to show that the slope of the log–log linear regression of maximal concentration and dose using a power model is not different from one ( 16 ). The two approaches require different assumptions, inputs, analysis methods, and interpretation.

Pharmacokinetic–Pharmacodynamic Modeling

PK–PD modeling is the mathematical approach that links the change in drug concentration overtime to the relationship between the concentration at the effect site and the intensity of the observed response. The resulting integrated PK–PD models allow a description of the complete time course of the effect intensity in response to a given dosing regimen ( 17 ).

Exposure–Response Modeling

Exposure–response modeling is a similar approach as PK–PD modeling. The two terms have been used interchangeably to a large degree. “Exposure” can be the drug concentration vs . time profile or a summary metric such as area under the plasma concentration-time curve, average steady-state concentration, or the maximum concentration after application of a discrete dose. “Response” can be any type of response, such as a pharmacological marker, a physiologic parameter, an index of efficacy, or a measure of safety ( 18 ). As pharmacodynamic responses often refer to biomarker responses in clinical settings, the expression “Exposure–response modeling” has lately been favored over “PK–PD modeling.” Both expressions, however, point to the application of a modeling approach. PK–PD modeling and exposure–response modeling have previously been applied successfully throughout the drug development process, but largely in isolated settings (Fig.  1 a) ( 8 , 10 – 12 ).

Model-based drug development. A Application of modeling and simulation during various preclinical and clinical phases in traditional drug development. Listed are potential applications for PK–PD concepts as well as the frequently applied two consecutive learn–confirm cycles. Model-based data analysis and simulation is usually performed in discrete isolated events throughout the development process. From ( 11 ). B Model-based drug development as a cornerstone of the drug development process. Model-based drug development is a new paradigm and mindset that embraces all aspects of drug development from drug discovery to post-marketing. By facilitating the rigorous development of a scientific knowledgebase though continuous integration of knowledge generated along the development path, it provides a data-driven model framework that serves as a key decision-making tool enabling rationale, scientifically based choices at critical decision points. The top half of Panel B represents a reservoir for the interdisciplinary knowledgebase required by MBDD. Sources of information in the top half of Panel B typically are not specific to the compound under development and are publicly available. Single arrows indicate the typically unidirectional flow of information. In contrast, information generated from the bottom half of Panel B is compound-specific, is integrated into the knowledgebase, and the knowledgebase guides how it is further being utilized to generate additional compound-specific knowledge. The double arrows indicate this bidirectional information flow

Pharmacometrics

Pharmacometrics is the scientific discipline that uses mathematical models based on biology, pharmacology, physiology, and disease for quantifying the interactions between drugs and patients. In their recent publication, Barrett and colleagues ( 15 ) emphasized the bridging character across disciplines and the Bayesian nature of pharmacometrics. Data and information from various sources are bridged together and quantitatively related to each other. The construction, refinement, and subsequent use of simulations to probe the features of the developed model are inherently Bayesian.

Models in pharmacometrics can be differentiated by their area of application, for example “Exposure–response models,” “disease models,” “trial execution model,” or any combination of these. The modeling techniques in constructing these models and obtaining parameter distributions can be differentiated by their underlying methodology, such as “nonlinear-mixed effect modeling,” “logistic regression,” or “Monte Carlo simulation.” Although commonly seen in the literature, we suggest avoiding the use of “the pharmacometrics of drug X” as this term is nonspecific and perhaps illogic. Pharmacometrics, unlike PK or PD, is not a property of a drug and does not refer to a certain technique.

Quantitative Pharmacology

Quantitative pharmacology is a multidisciplinary approach in drug development that emphasizes the integration of the relationships between diseases, drug characteristics, and individual variability across studies and development phases for rational and scientifically based decision making ( 19 , 20 ). It is a move away from the traditional study centric approach to a continuous quantitative integration of data across studies and development phases. By facilitating the rigorous development of a scientific knowledgebase for the drug candidate under consideration, quantitative pharmacology is intended to serve as a key decision-making tool that ultimately allows for a more efficient drug development process through informed go–no-go decisions and optimized resource allocation.

Model-Based Drug Development

MBDD is a paradigm and a mindset which promotes the use of modeling to delineate the path and focus of drug development. Models in MBDD serve as both the instruments and the aims of drug development ( 21 ). These models use available data, information, and knowledge to their maximum to improve the efficiency of the drug development process. In turn, a well-designed and implemented MBDD strategy enhances the quality of these models. Thus, these two components form an iterative cycle and provide interrelated inputs to each other.

The common features of models in MBDD are their quantitative nature, their purpose, and the way they serve in drug development rather than the type of model, estimation technique, or area of application. In MBDD, modeling is applied to a variety of aspects of drug development, such as drug design ( 22 , 23 ), target screening, formulation choices ( 24 ), in vitro and in vivo testing ( 25 ), exposure-biomarker response ( 26 ), disease progression ( 27 ), healthcare outcome ( 28 ), patient behavior ( 29 ), and socio-economic impact ( 30 ). Knowledge in these areas is formally summarized and reflected in these models and carried over to the next development step (Fig.  1 b).

It is self-evident that the above-outlined techniques, concepts, and disciplines are interrelated. Exposure–response modeling (or PK–PD modeling) is a key application of pharmacometrics. Quantitative pharmacology is an approach that builds on pharmacometrics and emphasizes data integration and quantitative decision making. MBDD asks for a formalized summary of all available information and its full utilization in drug development. The scope and complexity of each approach, from exposure–response modeling, pharmacometrics, and quantitative pharmacology to MBDD follows an increasing order, with each approach embracing the preceding ones.

The literature provides several excellent reviews on the topic of MBDD ( 19 , 31 , 32 ). Of them, Lalonde and colleagues ( 31 ) defined the key components of MBDD and provided excellent case studies for its application. These reviews are important illustrations of MBDD. With full respect, however, we feel the scope they touched upon is largely limited to pharmacometrics, the discipline that focuses on quantitative drug-disease–patient relationships. In our view, MBDD covers the whole arena of drug development and, thus, many more aspects beyond those addressed by pharmacometrics.

As there are numerous examples in the literature that describe the methodology and application of pharmacometrics and quantitative pharmacology and how data and information could be transformed into knowledge useful for decision making, we will, in the following, focus on a strategic question: if we agree that MBDD is the right direction for drug development, why are we not there yet?

ALIGNING INDUSTRY INFRASTRUCTURE WITH MODEL-BASED DRUG DEVELOPMENT

It has been more than a decade since the “learn-confirm paradigm” was introduced ( 14 ); yet, a majority of today’s pharmaceutical industry still develops drugs at a “model-aided” level, in which models are used to support labeling and confirm decisions. While this is a progress from empirical decision making, it is still distinctly distant from MBDD. The key difference between the “model-aided” drug development and MBDD ( 19 , 31 , 32 ) is that the former uses modeling and simulation as a tool sporadically, while MBDD utilizes models as the cornerstone of the development process (Fig.  1 b). Table  I contrasts “model-aided” drug development to MBDD. The gap between these two approaches is not totally unexpected and cannot be attributed to the unawareness of MBDD alone. Challenges in the transition from “model-aided” to MBDD have been recognized ( 21 , 33 , 34 ). We will further analyze these challenges and propose changes to alleviate if not to overcome them.

Table I

Comparisons Between “Model-Aided” Drug Development and Model-Based Drug Development

Traditional vs . Model-Based Drug Development

The hurdles in applying MBDD more widely are rooted in the sequential stages in which drugs have traditionally been developed. The planning, analysis, and interpretation of each stage is based on individual experiments and utilizes only limited prior knowledge gained from previous stages, other drug candidates, competitors, and experimental systems. The development pace focuses on moving the candidate to the next milestone as soon as possible and down the sequence as far as possible. Such an approach is often pursued as a performance criterion in measuring the success of a study as well as individual contributors. As a natural consequence, anything that is unconventional and requires adaptation is not welcome, as it “delays” the development timeline.

In MBDD, models are the quantitative summarization of the data, prior knowledge, and assumptions. Experiments or studies are designed to best inform and/or confirm the model. Study results are expressed in function format and parameter estimates ( 21 ). Thus, the decision makers are presented with a probability of achieving a certain goal generated from modeling and simulation, rather than a P value. Dose selections and go–no-go decisions are made based on quantitative risk or benefit assessments.

Given the differences between the design, execution, analysis, and interpretation in traditional drug development and MBDD, it is obvious that changes must be made to enable the paradigm shift from the former to the latter. It has been said that change is the result of having a desired outcome , a strategy , a tactic , and commitment ( 35 ). For pharmaceutical companies, the desired outcome for the changes is undoubtedly to provide effective treatments for unmet medical needs in an efficient manner and to meet this goal rapidly and cost-effectively. The strategy, tactic, and commitment for achieving this outcome lie within the necessary changes in mindset, process, and organization (Table  II ).

Table II

Changes at Different Levels are Necessary for the Pharmaceutical Industry to Fully Embrace Model-Based Drug Development (MBDD)

Strategy: Mindset Change

Hand waving from individuals in certain functional areas is not enough to adopt MBDD as a drug development paradigm. The support for this approach must come from a broader base. Based on their individual mindset, the people who hesitate to adopt MBDD usually belong to one of the following three categories:

• People who are unfamiliar and, therefore, are uncomfortable with quantitative data summaries and decision making. These individuals usually did not receive substantial exposure to modeling principles during their training and work. They encountered scientific concepts mostly in qualitative format as usually presented in biomedical textbooks, and their training in biostatistics is mostly limited to frequentist statistics with no equivalent emphasis on Bayesian statistics. For this kind of mindset, proper education, training, and increased exposure to the principles and application of (Bayesian) modeling would be helpful.
• People who feel that raw experimental data are objective and trustworthy but that the assumption-rich models in MBDD are subjective and not reliable. For this type of mindset, it is worthwhile to point out that even well-designed experiments are not assumption-free. Assumptions in modeling usually contain prior experience and knowledge and are not equal to random guessing. The strength of modeling is partly attributed to its use of assumptions: having assumptions helps bridging the missing links between existing information and elucidating the decision criteria. Examining the model robustness towards assumptions can check a model’s dependency on assumptions, and allows to identify crucial data or information that need to be collected in future experiments. For this kind of mindset, a clearly defined objective for the experiment or development stage would be helpful to increase the comfort level towards “assumption-rich” approaches. For example, the analysis objective mode can be defined as “learning” or “confirming,” each of which has a different tolerance level on assumptions and risks.
• People that are content to describe data but are reluctant to interpret data. These individuals are convinced that it is easier to defend a description than an interpretation should there be a controversial opinion or the projection is proven to be wrong. As modeling itself is an interpretation of collected data and applying modeling results for decision making requires further interpretation of the model and its implications, these individuals are averse towards any application of MBDD. For this kind of mindset, a corporate culture that has leveled accountability and encourages scientists to take responsibilities would be useful. Key decision makers need to realize that MBDD, like any other development strategy, can fail in isolated instances, thereby avoiding putting blame on the shoulders of individual contributors.

Within the pharmaceutical company, the project leaders and decision makers need to invest time and resources at the personal level to get acquainted with the principles of MBDD. Instead of viewing MBDD as a subject related only to modeling scientists, the project leaders and decision makers must regard themselves as active players in adapting MBDD. They need to understand the value of implementing MBDD as an “investment in knowledge” and be comfortable with probability-based decision making ( 31 ). Progress in candidate development will be viewed as a compromise between speeding up the development timeline and maximizing the information gain at each development step. Only then can MBDD truly impact the drug development process. And only then are these stakeholders likely willing to accommodate the complexity in strategy and logistics associated with its implementation.

Modelers, the people who conduct model development and application, need to extend their attention and responsibility beyond the technical aspects of modeling. Instead of portraying themselves as service providers and act passively, modelers need to be actively engaged. They need to identify the stage-appropriate opportunities where models can contribute and need to communicate the model interpretation and implications to all stakeholders. A thorough understanding of the drug development process and good communication skills are critical in gaining acceptance of modeling from other functional areas and delivering results pertinent to the development needs.

Tactic: Process Change

Equipped with an open mindset, the drug development process needs to be aligned with MBDD. At the portfolio level, pharmaceutical companies need to establish their own collective proprietary databases to enable reuse of and learning from data accumulated throughout the development process, from past experiences, from comparators, and from knowledge around the experimental system (structure–activity relationships, disease mechanisms, target population characteristics, etc.). Rather than adhering to fixed designs and processes, project teams need to tailor a candidate’s development path, design scheme, and study conduct to its own characteristics.

At the experiment or study level, studies shall, in addition to their primary objectives, maximize the information yield and address additional compound development needs. In order to minimize the time and logistic resources, data collection needs to be standardized to enable cross-study and cross-compound data mining. This entails that the analysis framework needs to be set up prior to analysis, that the use of advanced technical tools should be promoted, and that data cleaning, dataset construction, results formatting, and reporting should be automated. Furthermore, data and knowledge gained from each study need to be deposited and integrated into collective databases to maximize knowledge retention.

Commitment: Organization Change

Organizational changes come naturally as the drug development process changes. Project leaders, modelers, statisticians, and experimentalists each carry different roles and must work collaboratively ( 31 ). Project leaders shall get comfortable with quantitatively defining clinical effects and decision criteria. Modelers need to make model assumptions and limitations explicit and transparent, develop models that are fit for their purpose, and calibrate models against data-derived statistics of interest. Statisticians need to embrace assumption-rich models, differentiate learning studies from hypothesis-testing in confirmatory studies, and strive to develop statistical methodology that allows applying innovative experimental designs and decision analysis. Experimentalists who generate data are required to understand the objectives of the modeling exercise and provide pertinent information and assumptions. Organizations that foster collaboration among these individuals, set clearly defined roles and expectations, and encourage innovations are better prepared for MBDD.

As the fields of application for modeling vary greatly, people who perform modeling tasks reside in different functional groups, for instance, a protein design group in drug discovery, a formulation group in process development, and a healthcare outcome group in marketing. The knowledge each group has may not always be applicable to the others, but a network that connects these groups under the theme of MBDD can be useful (e.g., cross-functional M&S discussion forums, modeling working subteams linked to project teams). This network could be a unique opportunity to promote and brand MBDD. It is our experience that these groups can often learn from each other for improving modeling techniques and promoting MBDD. For example, we have seen collaborations between Clinical Pharmacology and Marketing through such interactions, which would have otherwise taken a much longer time to happen if at all.

Currently, there is a shortage of people with quantitative skill sets required by MBDD. Externally, companies need to partner with academia, governmental agencies, and professional organizations to provide more training opportunities. However, like any applied science, learning on the job may always remain a great portion of the learning path for individuals applying MBDD ( 15 ). Internally, exchanging and propagating expertise within a company is essential. Thus, companies should strive to provide a platform and mentoring opportunities to develop their employees with regard to MBDD and grow an in-house talent base.

Change inevitably brings conflicts. As pharmaceutical companies go through the changes in mindset, process, and organization from MBDD, it will be helpful to learn from other industry sectors’ experience. One of the notable examples is the aerospace industry, which in the late 1960s embraced the widespread application of numerical simulation techniques in engineering new aircrafts ( 36 ). Numerous books in business also offer guidance on embracing changes within an organization ( 37 , 38 ). Although it is outside the scope of this work, we encourage scientists to leverage the lessons from other sectors to better serve MBDD. As an example, the book “The Necessary Revolution” by Senge et al. ( 38 ) explains why rethinking our actions and expanding our boundaries help us to see underlying limits and new forces at play. They discuss three key elements:

• Rethink boundaries. Attempts to convince people that they are wrong and that they need to rethink boundaries will almost always be met with resistance. A more effective approach is to help people reflect on the assumptions that they are making.
• Bring together a diverse group of people who, to the highest degree possible, represents the larger system you belong to
• Identify the different facets of the system that you will explore
• “Go there together”; travel with the entire team
• Set aside ample time to reflect and talk together about what you experience
• Pay careful attention to the intentions and commitments that arise from your reflection
• Building shared commitment. Shared commitment arises through focusing first on engagement—connecting to what matters to us and the larger organization involved—and then on creating the opportunity for both focus and commitment to deepen naturally over time. Our ability to foster commitment will never be greater than our own commitment. The key in fostering shared commitment lies in connecting to what we care about and what the organization cares about and gradually knitting the two together.

The ultimate incentive for the implementation of MBDD in the drug development process are cost savings by accelerating the development process for a shortened time-to-market, by reducing the number and size of studies required to obtain regulatory approval, and/or by providing decision support to earlier terminate programs for compounds with low prospect of development and/or marketing success. Multiple case studies have been presented in the literature of instances in which pharmacometric approaches have substantially contributed throughout the drug development process ( 8 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 31 , 39 – 41 ), including drug approval ( 42 ). These reports, however, are still limited compared to the level of application of model-based approaches in drug development according to our knowledge. Moreover, there have, so far, not been any published examples of cost-benefit analyses that compare drug development processes utilizing MBDD with more traditional approaches. As these data are crucial to support the perception that implementation of MBDD adds value to the drug development process and has a positive benefit vs . cost relationship, we strongly encourage our colleagues to share their experiences with the scientific community and publish examples of proven benefits of MBDD.

Conclusions

This manuscript aims to call for a set of consented definitions on concepts that are related to MBDD. In our view, PK–PD modeling and exposure–response modeling are applications of modeling. Pharmacometrics is the scientific discipline focused on quantifying the relationship between patient, drug, and disease. Quantitative pharmacology is a multidisciplinary approach that focuses on data integration and quantitative decision making. MBDD is a paradigm and a mindset in which models are taken as the instrument and aim of the drug development. By this definition, MBDD covers the whole spectrum of the drug development process instead of being limited to a certain type of modeling technique or application area.

Having a consistent nomenclature is important for the modeling and simulation community and MBDD. The consistency will help to avoid the potential confusion, define the boundaries, establish the brand of MBDD, and facilitate its positioning in a company’s corporate strategy. We anticipate and encourage different opinions on these definitions and are eagerly looking forward to a consensus definition for MBDD by the scientific community.

While MBDD may be perceived as hindering a uniform design, implementation, and interpretation of an experiment, a study, or a development program, uniformity in these aspects is often only desirable for convenience without any scientific justification ( 21 ). The implementation of MBDD requires pharmaceutical companies to foster innovation and make changes at three levels: (1) to open mindsets that are willing to get acquainted with MBDD, (2) to align processes that are adaptive to the requirements of MBDD, and (3) to create a closely collaborating organization in which all members play a role in MBDD. Companies that are able to embrace the changes MBDD poses and requires will likely be able to improve their success rate in drug development, and the beneficiaries will ultimately be the patients in need.

This article is based on a symposium held jointly by the American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists (AAPS) and the American College of Clinical Pharmacology during the 2006 AAPS Annual Meeting in San Antonio, TX, USA.

Zhang, Pfister and Meibohm contributed equally to the development of this manuscript.

150+ Quantitative Research Topics For HumSS Students In 2023

Are you a student in HumSS (Humanities and Social Sciences) wondering what that means? HumSS is about understanding how people behave, how societies work, and what makes cultures unique. But why should you care about finding the right research topic in HumSS? Well, it’s important because it helps us figure out and deal with the complex issues in our world today.

In this blog, we are going to talk about HumSS research topics, specifically Quantitative Research Topics For HumSS Students in 2023. We’ll help you choose a topic that you find interesting and that fits your academic goals. Whether you study sociology, psychology, or another HumSS subject, we’ve got you covered.

So, stick with us to explore 150+ Quantitative Research Topics For HumSS Students. Let’s start this learning journey together!

What is HumSS?

Table of Contents

HumSS stands for “Humanities and Social Sciences.” It is a way to group together different subjects that focus on people, society, and the world we live in. In HumSS, we study things like history, language, culture, and how people interact with each other and their environment.

In HumSS, you learn about the past and present of human societies, their beliefs, and how they shape the world. It helps us understand our own actions and the world around us better, making us more informed and responsible members of society. So, HumSS is all about exploring the fascinating aspects of being human and the world we share with others.

Why Are Humss Research Topics Important?

HumSS research topics are important because they help us understand people and society better. When we study these topics, like history or how people think and behave, we can learn from the past and make better choices in the present. It helps us solve problems, like how to create a fairer society or how to preserve our culture. HumSS research topics are like a guide that helps us make the world a better place by learning about ourselves and others.

• Understanding Society: They allow us to comprehend human societies’ complexities, values, and norms.
• Problem Solving: HumSS research helps us tackle societal issues like poverty, inequality, and discrimination.
• Cultural Preservation: It aids in preserving and celebrating diverse cultures, languages, and traditions.
• Historical Lessons: Research in HumSS enables us to learn from history, avoid past mistakes and make informed decisions.
• Personal Growth: These topics contribute to personal development by fostering critical thinking and empathy, making us more responsible global citizens.

How To Choose A Humss Research Topic

Here are some points that must be kept in mind before choosing the research topic for HumSS:

1. Pick What You Like

Choose a research topic that you find interesting. When you enjoy it, you’ll be more motivated to study and learn about it.

2. Think About Real Problems

Select a topic that relates to problems in the world, like fairness or the environment. Your research can help find solutions to these issues.

3. Check for Books and Information

Make sure there are enough books and information available for your topic. You need resources to help with your research.

4. Make Sure It’s Doable

Consider if you have enough time and skills to study your topic well. Don’t pick something too hard or complicated.

5. Ask for Help

See if you can get help from teachers or experts. They can guide you and make your research better.

Here are some points on 150+ Quantitative Research Topics For HumSS Students In 2023: 

HUMSS Research Topics in Philosophy and Religion

The HumSS strand, which encompasses Philosophy and Religion, allows students to delve into the complexities of belief systems, ethics, and the nature of existence. Below are research topics in this field:

• Examining the ethical aspects of artificial intelligence and robotics.
• Analyzing the role of religion in shaping social and cultural norms in the Philippines.
• Investigating the philosophy of environmental ethics and its relevance in sustainable development.
• Exploring the concept of free will in the context of determinism.
• Analyzing the ethical considerations of genetic engineering and cloning in the Philippines.
• Evaluating the intersection of philosophy and mental health in the Filipino context.
• Investigating the philosophical foundations of human rights and their application in the country.
• Exploring the ethical dilemmas of capital punishment in the Philippines.
• Examining the philosophy of education and its impact on pedagogical approaches.
•  Analyzing the role of religious pluralism and tolerance in Philippine society.

HUMSS Research Topics in Literature and Language

Studying Literature and Language within the HumSS strand provides students with a deeper understanding of human expression, communication, and culture. Here are research topics in this field:

•  Analyzing the themes of identity and belonging in contemporary Filipino literature.
•  Examining the impact of colonialism on the evolution of Philippine literature and language.
•  Investigating the use of language in social media and its effects on communication.
•  Exploring the role of folklore and oral traditions in Filipino literature.
•  The ethical consequences of artificial intelligence and automation are being investigated.
•  Evaluating the influence of English as a global language on Philippine languages.
•  Investigating the use of code-switching and its sociolinguistic implications in the Philippines.
•  Examining how mental health issues are portrayed in Filipino literature and media.
•  Exploring the role of translation in bridging cultural and linguistic gaps.
•  Analyzing the impact of language policies on minority languages in the country.

Quantitative Research Topics For HumSS Students In The Philippines

Quantitative Research Topics For HumSS Students involve using numerical data and statistical methods to analyze and draw conclusions about social phenomena in the Philippines.

•  Analyzing the relationship between income levels and access to quality education.
•  Examining the impact of inflation on consumer purchasing power in the Philippines.
•  Investigating factors contributing to youth unemployment rates.
•  Investigating the connection between economic expansion and environmental damage.
•  Assessing the effectiveness of government welfare programs in poverty reduction.
•  Exploring financial literacy levels among Filipinos.
•  Analyzing the economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic.
•  The role of FDI in the Philippine economy is being investigated.
•  Studying economic challenges faced by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).
•  Analyzing the economic implications of infrastructure development programs.

Social Justice And Equity Research Topics For HumSS Students

Social justice and equity research topics in the HumSS field revolve around issues of fairness, justice, and equality in society.

•  Examining the impact of gender-based violence on access to justice.
•  Analyzing the role of social media in advocating for social justice causes.
•  Investigating the effects of government’s “war on drugs” on human rights.
•  Exploring the intersection of poverty, gender, and healthcare access.
•  Assessing the experiences of indigenous communities in pursuing justice and land rights.
•  Analyzing the effectiveness of inclusive education in promoting equity.
•  Investigating challenges faced by LGBTQ+ individuals in accessing legal rights.
•  Examining responses to juvenile offenders in the criminal justice system.
•  Analyzing discrimination’s impact on employment opportunities for people with disabilities.
•  Evaluating the effectiveness of affirmative action policies.

Cultural Studies Research Topics For HumSS Students

Cultural studies research topics in HumSS examine culture, identity, and society.

•  Analyzing the influence of K-pop culture on Filipino youth.
•  Exploring the preservation of indigenous cultures in modern Filipino society.
•  Studying the impact of Filipino cinema on cultural identity.
•  Investigating the influence of social media on cultural globalization.
•  Analyzing the cultural significance of Filipino cuisine.
•  Investigating how gender and sexuality are portrayed in Filipino media.
•  Studying the influence of colonial history on contemporary Filipino culture.
•  Investigating the significance of traditional festivals and rituals.
•  Analyzing the portrayal of mental health in Filipino literature and art.
•  Exploring the cultural implications of migration and diaspora.
• Epidemiology Research Topics
• Neuroscience Research Topics

Environmental Ethics Research Topics For HumSS Students

Environmental ethics research topics in HumSS delve into the moral and ethical considerations of environmental and sustainability.

•  Analyzing the ethics of mining practices in the Philippines.
•  Investigating the moral responsibilities of corporations in environmental conservation.
•  Examining the ethical implications of plastic pollution in Philippine waters.
•  Exploring the ethics of ecotourism and its impact on ecosystems.
•  Assessing the ethical aspects of climate change adaptation and mitigation.
•  Investigating the moral responsibility of individuals in sustainable living.
•  Analyzing the ethics of wildlife conservation and protection.
•  Exploring cultural and ethical dimensions of sustainable fishing practices.
•  Examining the ethical dilemmas of land-use conflicts and deforestation.
•  Assessing the ethics of water resource management.

Global Politics And International Relations Research Topics For HumSS Students

Global politics and international relations research topics in HumSS focus on issues related to international diplomacy, governance, and global affairs.

•  Analyzing the Philippines’ role in the South China Sea dispute.
•  Investigating the impact of globalization on Philippine sovereignty.
•  Examining the country’s involvement in regional organizations like ASEAN.
•  Exploring the Philippines’ response to global humanitarian crises.
•  Assessing the ethics of international aid and development projects.
•  Analyzing the country’s foreign policy and alliances.
•  Investigating the challenges of diplomacy in the digital age.
•  Exploring the role of non-governmental organizations in shaping policy.
•  Analyzing the influence of international organizations like the United Nations.
•  Investigating the Philippines’ stance on global issues such as climate change.

Psychology And Mental Health Research Topics For HumSS Students

Psychology and mental health research topics in HumSS involve the study of human behavior, mental health, and well-being.

•  Analyzing the impact of social media on the mental health of Filipino adolescents.
•  Investigating the stigma surrounding mental health in the Philippines.
•  Examining the effects of government policies on mental health support.
•  Exploring the psychological effects of disasters and trauma.
•  Assessing the relationship between personality traits and academic performance.
•  Investigating cultural factors affecting help-seeking behavior.
•  Analyzing the mental health challenges faced by healthcare workers during the pandemic.
•  Exploring the experiences of Filipino overseas workers and their mental well-being.
•  Studying the impact of online gaming addiction on Filipino youth.
•  Evaluating the success of school-based mental health programs.

Education And Pedagogy Research Topics For HumSS Students

Education and pedagogy research topics in HumSS encompass the study of teaching, learning, and educational systems.

•  Assessing the effectiveness of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.
•  Investigating the role of technology in enhancing classroom engagement.
•  Examining inclusive education practices for students with disabilities.
•  Analyzing the effects of teacher training on student outcomes.
•  Exploring alternative education models like homeschooling.
•  Studying parental involvement’s impact on student achievement.
•  Investigating sex education programs’ effectiveness in schools.
•  Exploring the role of arts education in fostering creativity.
•  Analyzing the challenges of implementing K-12 education reform.
•  Assessing standardized testing’s benefits and drawbacks in education.

History And Historical Perspectives Research Topics For HumSS Students

History and historical perspectives research topics in HumSS delve into the study of past events and their significance.

•  Reinterpreting indigenous peoples’ roles in Philippine history.
•  Analyzing the impact of Spanish colonization on Filipino culture.
•  Investigating the historical roots of political dynasties.
•  Examining the contributions of Filipino women in the fight for independence.
•  Exploring the role of propaganda and media in key historical events.
•  Assessing the legacy of martial law under Ferdinand Marcos.
•  Investigating indigenous resistance and revolts in history.
•  Studying the evolution of Philippine democracy and political institutions.
•  Analyzing the role of Filipino migrants in global history.
• Exploring cultural and historical significance through ancient artifacts.

Economics And Economic Policy Research Topics For HumSS Students

Economics and economic policy research topics in HumSS focus on economic systems, policies, and their impact on society.

• Analyzing the economic impact of natural disasters.
• Investigating microfinance’s role in poverty alleviation.
• Examining the informal economy and labor rights.
• Exploring the effects of trade policies on local industries.
• Assessing the relationship between education and income inequality.
• Analyzing the economic consequences of informal settler issues.
• Investigating agricultural modernization challenges.
• Exploring the role of foreign aid in development.
• Analyzing the economic effects of healthcare disparities.
• Investigating renewable energy adoption’s economic benefits.

Philosophy And Ethics Research Topics For HumSS Students

Philosophy and ethics research topics in HumSS involve exploring questions of morality, ethics, and philosophy.

• Examining the ethics of truth-telling in medical practice.
• Analyzing the philosophical foundations of human rights.
• Investigating ethics in artificial intelligence and automation.
• Exploring ethical dilemmas of genetic engineering and cloning.
• Assessing moral considerations in end-of-life care decisions.
• Investigating ethics in environmental conservation and sustainability.
• Analyzing the ethics of capital punishment.
• Exploring the moral responsibility of corporations in social issues.
• Assessing the ethics of data privacy and surveillance.
• Investigating ethical considerations in public health.

Healthcare And Public Health Research Topics For HumSS Students

Healthcare and public health research topics in HumSS involve studying health-related issues, healthcare systems, and public health policies.

• Analyzing the effectiveness of the Philippine healthcare system in addressing public health crises.
• Investigating healthcare disparities and their impact on marginalized communities.
• Examining factors contributing to vaccine hesitancy in the country.
• Exploring the role of traditional medicine and alternative healthcare practices in Filipino culture.
• Analyzing the mental health challenges faced by healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Assessing the accessibility and affordability of healthcare services in rural areas.
• Investigating the ethical considerations of organ transplantation and donation.
• Examining the effectiveness of health education programs in preventing diseases.
• Analyzing public perceptions of the pharmaceutical industry and drug pricing.
• Investigating the social determinants of health and their impact on population health outcomes.

Exploring HumSS Research Topics in Gender Studies

Gender studies research topics in HumSS focus on issues related to gender identity, roles, and equality in society.

• Analyzing the representation of gender in Philippine media and popular culture.
• Investigating the experiences of transgender individuals in the Philippines.
• Examining the impact of religion on gender norms in Filipino society.
• Exploring the role of gender-based violence prevention programs.
• Assessing the impact of gender stereotypes on career choices and opportunities.
• Analyzing the portrayal of women in political leadership roles.
• Investigating the role of masculinity and its effects on men’s mental health.
• Exploring the experiences of LGBTQ+ youth in Philippine schools.
• Studying the intersectionality of gender, class, and race in the Philippines.
• Evaluating the effectiveness of gender mainstreaming policies in government agencies.

HumSS Research Topics in Global Governance

Research topics in global governance within HumSS focus on international diplomacy, governance structures, and global challenges.

• Analyzing the role of the Philippines in regional security alliances like the ASEAN Regional Forum.
• Investigating the country’s involvement in international peacekeeping missions.
• Examining the country’s stance on global human rights issues.
• Evaluating the effectiveness of international organizations in addressing global challenges.
• Exploring the Philippines’ participation in global climate change negotiations.
• Analyzing the country’s compliance with international treaties and agreements.
• Investigating the role of Filipino diaspora communities in global governance issues.
• Assessing the impact of globalization on Philippine sovereignty and governance.
• Analyzing the country’s foreign policy responses to global health crises.
• Exploring ethical dilemmas in international humanitarian intervention.
• Investigating the diplomatic and economic implications of the Philippines’ bilateral relations with neighboring countries in Southeast Asia.

After exploring 150+ Quantitative Research Topics For HumSS Students, now we will discuss tips for writing a HumSS research paper

Tips for Writing a HumSS Research Paper

Here are some tips for writing a HumSS Research Paper: 

#Tip 1: Choose a Clear Topic

Start your HumSS research paper by picking a topic that’s not too big. Instead of something huge like “History,” go for a smaller idea like “The Life of Ancient Egyptians.” This helps you focus and find the right information.

#Tip 2: Plan Your Paper

Before you write, make a plan. Think about what you’ll say in the beginning, middle, and end of your paper. It’s like making a roadmap for your writing journey. Planning helps you stay on track.

#Tip 3: Use Good Sources

Use trustworthy sources for your paper, like books, experts’ articles, or reliable websites. Avoid sources that might not have the right information. Trustworthy sources make your paper stronger.

#Tip 4: Say Thanks to Your Sources

When you use information from other places, it’s important to give credit. This is called citing your sources. Follow the rules for citing, like APA , MLA, or Chicago, so you don’t copy someone else’s work and show where you found your facts.

#Tip 5: Make Your Paper Better

After you finish writing, go back and fix any mistakes. Check for spelling or grammar error and make your sentences smoother. A well-edited paper is easier for others to read and makes your ideas shine.

Understanding HumSS (Humanities and Social Sciences) is the first step in your journey to exploring the world of quantitative research topics for HumSS students. These topics are crucial because they help us unravel the complexities of human behavior, society, and culture. 

In addition, we have discussed selecting the right HumSS research topic that aligns with your interests and academic goals. With 150+ quantitative research ideas for HumSS students in 2023, you have a wide array of options to choose from. Plus, we’ve shared valuable tips for writing a successful HumSS research paper. So, dive into the world of HumSS research and uncover the insights that await you!

Related Posts

Step by Step Guide on The Best Way to Finance Car

The Best Way on How to Get Fund For Business to Grow it Efficiently