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Article Contents

Introduction, 1 overview of green hydrogen production, 2 energy transition with green hydrogen, 3 the perspective of green hydrogen energy, 4 conclusions, acknowledgements, conflict of interest statement, data availability, green hydrogen energy production: current status and potential.

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Ali O M Maka, Mubbashar Mehmood, Green hydrogen energy production: current status and potential, Clean Energy , Volume 8, Issue 2, April 2024, Pages 1–7, https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkae012

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The technique of producing hydrogen by utilizing green and renewable energy sources is called green hydrogen production. Therefore, by implementing this technique, hydrogen will become a sustainable and clean energy source by lowering greenhouse gas emissions and reducing our reliance on fossil fuels. The key benefit of producing green hydrogen by utilizing green energy is that no harmful pollutants or greenhouse gases are directly released throughout the process. Hence, to guarantee all of the environmental advantages, it is crucial to consider the entire hydrogen supply chain, involving storage, transportation and end users. Hydrogen is a promising clean energy source and targets plan pathways towards decarbonization and net-zero emissions by 2050. This paper has highlighted the techniques for generating green hydrogen that are needed for a clean environment and sustainable energy solutions. Moreover, it summarizes an overview, outlook and energy transient of green hydrogen production. Consequently, its perspective provides new insights and research directions in order to accelerate the development and identify the potential of green hydrogen production.

Nowadays, the technology of renewable-energy-powered green hydrogen production is one method that is increasingly being regarded as an approach to lower emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and environmental pollution in the transition towards worldwide decarbonization [ 1 , 2 ]. However, there is a societal realization that fossil fuels are not zero-carbon, which leads to significant thinking about alternative solutions.

The global energy system ought to drastically change from one mostly reliant on fossil fuels to one that is effective and sustainable with low carbon emissions to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement. Accordingly, >90% is the required global CO 2 emission decrease and the projected direct contribution of renewable energy to the necessary emission decrease is 41% [ 3 , 4 ]. Hydrogen (H 2 ) is a cost-effective, environmentally friendly alternative for energy consumption/storage [ 5 , 6 ]. In addition, it can contribute to making a low-carbon society a reality and largely boost the share of hydrogen [ 7 ].

Hydrogen technologies have been considered an approach to strengthening various economic sectors since the COVID-19 pandemic. The potential of hydrogen is currently the subject of an important consensus, partly due to an increased ambitious climate policy [ 8 , 9 ]. In addition, hydrogen can be used in fuel cell technology in the power generation sector and many other sectors, such as industry, transport and residential applications, which reflects its potential for decarbonization [ 10–12 ].

Several initiatives and projects worldwide are rapidly rising, reflecting the outstanding political and commercial momentum that the development of hydrogen as a zero-carbon fuel is undergoing. The growing boost is caused by the decreasing cost of hydrogen produced by renewable energy sources, or ‘green hydrogen’, and the urgent need to reduce GHG emissions [ 3 , 13 ]. However, green hydrogen is expected to increase in prominence over the next few decades and attain high commercial viability [ 13 , 14 ]. Producing hydrogen can be done using coal, methane, bioenergy and even solar energy; however, green hydrogen production is one of the pathways [ 15 , 16 ].

Numerous countries consider hydrogen the next-generation energy management response, and they increasingly support adopting hydrogen technology intended to create a decarbonized economy. Therefore, many strategies and plans for developing and implementing hydrogen have been made [ 17 ].

By 2050, according to Anouti et al. [ 18 ], there could be 530 million tonnes (Mt) of demand globally for green hydrogen, or hydrogen produced with fewer carbon dioxide emissions. Consequently, it would displace ~10.4 billion barrels of oil, which is equivalent to ~37% of the pre-pandemic world oil production [ 18 , 19 ]. Based on its forecast, the worldwide market for green hydrogen exports may be worth $300 billion annually by 2050, creating ~400 000 jobs in the hydrogen and renewable-energy industries [ 18 ].

Based on the technique used to produce hydrogen, the energy source used and its effects on the environment, hydrogen is categorized into various colour shades, including blue, grey, brown, black and green [ 20 ]. Using the steam-reforming/auto-thermal reforming method, grey hydrogen is extracted from natural gas but CO 2 is emitted into the atmosphere as a by-product. When the steam-reforming method converts natural gas into hydrogen and the CO 2 emissions from the process are captured, this is known as blue hydrogen. The most prevalent type of hydrogen used today is brown hydrogen, mainly produced via the gasification of hydrocarbon-rich fuel, in which CO 2 is released into the atmosphere as a by-product. However, green hydrogen is produced by water electrolysis, which is powered by renewable energy resources [ 18 , 21 , 22 ].

Green hydrogen is already competitive in regions with all the appropriate conditions [ 15 ] and will play a significant role in achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs) for the UN 2030, based on the agenda for sustainable development adopted wholly by UN Member States. The specified section of SDG 7 depends on ‘Affordable and Clean Energy’ [ 23 , 24 ]. For this reason, many efforts have been made to attain this goal globally in recent years.

Therefore, continuing on from those issues mentioned above in the introduction, in this paper, we analyse green hydrogen production technologies and investigate several aspects of the significance of the growth of the green hydrogen economy (GEE). The key objective of this study is to highlight the potential and progress of green hydrogen production and its significance in meeting energy needs. The paper is organized as follows. Section 1 summarizes the introduction, Section 2 presents an analysis of the energy transition with green hydrogen, Section 3 details a general overview of green hydrogen production, Section 4 specifics the perspective of green hydrogen energy production and Section 5 summarizes the conclusions and recommendations for future work.

There are several uses for hydrogen, including energy storage, power generation, industrial production and fuel for fuel cell vehicles. Hence, hydrogen production from green energy sources is essential to meet sustainable energy targets (SETs) as the globe attempts to move to a low-carbon economy.

Green hydrogen production requires large amounts of renewable energy and water resources. Thus, areas with an abundance of renewable energy resources, as well as accessibility to water sources, have been determined to be optimal for producing huge amounts of green hydrogen. However, to allow green hydrogen to be more economically viable than fossil fuels, advances in technology and cost reductions must be made.

In order to achieve the target for the expansion of green hydrogen production and utilization, details ought to be established at the level of the authorities. They can facilitate adoption, on the one hand, by increasing manufacturing capacity and guaranteeing an ongoing renewable energy source and, on the other, by increasing the need for green hydrogen alongside its derivatives and developing a system for storing and transporting hydrogen [ 25 ].

This paper performed a literature review to screen >100 papers related to Google Scholar/Web of Science to consider precisely green energy production by filtering the information in a large number of literature papers in science databases. Figs 1 and 2 illustrate the visualized literature network diagrams; hence, searching for keywords in science databases maps the intensity of relations/strengths among items. The analysis, which determined the research relationships of networks for visualization and exploration, utilized the VOSviewer. The categorical evaluation relies on the occurrence and frequency of keywords in related publications. The red cluster (lower left) represents initial development words trend links, the blue cluster (upper center) represents the second stage of development and the green cluster (lower right) links the green hydrogen words. Fig. 1 displays and signifies the mapping of the intensity of relations among words. In recent years, more research has focused on developing green hydrogen production from 2016 to 2023. Fig. 2 elucidates the keywords of scientific mapping and field trends. The blue cluster (lower left) represents the trend of research development from 2016 to 2019 and the bright maroon cluster (upper right) represents the trend of research development from 2020 to 2023.

Characterizes scientific mapping and relations between words

Characterizes keywords of scientific mapping and developing field trends from 2016 to 2023

The technology of green hydrogen can play a vital role in energy storage. Electrolysis can be utilized for producing hydrogen by using a surplus of renewable energy produced when demand is low. Whenever required, hydrogen can be used directly in various applications or stored and subsequently turned back into power using fuel cells. Hydrogen can be stored in different ways, either in the form of liquid, gaseous fuel or solid state; thus, the storage method is determined based on the consumption approach or export. In addition to resources such as solar and wind, this makes it possible to integrate renewable energy into the grid. This may lower the overall cost of the hydrogen yield.

Long-haul transportation, chemicals, and iron and steel are only a few industries that can benefit from the decarbonization of clean hydrogen produced using renewables, fossil fuels, nuclear energy or carbon capture. These industries have had difficulty in reducing their emissions. Vehicles fuelled by hydrogen would enhance the security of energy and the quality of air. Although it is one of the few alternative energy sources that can store energy for days, weeks or months, hydrogen can facilitate the incorporation of various renewable energies into the electrical grid.

Hydrogen storage technology, either underground or surface storage, gives more effectiveness and is more reliable to utilize; also, storage on a large scale has advantages in terms of energy demand and flexibility of the energy system [ 26 ]. The important consideration of storing hydrogen efficiently and safely is vital for many applications, such as industrial processes and transportation.

The transition towards green hydrogen will create new job opportunities in several sectors, including manufacturing, fuel cells, infrastructure, and operation and maintenance of electrolysers. Moreover, the development of the green hydrogen sector has the potential to promote economic growth, produce income through exports, bring in investments and drive scientific breakthroughs in the field.

Green hydrogen technological progress is the focus of ongoing studies and developments. Hence, this encompasses enhancing the effectiveness of electrolysis procedures, making affordable fuel cells, investigating cutting-edge materials for hydrogen storage and raising the overall efficacy of hydrogen systems. The range of applications for green hydrogen will grow due to technological improvements that will lower costs, boost effectiveness and expand their usage. State-of-the-art electrolyser devices and their development are based on decreasing the cost of manufacturing, enhancing efficiency and increasing the role played by electrolysis in the global hydrogen economy.

However, before worldwide commerce in hydrogen becomes a feasible, affordable option on a large scale, numerous milestones must be accomplished. The key is a techno–economic analysis used to investigate the circumstances required for such a trade to be profitable. The scenarios are for predicting the hydrogen trade outlook towards 2050 in which hydrogen production and costs of transportation are accessible. The trade of hydrogen is expected to develop in local markets to a great extent.

Based on a global plan through a ‘pathway toward decarbonization and net-zero emissions via 2050’ in the 1.5°C scenario, ~55% of the hydrogen traded globally by 2050 will be transported through a pipeline. The vast majority of the hydrogen network would rely on already-built natural gas pipelines that can be converted to transport pure hydrogen, greatly lowering the cost of transportation [ 27 , 28 ]. Hence, if we examine the economic and technological production capability of green hydrogen globally over various scenarios, we can evaluate the prognosis for the global hydrogen trade in 2030 and 2050 [ 27 ].

Progress and optimization of the hydrogen supply chain are important for comprehending the potential of hydrogen as a sustainable and clean energy carrier. Moreover, socio-economic aspects through providing a labour market can extend to the supply chain by deploying/installing renewable-energy devices. Thus, as technology and infrastructure continue to develop, the hydrogen supply chain is anticipated to play a substantial role in the shift to a low-carbon energy system.

Further outlook of green hydrogen to extend knowledge to include outreach approaches incorporating hydrogen-related topics into the curriculum might include online sources, community workshops and collaborations with educational institutions.

Accordingly, many factors have led numerous countries to endorse adopting green hydrogen technology projects. These aim to create a decarbonized economy and reduce GHG emissions, considering hydrogen as an alternative for sustainable energy management. Table 1 summarizes the breakdown of recently announced ongoing investment projects in green hydrogen production.

List of large green hydrogen planned/ongoing projects

Achieving the 1.5°C scenario includes a commercially viable form of large-scale production of hydrogen and commerce. The electricity needed for the production of hydrogen should be adequate and not take away from the electricity needed for other vital and more productive purposes. Thus, this leads to increased scale and acceleration of renewable-energy development at the core of the transition to green hydrogen.

Green hydrogen has the potential to play a crucial role in the development of a cleaner and more sustainable energy future as costs decrease, technology improves and supportive policies are put in place [ 34 ]. Fig. 3 depicts a potential pathway for producing hydrogen from green energy resources. An environmentally friendly renewable-energy supply, so-called biogas, is produced whenever organic matter, including food scraps and animal waste, breaks down. The biomass gasification of organic materials or agricultural waste can be gasified in a controlled environment to harvest a mixture of hydrogen. The biogas produced may be used to generate energy, heat houses and fuel motor vehicles.

Potential pathway for producing hydrogen from green energy

Electrolysis is a procedure that uses electrolysers to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen, utilizing electricity produced by renewable sources such as solar technology, including photovoltaic (PV) and concentrating solar power (CSP), wind or hydropower. The hydrogen produced can then be used for numerous purposes, such as fuel cells or industrial processes, or it can be stored. The basic production of hydrogen via electrolysis using electricity to split molecules in water into hydrogen and oxygen is given by:

It is important to mention that another method—the so-called photoelectrochemical (PEC) hydrogen production technique—depends on the use of solar radiation to drive the water-splitting process directly; PEC cells transform solar energy into hydrogen [ 35 , 36 ]. Although this technology is still in its infancy, it indicates promise for producing hydrogen sustainably and effectively [ 35 ].

Owing to their capability for photosynthetic oxygen production, algae have been recommended as a potential resource for the production of green hydrogen. Some types of algae can also produce ‘hydrogen gas as a by-product of their metabolism’ under certain conditions. Green hydrogen production from algae is based on the biohydrogen production technique, which is a subject of interest and ongoing study [ 37 , 38 ]; however, it is not commonly used in industrial practice yet [ 39–41 ].

Electrolysers ought to function at a higher usage rate to reduce the expenses of producing hydrogen, although this is incompatible with the curtailed supply of restricted energy [ 42 ]. Several research publications suggested the idea of using direct seawater electrolysis to produce hydrogen and oxygen [ 43–45 ].

The shift towards clean energy using green hydrogen necessitates collaboration among industries, governments, communities and research institutions. It offers a chance to increase sustainable growth, diversify sources of energy and decrease emissions of GHGs [ 14 ]. Table 2 details the world’s green hydrogen production capacity (in EJ) and potential by region distributed on continents. The top high potential was in sub-Saharan Africa, at ~28.6%, followed by the Middle East and North Africa, at ~21.3%. Then, the following other regions across the continent are listed.

Breakdown of the potential of global green hydrogen production by region [ 46 ]

Green hydrogen, from an economic perspective, represents a large economic opportunity. It includes the potential to promote the growth of new industries, the creation of employment opportunities and economic expansion. Thus, countries with abundant renewable energy resources can use green hydrogen generation to export energy, diversify their economy and lower their dependency on fossil fuels.

The production of hydrogen can assist in reducing curtailed systems that use a significant amount of variable energy from renewable sources [ 42 ]. Herein, green hydrogen is considered a technological development catalyst from a technical development perspective. Technology advances in the field are anticipated to result from research and development initiatives to increase electrolysis efficiency, lower costs and create improved materials and methods. This perspective highlights the innovative potential and development of green hydrogen technology.

Moreover, green hydrogen is considered an essential catalyst of the energy shift from the perspective of that transition. Subsequently, clean energy sources such as wind and solar power provide a method of integrating and balancing energy from renewable sources. Green hydrogen may increase the shares of clean energy sources in the energy system by offering grid flexibility and long-term energy storage.

It is clear that the movement towards the global transition is accelerating based on the energy transition policies and carbon-neutrality targets of different nations [ 47 ]. The investments in green hydrogen projects are progressing and taking place globally, including the USA, Germany, Austria, Saudi Arabia and China, to name a few. These countries have taken a step forward towards implementing large-scale projects of green hydrogen [ 15 , 42 ].

Energy from hydrogen can be utilized in numerous fields encompassing industry, electricity, construction, transportation, etc. [ 47 ]. Fig. 4 elucidates the schematic flow of perspectives on green hydrogen production. The demand for green hydrogen has recently evolved since more recent sources have become the latest insights on its current status and projections. The need for green hydrogen is anticipated to increase over the coming years as green technologies develop and the urgency to battle climate change grows. The demand is also needed for environmental aspects of climate change mitigation, decarbonization, technological developments and policy support.

Green hydrogen production perspectives

A study reported that hydrogen has a significant potential role in supporting the globe in meeting decarbonization goals/net-zero emissions by 2050 and limiting the global warming phenomenon to 1.5°C because it can reduce ~80 GT (gigatonnes) of CO 2 emissions by 2050 [ 48 ].

The potential of green hydrogen relies on geographic location and abundant natural resources. Hence, water, solar energy, wind and hydro-energy and organic materials are available. The development in infrastructure enables the widespread implementation of green hydrogen and important infrastructure progress is required. It comprises establishing hydrogen refuelling and building electrolysis plants, storage systems, etc.

Furthermore, investment projects would be viable in desert areas, where large projects might be constructed using solar PV and CSP to generate electricity. Subsequently, electricity can be used to produce enough hydrogen for the local market and export the surplus. Hence, these will help economic development in countries with great potential for solar radiation intensity over the years.

The economies of scale enabled via a developing global market for clean energy sources and green hydrogen will continue to drive down overall expenses [ 29 ]. However, the most economical way to use green financing will be to focus on helping the initial phases of the expansion of green hydrogen generation during a period when the investment takes place [ 49 ]. The investment cost is the main aspect to be considered while designing a hydrogen plant. Therefore, a core desired feature is low-levelized energy costs from renewable energy resources and electrolysers. These will make the project more feasible, efficient and cheap for the production of green hydrogen. The environmental impact of green hydrogen production is a key tool for attaining global climate goals—the potential to guarantee a more sustainable and environmentally friendly future for our planet.

This paper summarizes the outline of green hydrogen, its contribution and its potential towards net-zero emissions. Hence, its viewpoint provides new insights to accelerate the expansion of green hydrogen production projects. In order to accelerate the implementation of green hydrogen, scholars, industries and governments worldwide will contribute to the research and development of the technology. It is considered a feasible option for lowering emissions of GHGs, encouraging energy independence and helping in shifting to a low-carbon, environmentally friendly energy system.

There has been development of hydrogen technology that has significantly progressed to meet energy needs. Therefore, green hydrogen yield, which depends on renewable energy resources, has recently become a more attractive option due to decreased expenditure. Thus, it has the potential to mitigate environmental issues, promote economic expansion and contribute to the transition of the entire world to sustainable and clean energy systems. To adequately realize the potential of green hydrogen, challenges, including lower expenses, development of infrastructure and industrial scale, remain important factors.

A worldwide market for green hydrogen could emerge, enabling assignees with abundant renewable resources to export surplus electricity in the form of hydrogen. Therefore, this could assist countries in switching to a more sustainable energy mix and decrease their dependence on fossil fuel imports. Future work includes developing/deep analysis of a cost-effective, high-efficiency electrolyser device that will decrease the overall cost of green hydrogen yield.

Many grateful thanks go to the Libyan Authority for Research Science and Technology, and many thanks go to the staff in the Libyan Centre for Research and Development of Saharian Communities. Also, thanks to the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments in improving this paper.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data sharing does not apply to this perspective paper, as no new data sets were created during this research.

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Workers and the Green-Energy Transition: Evidence from 300 Million Job Transitions

Using micro-data representing over 130 million online work profiles, we explore transitions into and out of jobs most likely to be affected by a transition away from carbon-intensive production technologies. Exploiting detailed textual data on job title, firm name, occupation, and industry to focus on workers employed in carbon-intensive (“dirty”) and non-carbon-intensive (“green”) jobs, we find that the rate of transition from dirty to green jobs is rising rapidly, increasing ten-fold over the period 2005-2021 including a significant uptick in EV-related jobs in recent years. Overall however, fewer than 1 percent of all workers who leave a dirty job appear to transition to a green job. We find that the persistence of employment within dirty industries varies enormously across local labor markets; in some states, over half of all transitions out of dirty jobs are into other dirty jobs. Older workers and those without a college education appear less likely to make transitions to green jobs, and more likely to transition to other dirty jobs, other jobs, or non-employment. When accounting for the fact that green jobs tend to have later start dates, it appears that green and dirty jobs have roughly comparable job durations.

This research was partially funded by the Washington Center for Equitable Growth, and the NBER Environmental and Energy Policy and the Economy program. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Workers and the Green-Energy Transition: Evidence from 300 Million Job Transitions , E. Mark Curtis, Layla O'Kane, R. Jisung Park. in Environmental and Energy Policy and the Economy, volume 5 , Kotchen, Deryugina, and Wolfram. 2024

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Green energy management in manufacturing based on demand prediction by artificial intelligence—a review.

1. Introduction

2. sustainable manufacturing system design.

• Improving system efficiency and productivity as well as cost balance;
• Minimizing the impact on the environment, also indirectly by reducing energy consumption and CO 2 emissions;
• Reducing production losses and the amount of waste [ 4 ].
• The measurement of energy consumption, CO 2 emissions, and other factors using various energy sources (both for powering machines, lighting, heating, water heating, cooling, etc.: crude oil, oil, solar energy, etc.);
• A mathematical model taking into account real-world constraints, including technological, economic, and ecological ones, with the objective function (with weights specific to a given enterprise/industry) minimizing costs, energy consumption, and CO 2 emissions within the production system itself and the entire enterprise;
• Determining the uncertainty (also: randomness characteristics, if necessary) of input parameters using, e.g., a fuzzy model (including directed fuzzy numbers);
• Analyses and decisions regarding the number of machines/devices for each stage of the production process in connection with the amount of energy and material flow and their DT;
• The construction of an optimizing AI/ML model;
• The validation of the developed system model based on real data, e.g., case study;
• The research and verification of applicability [ 4 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ].
• Inclusion at the earliest possible stage of planning and design;
• Allows to fully explore the inclusion of ecological (e.g., energy consumed) and economic aspects;—It involves the operations of the production system;
• Uses computer simulation tools;
• It would provide a framework for a hybrid approach to optimization;
• It would allow for uncertainties, multi-goals, and discrete event simulations while ensuring the required accuracy and assessing the performance of the production system [ 4 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. dataset.

• Research Question 1 (RQ1): the evolution of research topics/issues over time;
• RQ2: the geographical distribution of research/publications;
• RQ3: the authors and publications with the greatest influence;
• RQ4: the identification of cooperation networks between researchers and institutions;
• RQ5: the topics that may shape future research agendas.

3.2. Methods

5. discussion, 5.1. limitations of previous studies.

• Implementing AI and advanced demand forecasting systems requires significant investment in technology solutions and staff skills;
• Integrating AI-based systems with the existing production processes and legacy systems can be complex and time-consuming;
• Data quality and availability can be limited, and comprehensive data collection in production environments can be difficult—in addition, handling and processing large amounts of data for AI applications can create significant data privacy and security issues;
• Scaling AI solutions across different manufacturing plants and systems can be difficult due to varying levels of technological sophistication;
• AI/ML systems are difficult to understand and trust their predictions, including for critical manufacturing decisions;
• AI systems can consume significant amounts of energy;
• Rapidly changing market demands may exceed AI’s adaptability, leading to inefficiencies in energy management;
• The regulatory challenges for both the AI Act and green energy management can be complex and vary greatly from region to region/country to country;
• Achieving the economic benefits of integrating AI into green energy management can take time, making it difficult to justify the investment in the short term [ 47 , 48 , 49 ].

5.2. Directions for Further Research

• Improved data collection methods, including advanced sensors and IIoT devices to improve the accuracy and detail of data collection;
• The creation of new ML algorithms tailored to complexity and specific needs;
• Hybrid models created by combining artificial intelligence with traditional forecasting methods to improve the reliability and accuracy of forecasts;
• Developing methods to increase the transparency and understanding of AI forecasts;
• Exploring ways to reduce the energy consumption of AI systems themselves;
• Developing a framework for integrating AI-based demand forecasting systems with the existing energy production and management systems;
• Strengthening cyber-security measures to protect against breaches and attacks on sensitive data;
• Exploring methods to ensure the effective scaling of AI-based systems [ 50 , 51 , 52 ].

6. Conclusions

Author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Rojek, I.; Mikołajewski, D.; Mroziński, A.; Macko, M. Green Energy Management in Manufacturing Based on Demand Prediction by Artificial Intelligence—A Review. Electronics 2024 , 13 , 3338. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13163338

Rojek I, Mikołajewski D, Mroziński A, Macko M. Green Energy Management in Manufacturing Based on Demand Prediction by Artificial Intelligence—A Review. Electronics . 2024; 13(16):3338. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13163338

Rojek, Izabela, Dariusz Mikołajewski, Adam Mroziński, and Marek Macko. 2024. "Green Energy Management in Manufacturing Based on Demand Prediction by Artificial Intelligence—A Review" Electronics 13, no. 16: 3338. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13163338

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Nexus of renewable energy, green financing, and sustainable development goals: an empirical investigation

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Achieving the sustainable development goals (SDG) agenda, proposed by the United Nations by 2030, has become the main concern around the globe. The continuing ecological crises and energy sustainability issues can only be dealt with using sustainable solutions such as green finance. Green finance has become a pioneer in economic green transformation resulting in the collective development of both the economy and the environment. Therefore, this study aims to examine the influence of green finance on the achievement of the five major sustainable development goals in the context of the economy of Pakistan. The renewable energy scheme proposed by the State Bank of Pakistan in 2016 serves as a basis for this study. We innovate our research by studying the impact of green finance on five SDGs simultaneously. The association between the variables is checked using random effect modeling. The findings reveal that green finance supports SDG 3, 12, and 13 while having little effect on SDG 1 and SDG 2. Moreover, green finance is a suitable reform for the sustainable development of the economy and the environment. The study has robust policy implications for Pakistan.

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Chaudhry, N.I., Hussain, M. Nexus of renewable energy, green financing, and sustainable development goals: an empirical investigation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30 , 58480–58492 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26653-7

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• NEWS FEATURE
• 20 August 2024

How ‘green’ electricity from wood harms the planet — and people

• Melba Newsome 0

Melba Newsome is a freelance journalist in Charlotte, North Carolina.

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A truck takes wood to an Enviva wood-pellet plant in Garysburg, North Carolina. Credit: Mehmet Demirci/Redux/eyevine

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The town of Hamlet, North Carolina, seemed to hit the jackpot in September 2014. After the community had endured decades of economic despair and high poverty rates, the world’s largest producer of wood-based energy, Enviva Biomass, announced plans to open a major facility nearby that would turn wood into dense pellets that can be used as fuel. The project promised 80 well-paying jobs for residents in Hamlet and the surrounding area. It seemed like a win for both local people and the planet.

The company’s plant, which opened in 2019, is part of a global expansion in the use of wood — or solid biomass — to generate electricity. Pellet companies advertise their products as a renewable-energy source that lowers carbon emissions, and the European Union agrees, which has spurred many countries, including the United Kingdom, Belgium and Denmark, to embrace this form of energy. As with similar projects worldwide, Enviva Biomass, which is based in Bethesda, Maryland, said that its operations in Hamlet would displace fossil fuels, grow more trees and help to fight climate change.

Racism is magnifying the deadly impact of rising city heat

But opposition is building on many fronts. An expanding body of research shows that burning solid biomass to generate electricity often emits huge amounts of carbon — even more than burning coal does. In February 2021, more than 500 scientists and economists signed a letter to US president Joe Biden and other world leaders urging them to not support using wood to generate energy, arguing that it harms biodiversity and increases carbon emissions. Although pellet companies advertise that their operations consume low-quality wood, this claim has come under increased scrutiny, with mounting evidence of significant deforestation around wood-pellet plants.

Residents living near wood-pellet facilities are increasingly complaining about the harmful impacts from air pollution, traffic and noise coming from the wood-pellet operations. And in many cases, these facilities are located near marginalized communities lacking political power.

In Hamlet, 45% of the population identifies as Black, and in the tiny community closest to the mill, about 90% of people are Black, says Debra David, a local resident and activist. She calls the Enviva operation a clear case of environmental racism — layering environmental burdens on an already vulnerable population. David rattles off the names of poultry farms, a chemical company, a natural-gas plant and gravel mines in or near the town. “We are very much overloaded here,” she says.

Enviva did not respond to multiple requests to comment about concerns raised in this article relating to the Hamlet plant and its other operations.

The green gold rush

The big push towards biomass began with the European Commission’s 2009 Renewable Energy Directive, the legal framework for developing renewable energy in all sectors of the EU economy . It became known as the 20-20-20 climate and energy package, and mandated three goals to reach by 2020: reduce EU greenhouse-gas emissions by 20% from 1990 levels; increase the renewable portion of EU energy consumption to 20%; and improve EU energy efficiency by 20%. The directive was initially hailed by environmentalists for taking concrete steps towards limiting global warming to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels — the international goal set by the 2015 Paris climate agreement.

As part of the 20-20-20 package, the EU set standards to reduce carbon emissions by using more biofuels. Since then, EU countries have handed out substantial subsidies to the wood-pellet industry, which have amounted to billions of Euros in the past few years. An assessment from Trinomics, a consultancy firm based in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, found that ten EU countries that were analysed in the study spent more than €6.3 billion (US$6.9 billion) in subsidies for solid biomass energy to produce electricity in 2021 (see go.nature.com/3m4mbm2 ).

The support for wood biomass relies on the idea that carbon emitted by burning biomass will be absorbed by the regrowth of vegetation that replaces the trees used by the industry. But in the past decade, a growing number of scientists have challenged this assumption.

Enviva’s wood-pellet manufacturing facility in Garysburg, North Carolina. Credit: Erin Schaff/The New York Times/Redux/eyevine

John Sterman, the director of the System Dynamics Group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Sloan School of Management in Cambridge, is one of the researchers who signed the 2021 letter. In 2018, Sterman and his colleagues did a life-cycle analysis of the effects of replacing coal with wood to generate electricity ( J. D. Sterman et al . Environ . Res . Lett . 13 , 015007; 2018 ). They found that this substitution could exacerbate climate change until at least 2100, mainly because it takes decades for trees to regrow on harvested land and to remove enough carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Sterman and his colleagues calculated that it would take between 44 and 104 years for new trees to absorb as much CO 2 as the amount generated by wood bioenergy that displaces coal. Despite claims that it helps the fight against global warming, he says, “our conclusion is no, it actually makes climate change worse”.

In 2019, the European Academies’ Science Advisory Council (EASAC) reviewed the EU’s policies and concluded that they are failing to recognize that removing forest carbon stocks for bioenergy leads to an initial increase in emissions (see go.nature.com/3wkqupk ). “Using biomass emits even more CO 2 to the atmosphere per energy generated than even fossil fuels,” says Michael Norton, a co-director of the environment programme at the EASAC secretariat in Vienna.

Is it too late to keep global warming below 1.5 °C? The challenge in 7 charts

Eventually, biomass energy will produce less carbon than fossil fuels do. But the time it takes to make up for the extra initial emissions, says Norton, “is so long as to worsen climate change for decades to centuries — hardly an effective climate strategy given that we are already overshooting Paris agreement targets”.

Researchers have pointed out other problems with the way wood pellets are accounted for in carbon-emission assessments. In particular, the EU accounts for greenhouse-gas emissions associated with biomass at the point of production, not the point of combustion. That allows EU countries relying on biomass to avoid including emissions from this source in their tallies and creates an incentive to use biomass energy, say Sterman and other researchers.

In 2023, the EU announced that it was considering changing its climate policies concerning energy produced from wood biofuels. Forest advocates and biomass opponents were thrilled — but the EU eventually decided that biomass from wood will remain classified as renewable energy.

When trees fall in the forest

Beyond climate concerns, some researchers also warn that the wood-pellet industry harms forests and promotes deforestation. On its website, Enviva says that it produces pellets from low-value wood, such as trees that are unsuitable for other industries, tops and limbs that cannot be processed into lumber, deformed trees and by-products from other industries, such as sawdust. The company says it “does not source from old growth forests, protected forests, or forests that are harvested for land use conservation”.

But many environmental groups and media outlets have photographed stacks of mature hardwood trees waiting to be delivered to Enviva processing plants — and the clear-cut woods left behind. The Dogwood Alliance, a non-profit conservation organization in Asheville, North Carolina, estimates that Enviva facilities in North Carolina consume about 50,000 acres of forest each year, raising questions about Enviva’s practices.

Christopher Williams, an environmental scientist at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, analysed satellite data of forest cover near several Enviva pellet mills. In a report conducted for the Southern Environmental Law Center, a non-profit organization based in Charlottesville, Virginia, Williams found that rates of forest loss from 2001 to 2016 near three Enviva mills were more than double that of a region with similar forests that was not located near a mill (see go.nature.com/4fsb79w ).

“We found that the area of forest-lands cleared each year increased markedly after the initiation of pellet-mill operations,” said Williams.

Along with increasing scrutiny and criticism of the biomass industry in the past few years, some companies have run into economic headwinds. Citing debts exceeding US$2.6 billion, Enviva filed for bankruptcy in March.

In 2020, the Drax pellet plant in Gloster, Mississippi, paid a US$2.5-million penalty for air-pollution violations. Credit: Eric J. Shelton/Mississippi Today

According to the industry publication Biomass Magazine , there are now more than 100 wood-pellet plants in the United States, scattered across the country. But the world’s largest wood-pellet producers, such as Drax, based in Selby, UK, and Enviva, have staked their futures in the southeast and south of the United States.

Enviva now operates ten US wood-pellet facilities — one each in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and Virginia; two in Mississippi and four in North Carolina. Besides the issues of the industry’s environmental impact, there are also concerns about the effects of these operations on the health of people living nearby.

Many residents in the four counties of North Carolina where Enviva plants are located, say the wood-pellet operations have placed a heavy burden on the health of vulnerable communities.

Wood-pellet facilities in the south are about 50% more likely to be located in “communities already besieged by polluting industries and environmental injustices”, says Heather Hillaker, an attorney at the Southern Environmental Law Center in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. “So, you have all the cumulative impacts as well as the disproportionate impacts on these communities.”

Despite concerns raised about the wood-pellet industry, the North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) permitted the construction of Enviva’s Hamlet facility, and its subsequent requests for expansion.

Breathing problems

David describes the near-constant smell of rotten eggs that comes from living downwind of the plant, but she mostly worries about the long-term health consequences of the poor air quality. She says she started having breathing problems not long after the facility began its round-the-clock operations. At one point, her oxygen levels dipped so low that she needed supplemental oxygen daily. Now, she uses an albuterol rescue inhaler and a once-daily inhaled asthma treatment. And she says she’s not alone.

“There are 12 families in my area and 8 of them have albuterol pumps and take asthma medicine,” says David. “One lady had her child checked at four months old and she tested [positive] for asthma. That wouldn’t be happening in a newborn if this air wasn’t infected with dust.”

“The Hamlet facility is a prime example that, historically, these wood-pellet manufacturing facilities were permitted based on incorrect information about their emissions of volatile organic compounds,” says Hillaker.

“It took many, many years of submitting comments, public comments, pursuing, in some cases, lawsuits or administrative challenges to get the agencies and the companies to acknowledge the reality of the VOC [volatile organic compounds] emissions and address it through appropriate control technologies,” says Hillaker.

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Environmental organizations and communities with local wood-pellet operations have brought complaints against operators with varying levels of success. A suit filed against Enviva in North Carolina in 2019 led the state’s DEQ to require the company to invest in more-sophisticated pollution-capture devices on its smokestacks — although those living near the plants say they have not noticed a big difference in air quality.

A federal suit in Texas against another biomass company, Woodville Pellets, alleging violations of the federal Clean Air Act, led to an agreement in which Woodville paid a penalty of more than $500,000 and installed new pollution controls. As part of the agreement, Woodville Pellets denied the allegations and maintained that the agreement does not constitute an admission of liability.

After Drax’s pellet plant in Gloster, Mississippi, paid a $2.5-million civil penalty for air-pollution violations in 2020, the company settled similar claims in Bastrop, Louisiana, and Urania, Louisiana, for a total of $3.2 million in September 2022, although the company denied that it committed any violations.

Drax told Nature that it has “engaged an independent, third-party to conduct an air toxics impact analysis. Those results support that there are no adverse effects to human health from the facility and determined that no modelled pollutant from the facility exceeded the acceptable ambient concentration”. It adds that the company seeks “100% compliance with our permits and has installed additional technology to manage emissions”.

In response to concerns about carbon emissions from biomass energy, Drax says that multiple governments, as well as scientists, classify biomass as carbon neutral.

A path forward

In the heart of south Georgia lies the rural town of Adel, with a population of 5,500. The residents of the city’s west side, most of whom are Black, have lived alongside polluting industries for decades. But three years ago, the community found itself embroiled in two climate-justice battles.

The first one started in 2021, when Georgia’s Environmental Protection Division issued a permit to the Renewable Biomass Group, a wood-pellet production company, for a facility that would produce 450,000 tonnes of wood pellets per year. The company had not even broken ground for its facility when, in October 2021, another biomass company, Spectrum Energy, applied to construct and operate a wood-pellet manufacturing facility that would produce 600,000 tonnes each year, which would make it one of the largest in the world.

Concerned Citizens of Cook County (4C), a social and environmental justice organization in Adel, and 14 other public-interest organizations opposed the permit for the Spectrum plant. “We were already overburdened with multiple industries and legacy pollution,” says Treva Gear, a community activist and the founder of 4C.

Opponents of the plants said that the proposed Spectrum wood-pellet facility would further harm the neighbourhood of Black and Hispanic residents and threaten the health and welfare of local people.

In 2022, the state approved the permit for Spectrum to commence two phases of construction and operation. In December 2022, Spectrum reached out to Adel community organizers and their lawyers, at the Southern Environmental Law Center, to seek a compromise.

Although initially reluctant to bargain, Gear says that they realized that negotiation might be their best hope, because they doubted the state regulatory agency would take their side in the dispute. The two sides reached an agreement in which Spectrum pledged to mitigate potential noise and visual concerns. The agreement also includes the potential for adding more air-pollution control measures.

In an e-mail response to a request for comment about the plant’s impacts, Spectrum president Michael Ainsworth said that Spectrum’s participation in the settlement was voluntary, despite having already received a favourable ruling from the Georgia’s Environmental Protection Division. “Spectrum also agreed to be transparent with the community and to share more information than required by the regulations and also to share information more often than required,” wrote Ainsworth.

Community activists such as Gear are taking solace in winning these concessions because they can see that the deck is stacked against them with the increasing global demand for wood pellets.

“We reached a settlement agreement that put us in a position to have probably the cleanest wood-pellet plant in the world,” she says.

It’s a victory for the local community, but as the biomass industry continues to expand globally, these kinds of battle will become more common as debates over the impacts of wood pellets heat up.

Nature 632 , 726-728 (2024)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-02676-z

Melba Newsome has a fellowship from the Alicia Patterson foundation, which provided support for this story.

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Assistant or Associate Professor (Research-Educator)

The Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics in the Wayne State University School of Medicine (http://genetics.wayne.edu/) is expanding its high-...

Detroit, Michigan

Wayne State University

Postdoctoral Fellow – Cancer Immunotherapy

Tampa, Florida

H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute

Postdoctoral Associate - Specialist

Houston, Texas (US)

Baylor College of Medicine (BCM)

Postdoctoral Associate- CAR T Cells, Synthetic Biology

Postdoctoral scholar.

Dr. Glen N. Barber in the OSUCCC-PIIO is looking to hire enthusiastic, self-motivated Postdoctoral Scholars to contribute to cutting-edge research.

Columbus, Ohio

Polaris Recruitment

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