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Annual Review of Psychology

Volume 59, 2008, review article, the mind and brain of short-term memory.

• John Jonides 1 , Richard L. Lewis 1 , Derek Evan Nee 1 , Cindy A. Lustig 1 , Marc G. Berman 1 , and Katherine Sledge Moore 1
• View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; email: [email protected]
• Vol. 59:193-224 (Volume publication date January 2008) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093615
• © Annual Reviews

The past 10 years have brought near-revolutionary changes in psychological theories about short-term memory, with similarly great advances in the neurosciences. Here, we critically examine the major psychological theories (the “mind”) of short-term memory and how they relate to evidence about underlying brain mechanisms. We focus on three features that must be addressed by any satisfactory theory of short-term memory. First, we examine the evidence for the architecture of short-term memory, with special attention to questions of capacity and how—or whether—short-term memory can be separated from long-term memory. Second, we ask how the components of that architecture enact processes of encoding, maintenance, and retrieval. Third, we describe the debate over the reason about forgetting from short-term memory, whether interference or decay is the cause. We close with a conceptual model tracing the representation of a single item through a short-term memory task, describing the biological mechanisms that might support psychological processes on a moment-by-moment basis as an item is encoded, maintained over a delay with some forgetting, and ultimately retrieved.

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Publication Date: 10 Jan 2008

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• Simply Psychology - Short Term Memory
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short-term memory , in psychology , the concept involving the extremely limited number of items that humans are capable of keeping in mind at one time. Of undeniable importance, the long-standing concept of “short-term memory” is one of the most researched topics in cognitive science . Nearly every act of cognition —reasoning, planning, problem solving—relies on one’s ability to store and manipulate information.

The study of short-term memory was revolutionized by the experiments of British psychologist Alan D. Baddeley and his colleagues in the 1970s and ’80s. According to their model, short-term or “working memory” consists of at least two storage buffers: one for visuospatial information and another for verbal information. A unique aspect of their model was its inclusion of a “central executive” (also called “executive attention”) that coordinates the activities of the storage buffers and manipulates information. This newer concept of working memory can be likened to a mental workspace rather than a simple storage device or a conduit into “long-term memory.” The switch in terminology between short-term memory and working memory reflects this belief in the importance of using this mechanism for performing mental work.

Much recent short-term memory research has focused on three issues: (1) Are there truly separable stores for different types of information? (2) What is the nature of the central executive? (3) Do individual differences in short-term memory abilities account for different levels of ability to read, plan, and solve problems?

Research suggests that there are at least two distinct storage buffers: one for the verbal information and another for visuospatial information. Much of the evidence for this distinction comes from the logic of double dissociation . According to this logic, two cognitive mechanisms (e.g., verbal and spatial short-term memory) are separate if the task performance is differentially impacted by two different variables. For example, performance on verbal working memory tasks (e.g., remember a set of letters), but not spatial working memory tasks (e.g., remembering a set of locations on a computer screen), is impaired by having to say a syllable or word repeatedly (e.g., “the, the, the”) during a memory delay. This is presumably because having to repeat the word or syllable prevents people from silently rehearsing the to-be-remembered letters, a common tactic known as subvocal rehearsal. Conversely , being required to tap a set of computer keys in a spatial pattern interferes with memory for a set of locations in space, but not with memory for a set of letters. Taken together, this set of findings implies that verbal and spatial short-term memory rely on different pools of cognitive resources.

Psychologists Patricia A. Reuter-Lorenz and Andrea C. Miller used the logic of double dissociation to determine whether verbal and spatial short-term memory rely on different neural mechanisms by testing a patient who had undergone a callosotomy ( split-brain ) procedure. They found that when the verbal variant of the task was presented to the left hemisphere, performance was markedly superior to when the verbal task was presented to the right hemisphere. The opposite was true when the spatial task was presented to the right hemisphere. These findings were bolstered by data from neuroimaging and patient studies of the division between verbal and spatial information, which found that verbal tasks are mediated largely by left hemisphere neural regions, whereas the spatial task are relatively largely right lateralized.

In the original working memory model of Baddeley and Graham Hitch, the central executive was the least developed component, prompting a great deal of interest in trying to characterize this mechanism. Some researchers have proposed that it coordinates and controls various subparts of the system. Such a conceptualization is consistent with a number of different computational models, in that many major architectures contain a mechanism that determines whether goals and subgoals are being met and strategically schedules the initiation of various processes. Others have conceptualized executive function as a collection of processes that serve to manipulate the contents of working memory, including inhibition , attention , and temporal ordering.

One thing that appears to distinguish earlier ideas of short-term memory from working memory is that performance on tasks involving just the short-term storage of information does not predict how well people will perform on higher-order reasoning skills, whereas performance on tasks involving both the simultaneous storage and manipulation of information in memory predicts a host of cognitive skills. For instance, it has been shown that working memory capacity, as defined by the ability to simultaneously store and process information, predicts reading comprehension skill. Working memory capacity also predicts how well people will perform on problem-solving tasks, such as conditional reasoning problems. Thus, it appears that working memory capacity can account for many of the skills that constitute intelligence.

From a developmental perspective, working memory is critical because it may play a role in learning language , particularly in vocabulary acquisition. Furthermore, just as working memory capacity can predict performance on higher-order cognitive tasks, working memory ability has been hypothesized to play a role in diverse childhood and adult maladies such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, mathematical disabilities, and reading disabilities. Furthermore, children of school age in cultures in which the articulation time to numbers or letters is shorter (e.g., Chinese, as compared with German) show a greater memory capacity earlier in development. This is because verbal memory is language-based and limited not just by the number of items but also by how long it takes to utter them.

Just as important cognitive skills appear to develop with the help of working memory in childhood, working memory declines in older adults appear to be a factor in age-related changes in a range of cognitive tasks. Adults reach their peak working memory capacity in their twenties, conveniently coinciding with the college years for many, then decline steadily over the life span into old age .

Short-Term Memory In Psychology: Types, Duration & Capacity

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Short-term memory is a component of memory that holds a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a brief period, typically a few seconds to a minute. The duration of STM seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, and STM’s capacity is limited, often thought to be about 7±2 items.

It’s often likened to the brain’s “working space,” enabling tasks like reasoning and language comprehension. Information not rehearsed or processed can quickly be forgotten.

Short-term memory (STM) is the second stage of the multi-store memory model proposed by Atkinson-Shiffrin. 

Short-term memory has three key aspects:

• Limited capacity (only about 7 items can be stored at a time)
• Limited duration (storage is very fragile, and information can be lost with distraction or the passage of time)
• Encoding (primarily acoustic, even translating visual information into sounds).

Capacity: Magic Number 7

The capacity of short-term memory is limited. A classic theory proposed by George Miller (1956) suggests that the average number of objects an individual can hold in their short-term memory is about seven (plus or minus 2 items).

Miller thought that short-term memory could hold 7 (plus or minus 2 items) because it only had a certain number of “slots” to store items.

However, Miller didn’t specify how much information can be held in each slot. Indeed, if we can “chunk” information together, we can store much more information in our short-term memory.

Miller’s theory is supported by evidence from various studies, such as Jacobs (1887). He used the digit span test with every letter in the alphabet and numbers apart from “w” and “7” because they had two syllables.

He found out that people find it easier to recall numbers rather than letters. The average span for letters was 7.3, and for numbers, it was 9.3.

However, the nature of the items (e.g., simple versus complex) and individual differences can influence this capacity.

It’s also worth noting that techniques like chunking can help increase the effective capacity by grouping individual pieces of information into larger units.

Short-term memory typically holds information for about 15 to 30 seconds. However, the duration can be extended through rehearsal (repeating the information).

The duration of short-term memory seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, according to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971). Items can be kept in short-term memory by repeating them verbally (acoustic encoding), a process known as rehearsal.

Using a technique called the Brown-Peterson technique, which prevents the possibility of retrieval by having participants count backward in 3s.

Peterson and Peterson (1959) showed that the longer the delay, the less information is recalled. The rapid loss of information from memory when rehearsal is prevented indicates short-term memory having a limited duration.

If not rehearsed or encoded into long-term memory, the information in short-term memory is susceptible to interference and decay, causing it to be forgotten.

It’s important to note that short-term memory duration can vary among individuals and can be influenced by factors like attention, distraction, and the nature of the information.

Encoding in short-term memory primarily involves a transient representation of information, usually based on the sensory attributes of the input . Here’s a breakdown of how encoding works for short-term memory:

• Acoustic Encoding: This is the most common form of encoding in short-term memory. Information, especially verbal information, is often stored based on its sound. This is why, when trying to remember a phone number, you might repeat it aloud or “hear” it in your mind.
• Visual Encoding: Visual encoding is the process of storing visual images. For example, if you glance at a picture briefly and then try to recall details about it a few moments later, you’re relying on visual encoding.
• Semantic Encoding: This involves processing the meaning of information. Although it plays a more dominant role in long-term memory encoding, there are short-term tasks where meaning can influence memory (e.g., remembering words that form a coherent sentence vs. a random list).
• Tactile Encoding: Information can also be encoded based on touch, though this is less common than acoustic or visual encoding for short-term memory tasks.

Various factors, including attention, repetition, and the nature of the information, can influence the effectiveness of encoding in short-term memory.

However, without further processing, the data held in short-term memory can decay or be displaced, emphasizing the transient nature of this memory store.

More durable and elaborate encoding methods, such as deep processing or the formation of associations, are needed to move information from short-term to long-term memory.

Working memory

Baddeley and Hitch (1974) have developed an alternative model of short-term memory, which they call working memory .

Short-term memory and working memory are not the same, although they are closely related concepts. Short-term memory refers to the temporary storage of information, holding it for a brief period of time.

Working memory, on the other hand, involves not just storing, but also manipulating and processing this information. It’s like the brain’s “workspace” for cognitive tasks, such as problem-solving, reasoning, and comprehension.

Working memory is a more dynamic and complex system than mere short-term storage.

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1971). The control processes of short-term memory . Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences, Stanford University.

Baddeley, A.D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). New York: Academic Press.

Miller, G. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. The psychological review , 63, 81-97.

Peterson, L. R., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of experimental psychology , 58(3), 193-198.

Types of Memory

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

A person’s memory is a sea of images and other sensory impressions, facts and meanings, echoes of past feelings, and ingrained codes for how to behave—a diverse well of information. Naturally, there are many ways (some experts suggest there are hundreds) to describe the varieties of what people remember and how. While the different brands of memory are not always described in exactly the same way by memory researchers, some key concepts have emerged.

These forms of memory, which can overlap in daily life, have also been arranged into broad categories. Memory that lingers for a moment (or even less than a second) could be described as short-term memory , while any kind of information that is preserved for remembering at a later point can be called long-term memory . Memory experts have also distinguished explicit memory , in which information is consciously recalled, from implicit memory , the use of saved information without conscious awareness that it’s being recalled.

On This Page

• Episodic Memory
• Semantic Memory
• Procedural Memory
• Short-Term Memory and Working Memory
• Sensory Memory
• Prospective Memory

When a person recalls a particular event (or “episode”) experienced in the past, that is episodic memory . This kind of long-term memory brings to attention details about anything from what one ate for breakfast to the emotions that were stirred up during a serious conversation with a romantic partner. The experiences conjured by episodic memory can be very recent or decades-old.

A related concept is autobiographical memory , which is the memory of information that forms part of a person’s life story. However, while autobiographical memory includes memories of events in one’s life (such as one’s sixteenth birthday party), it can also encompass facts (such as one’s birth date) and other non-episodic forms of information.

• The details of a phone call you had 20 minutes ago

• How you felt during your last argument

• What it was like receiving your high-school diploma

Semantic memory is someone’s long-term store of knowledge: It’s composed of pieces of information such as facts learned in school, what concepts mean and how they are related, or the definition of a particular word. The details that make up semantic memory can correspond to other forms of memory. One may remember factual details about a party, for instance—what time it started, at whose house it took place, how many people were there, all part of semantic memory—in addition to recalling the sounds heard and excitement felt. But semantic memory can also include facts and meanings related to people, places, or things one has no direct relation to.

• What year it currently is

• The capital of a foreign country

• The meaning of a slang term

Sitting on a bike after not riding one for years and recalling just what to do is a quintessential example of procedural memory . The term describes long-term memory for how to do things, both physical and mental, and is involved in the process of learning skills—from the basic ones people take for granted to those that require considerable practice. A related term is kinesthetic memory , which refers specifically to memory for physical behaviors.

• How to tie your shoes

• How to send an email

• How to shoot a basketball

The terms short-term memory and working memory are sometimes used interchangeably, and both refer to storage of information for a brief amount of time. Working memory can be distinguished from general short-term memory, however, in that working memory specifically involves the temporary storage of information that is being mentally manipulated.

Short-term memory is used when, for instance, the name of a new acquaintance, a statistic, or some other detail is consciously processed and retained for at least a short period of time. It may then be saved in long-term memory, or it may be forgotten within minutes. With working memory , information—the preceding words in a sentence one is reading, for example—is held in mind so that it can be used in the moment.

• The appearance of someone you met a minute ago

• The current temperature, immediately after looking it up

• What happened moments ago in a movie

• A number you have calculated as part of a mental math problem

• The person named at the beginning of a sentence

• Holding a concept in mind (such as ball ) and combining it with another ( orange )

Sensory memories are what psychologists call the short-term memories of just-experienced sensory stimuli such as sights and sounds. The brief memory of something just seen has been called iconic memory, while the sound-based equivalent is called echoic memory. Additional forms of short-term sensory memory are thought to exist for the other senses as well.

Sense-related memories, of course, can also be preserved long-term. Visual-spatial memory refers to memory of how objects are organized in space—tapped when a person remembers which way to walk to get to the grocery store. Auditory memory , olfactory memory , and haptic memory are terms for stored sensory impressions of sounds, smells, and skin sensations, respectively.

• The sound of a piano note that was just played

• The appearance of a car that drove by

• The smell of a restaurant you passed

Prospective memory is forward-thinking memory: It means recalling an intention from the past in order to do something in the future. It is essential for daily functioning, in that memories of previous intentions, including very recent ones, ensure that people execute their plans and meet their obligations when the intended behaviors can’t be carried out right away, or have to be carried out routinely.

• To call someone back

• To stop at the drugstore on the way home

• To pay the rent every month

We encounter failure in our daily lives. How we interpret the meaning of failure and, in turn, how we remember and react to failure, can be influenced by our cultural upbringing.

Are the dreams we have of lost loved ones meaningful?

Could a blue dye help with depression?

Being persuasive relies on critical thinking, but critical thinking itself relies on the ability to remember information.

Early detection of cognitive decline is vital to optimizing treatment, quality of life, and hope. Neuropsychological assessment is a top diagnostic tool for evaluating cognition.

We live in a society where youth is worshipped and aging feared. Yet, some of the greatest ideas come from the minds of folks who have trouble walking.

The "mind's eye" gets an assist from our physical eyes in remembering our past and imagining our future.

Emerging research is bringing much debate about the term type 3 diabetes as a moniker for Alzheimer's disease.

Eyewitness memory is visual, but the images involved must be conveyed verbally. This transition can result in significant errors in investigation and court.

Research offers two alternate models for how memory actually works, and it turns out that in a very real sense, the purpose of memory is to be able to forget.

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Cognitive neuroscience perspective on memory: overview and summary

Sruthi sridhar.

1 Department of Psychology, Mount Allison University, Sackville, NB, Canada

Abdulrahman Khamaj

2 Department of Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia

Manish Kumar Asthana

3 Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India

4 Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India

Associated Data

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

This paper explores memory from a cognitive neuroscience perspective and examines associated neural mechanisms. It examines the different types of memory: working, declarative, and non-declarative, and the brain regions involved in each type. The paper highlights the role of different brain regions, such as the prefrontal cortex in working memory and the hippocampus in declarative memory. The paper also examines the mechanisms that underlie the formation and consolidation of memory, including the importance of sleep in the consolidation of memory and the role of the hippocampus in linking new memories to existing cognitive schemata. The paper highlights two types of memory consolidation processes: cellular consolidation and system consolidation. Cellular consolidation is the process of stabilizing information by strengthening synaptic connections. System consolidation models suggest that memories are initially stored in the hippocampus and are gradually consolidated into the neocortex over time. The consolidation process involves a hippocampal-neocortical binding process incorporating newly acquired information into existing cognitive schemata. The paper highlights the role of the medial temporal lobe and its involvement in autobiographical memory. Further, the paper discusses the relationship between episodic and semantic memory and the role of the hippocampus. Finally, the paper underscores the need for further research into the neurobiological mechanisms underlying non-declarative memory, particularly conditioning. Overall, the paper provides a comprehensive overview from a cognitive neuroscience perspective of the different processes involved in memory consolidation of different types of memory.

Introduction

Memory is an essential cognitive function that permits individuals to acquire, retain, and recover data that defines a person’s identity ( Zlotnik and Vansintjan, 2019 ). Memory is a multifaceted cognitive process that involves different stages: encoding, consolidation, recovery, and reconsolidation. Encoding involves acquiring and processing information that is transformed into a neuronal representation suitable for storage ( Liu et al., 2021 ; Panzeri et al., 2023 ). The information can be acquired through various channels, such as visual, auditory, olfactory, or tactile inputs. The acquired sensory stimuli are converted into a format the brain can process and retain. Different factors such as attention, emotional significance, and repetition can influence the encoding process and determine the strength and durability of the resulting memory ( Squire et al., 2004 ; Lee et al., 2016 ; Serences, 2016 ).

Consolidation includes the stabilization and integration of memory into long-term storage to increase resistance to interference and decay ( Goedert and Willingham, 2002 ). This process creates enduring structural modification in the brain and thereby has consequential effects on the function by reorganizing and strengthening neural connections. Diverse sources like sleep and stress and the release of neurotransmitters can influence memory consolidation. Many researchers have noted the importance of sleep due to its critical role in enabling a smooth transition of information from transient repositories into more stable engrams (memory traces) ( McGaugh, 2000 ; Clawson et al., 2021 ; Rakowska et al., 2022 ).

Retrieval involves accessing, selecting, and reactivating or reconstructing the stored memory to allow conscious access to previously encoded information ( Dudai, 2002 ). Retrieving memories depends on activating relevant neural pathways while reconstructing encoded information. Factors like contextual or retrieval cues and familiarity with the material can affect this process. Forgetting becomes a possibility if there are inadequate triggers for associated memory traces to activate upon recall. Luckily, mnemonic strategies and retrieval practice offer effective tools to enhance recovery rates and benefit overall memory performance ( Roediger and Butler, 2011 ).

Previous research implied that once a memory has been consolidated, it becomes permanent ( McGaugh, 2000 ; Robins, 2020 ). However, recent studies have found an additional phase called “reconsolidation,” during which stored memories, when reactivated, enter a fragile or liable state and become susceptible to modification or update ( Schiller et al., 2009 ; Asthana et al., 2015 ). The process highlights the notion that memory is not static but a dynamic system influenced by subsequent encounters. The concept of reconsolidation has much significance in memory modification therapies and interventions, as it offers a promising opportunity to target maladaptive or traumatic memories for modification specifically. However, more thorough investigations are needed to gain insight into the mechanisms and concrete implications of employing memory reconsolidation within therapeutic settings ( Bellfy and Kwapis, 2020 ).

The concept of memory is not reducible to a single unitary phenomenon; instead, evidence suggests that it can be subdivided into several distinct but interrelated constituent processes and systems ( Richter-Levin and Akirav, 2003 ). There are three major types of human memory: working memory, declarative memory (explicit), and non-declarative memory (implicit). All these types of memories involve different neural systems in the brain. Working memory is a unique transient active store capable of manipulating information essential for many complex cognitive operations, including language processing, reasoning, and judgment ( Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968 ; Baddeley and Logie, 1999 ; Funahashi, 2017 ; Quentin et al., 2019 ). Previous models suggest the existence of three components that make up the working memory ( Baddeley and Hitch, 1974 ; Baddeley, 1986 ). One master component, the central executive, controls the two dependent components, the phonological loop (speech perception and language comprehension) and the visuospatial sketchpad (visual images and spatial impressions processing). Some models mention a third component known as the episodic buffer. It is theorized that the episodic buffer serves as an intermediary between perception, long-term memory, and two components of working memory (the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad) by storing integrated episodes or chunks from both sources ( Baddeley, 2000 ). Declarative memory (explicit memory) can be recalled consciously, including facts and events that took place in one’s life or information learned from books. It encompasses memories of both autobiographical experiences and memories associated with general knowledge. It is usually associated with the hippocampus–medial temporal lobe system ( Thompson and Kim, 1996 ; Ober, 2014 ). Non-declarative memory (implicit memory) refers to unconscious forms of learning such as skills, habits, and priming effects; this type of implicit learning does not involve conscious recollection but can include motor skill tasks that often require no thought prior to execution nor later recall upon completion. This type of memory usually involves the amygdala and other systems ( Thompson and Kim, 1996 ; Ober, 2014 ).

Working memory

Working memory is primarily associated with the prefrontal and posterior parietal cortex ( Sarnthein et al., 1998 ; Todd and Marois, 2005 ). Working memory is not localized to a single brain region, and research suggests that it is an emergent property arising from functional interactions between the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the rest of the brain ( D’Esposito, 2007 ). Neuroimaging studies have explored the neural basis for the three components proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) , the Central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketch pad; there is evidence for the existence of a fourth component called the episodic buffer ( Baddeley, 2000 ).

The central executive plays a significant role in working memory by acting as the control center ( Shallice, 2002 ). It facilitates critical functions like attention allocation and coordination between the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad ( Yu et al., 2023 ). Recent findings have illuminated the dual-functional network regulation, the cingulo-opercular network (CON) and the frontoparietal network (FPN), that underpins the central executive system ( Yu et al., 2023 ). The CON comprises the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and anterior insula (AI). In contrast, the FPN encompasses various regions, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and frontal eye field (FEF), along with the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) ( Yu et al., 2023 ). Neuroimaging research has found evidence that elucidates the neural underpinnings of the executive attention control system to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) ( Jung et al., 2022 ). The activation patterns indicate that the CON may have a broader top-down control function across the working memory process. At the same time, the FPN could be more heavily implicated in momentary control or processing at the trial level ( Yu et al., 2023 ). Evidence suggests that the central executive interacts with the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad to support working memory processes ( Baddeley, 2003 ; Buchsbaum, 2010 ; Menon and D’Esposito, 2021 ). The function, localization, and neural basis of this interaction are thought to involve the activation of specific brain regions associated with each component of working memory, as discussed in detail below.

The phonological loop is divided into two components: a storage system that maintains information (a few seconds) and a component involving subvocal rehearsal—which maintains and refreshes information in the working memory. Neuroanatomically, the phonological loop is represented in the Brodmann area (BA) 40 in the parietal cortex and the rehearsal components in BA 44 and 6, both situated in the frontal cortex ( Osaka et al., 2007 ). The left inferior frontal gyrus (Broca’s area) and the left posterior superior temporal gyrus (Wernicke’s area) has been proposed to play a critical role in supporting phonological and verbal working memory tasks, specifically the subvocal rehearsal system of the articulatory loop ( Paulesu et al., 1993 ; Buchsbaum et al., 2001 ; Perrachione et al., 2017 ). The phonological store in verbal short-term memory has been localized at the left supramarginal gyrus ( Graves et al., 2008 ; Perrachione et al., 2017 ).

Studies utilizing neuroimaging techniques have consistently yielded results indicating notable activation in these brain regions during phonological activities like recalling non-words and maintaining verbal information in memory ( Awh et al., 1996 ; Graves et al., 2008 ). During tasks that require phonological rehearsal, there was an increase in activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus ( Paulesu et al., 1993 ). Researchers have noted an increase in activity within the superior temporal gyrus-which plays a significant role in auditory processing-in individuals performing tasks that necessitate verbal information maintenance and manipulation ( Smith et al., 1998 ; Chein et al., 2003 ).

Additionally, lesion studies have provided further confirmation regarding the importance of these regions. These investigations have revealed that impairment in performing phonological working memory tasks can transpire following damage inflicted upon the left hemisphere, particularly on perisylvian language areas ( Koenigs et al., 2011 ). It is common for individuals with lesions affecting regions associated with the phonological loop, such as the left inferior frontal gyrus and superior temporal gyrus, to have difficulty performing verbal working memory tasks. Clinical cases involving patients diagnosed with aphasia and specific language impairments have highlighted challenges related to retaining and manipulating auditory information. For example, those who sustain damage specifically within their left inferior frontal gyrus often struggle with tasks involving phonological rehearsal and verbal working memory activities, and therefore, they tend to perform poorly in tasks that require manipulation or repetition of verbal stimuli ( Saffran, 1997 ; Caplan and Waters, 2005 ).

The visuospatial sketchpad is engaged in the temporary retention and manipulation of visuospatial facts, including mental pictures, spatial associations, and object placements ( Miyake et al., 2001 ). The visuospatial sketchpad is localized to the right hemisphere, including the occipital lobe, parietal and frontal areas ( Osaka et al., 2007 ). Ren et al. (2019) identified the localization of the visuospatial sketchpad, and these areas were the right infero-lateral prefrontal cortex, lateral pre-motor cortices, right inferior parietal cortex, and the dorsolateral occipital cortices ( Burbaud et al., 1999 ; Salvato et al., 2021 ). Moreover, the posterior parietal cortex and the intraparietal sulcus have been implicated in spatial working memory ( Xu and Chun, 2006 ). Additionally, some evidence is available for an increase in brain regions associated with the visuospatial sketchpad during tasks involving mental imagery and spatial processing. Neuroimaging studies have revealed increased neural activation in some regions of the parietal cortex, mainly the superior and posterior parietal cortex, while performing mental rotation tasks ( Cohen et al., 1996 ; Kosslyn et al., 1997 ). However, further research is needed to better understand the visuospatial working memory and its integration with other cognitive processes ( Baddeley, 2003 ). Lesions to the regions involving the visuospatial sketchpad can have detrimental effects on visuospatial working memory tasks. Individuals with lesions to the posterior parietal cortex may exhibit deficits in mental rotation tasks and may be unable to mentally manipulate the visuospatial representation ( Buiatti et al., 2011 ). Moreover, studies concerning lesions have shown that damage to the parietal cortex can result in short-term deficits in visuospatial memory ( Shafritz et al., 2002 ). Damage to the occipital cortex can lead to performance impairments in tasks that require the generation and manipulation of mental visual images ( Moro et al., 2008 ).

The fourth component of the working memory, termed episodic buffer, was proposed by Baddeley (2000) . The episodic buffer is a multidimensional but essentially passive store that can hold a limited number of chunks, store bound features, and make them available to conscious awareness ( Baddeley et al., 2010 ; Hitch et al., 2019 ). Although research has suggested that episodic buffer is localized to the hippocampus ( Berlingeri et al., 2008 ) or the inferior lateral parietal cortex, it is thought to be not dependent on a single anatomical structure but instead can be influenced by the subsystems of working memory, long term memory, and even through perception ( Vilberg and Rugg, 2008 ; Baddeley et al., 2010 ). The episodic buffer provides a crucial link between the attentional central executive and the multidimensional information necessary for the operation of working memory ( Baddeley et al., 2011 ; Gelastopoulos et al., 2019 ).

The interdependence of the working memory modules, namely the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, co-relates with other cognitive processes, for instance, spatial cognition and attention allocation ( Repovs and Baddeley, 2006 ). It has been found that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and posterior parietal cortex (PPC) have a crucial role in several aspects of spatial cognition, such as the maintenance of spatially oriented attention and motor intentions ( Jerde and Curtis, 2013 ). The study by Sellers et al. (2016) and the review by Ikkai and Curtis (2011) posits that other brain areas could use the activity in PFC and PPC as a guide and manifest outputs to guide attention allocation, spatial memory, and motor planning. Moreover, research indicates that verbal information elicits an activation response in the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) when retained in the phonological loop, while visuospatial information is represented by a corresponding level of activity within the right homolog region ( Narayanan et al., 2005 ; Wolf et al., 2006 ; Emch et al., 2019 ). Specifically, the study by Yang et al. (2022) investigated the roles of two regions in the brain, the right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG) and the right supra-marginal gyrus (rSMG), as they relate to spatial congruency in visual working memory tasks. A change detection task with online repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation applied concurrently at both locations during high visual WM load conditions determined that rIFG is involved in actively repositioning the location of objects. At the same time, rSMG is engaged in passive perception of the stability of the location of objects.

Recent academic studies have found evidence to support the development of a new working memory model known as the state-based model ( D’Esposito and Postle, 2015 ). This theoretical model proposes that the allocation of attention toward internal representations permits short-term retention within working memory ( Ghaleh et al., 2019 ). The state-based model consists of two main categories: activated LTM models and sensorimotor recruitment models; the former largely focuses upon symbolic stimuli categorized under semantic aspects, while the latter has typically been applied to more perceptual tasks in experiments. This framework posits that prioritization through regulating cognitive processes provides insight into various characteristics across different activity types, including capacity limitations, proactive interference, etcetera ( D’Esposito and Postle, 2015 ). For example, the paper by Ghaleh et al. (2019) provides evidence for two separate mechanisms involved in maintenance of auditory information in verbal working memory: an articulatory rehearsal mechanism that relies more heavily on left sensorimotor areas and a non-articulatory maintenance mechanism that critically relies on left superior temporal gyrus (STG). These findings support the state-based model’s proposal that attentional allocation is necessary for short-term retention in working memory.

State-based models were found to be consistent with the suggested storage mechanism as they do not require representation transfer from one dedicated buffer type; research has demonstrated that any population of neurons and synapses may serve as such buffers ( Maass and Markram, 2002 ; Postle, 2006 ; Avraham et al., 2017 ). The review by D’Esposito and Postle (2015) examined the evidence to determine whether a persistent neural activity, synaptic mechanisms, or a combination thereof support representations maintained during working memory. Numerous neural mechanisms have been hypothesized to support the short-term retention of information in working memory and likely operate in parallel ( Sreenivasan et al., 2014 ; Kamiński and Rutishauser, 2019 ).

Persistent neural activity is the neural mechanism by which information is temporarily maintained ( Ikkai and Curtis, 2011 ; Panzeri et al., 2023 ). Recent review by Curtis and Sprague (2021) has focused on the notion that persistent neural activity is a fundamental mechanism for memory storage and have provided two main arcs of explanation. The first arc, mainly underpinned by empirical evidence from prefrontal cortex (PFC) neurophysiology experiments and computational models, posits that PFC neurons exhibit sustained firing during working memory tasks, enabling them to store representations in their active state ( Thuault et al., 2013 ). Intrinsic persistent firing in layer V neurons in the medial PFC has been shown to be regulated by HCN1 channels, which contribute to the executive function of the PFC during working memory episodes ( Thuault et al., 2013 ). Additionally, research has also found that persistent neural firing could possibly interact with theta periodic activity to sustain each other in the medial temporal, prefrontal, and parietal regions ( Düzel et al., 2010 ; Boran et al., 2019 ). The second arc involves advanced neuroimaging approaches which have, more recently, enabled researchers to decode content stored within working memories across distributed regions of the brain, including parts of the early visual cortex–thus extending this framework beyond just isolated cortical areas such as the PFC. There is evidence that suggests simple, stable, persistent activity among neurons in stimulus-selective populations may be a crucial mechanism for sustaining WM representations ( Mackey et al., 2016 ; Kamiński et al., 2017 ; Curtis and Sprague, 2021 ).

Badre (2008) discussed the functional organization of the PFC. The paper hypothesized that the rostro-caudal gradient of a function in PFC supported a control hierarchy, whereas posterior to anterior PFC mediated progressively abstract, higher-order controls ( Badre, 2008 ). However, this outlook proposed by Badre (2008) became outdated; the paper by Badre and Nee (2018) presented an updated look at the literature on hierarchical control. This paper supports neither a unitary model of lateral frontal function nor a unidimensional abstraction gradient. Instead, separate frontal networks interact via local and global hierarchical structures to support diverse task demands. This updated perspective is supported by recent studies on the hierarchical organization of representations within the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) and the progressively rostral areas of the LPFC that process/represent increasingly abstract information, facilitating efficient and flexible cognition ( Thomas Yeo et al., 2011 ; Nee and D’Esposito, 2016 ). This structure allows the brain to access increasingly abstract action representations as required ( Nee and D’Esposito, 2016 ). It is supported by fMRI studies showing an anterior-to-posterior activation movement when tasks become more complex. Anatomical connectivity between areas also supports this theory, such as Area 10, which has projections back down to Area 6 but not vice versa.

Finally, studies confirm that different regions serve different roles along a hierarchy leading toward goal-directed behavior ( Badre and Nee, 2018 ). The paper by Postle (2015) exhibits evidence of activity in the prefrontal cortex that reflects the maintenance of high-level representations, which act as top-down signals, and steer the circulation of neural pathways across brain networks. The PFC is a source of top-down signals that influence processing in the posterior and subcortical regions ( Braver et al., 2008 ; Friedman and Robbins, 2022 ). These signals either enhance task-relevant information or suppress irrelevant stimuli, allowing for efficient yet effective search ( D’Esposito, 2007 ; D’Esposito and Postle, 2015 ; Kerzel and Burra, 2020 ). The study by Ratcliffe et al. (2022) provides evidence of the dynamic interplay between executive control mechanisms in the frontal cortex and stimulus representations held in posterior regions for working memory tasks. Moreover, the review by Herry and Johansen (2014) discusses the neural mechanisms behind actively maintaining task-relevant information in order for a person to carry out tasks and goals effectively. This review of data and research suggests that working memory is a multi-component system allowing for both the storage and processing of temporarily active representations. Neural activity throughout the brain can be differentially enhanced or suppressed based on context through top-down signals emanating from integrative areas such as PFC, parietal cortex, or hippocampus to actively maintain task-relevant information when it is not present in the environment ( Herry and Johansen, 2014 ; Kerzel and Burra, 2020 ).

In addition, Yu et al. (2022) examined how brain regions from the ventral stream pathway to the prefrontal cortex were activated during working memory (WM) gate opening and closing. They defined gate opening as the switch from maintenance to updating and gate closing as the switch from updating to maintenance. The data suggested that cognitive branching increases during the WM gating process, thus correlating the gating process and an information approach to the PFC function. The temporal cortices, lingual gyrus (BA19), superior frontal gyri including frontopolar cortices, and middle and inferior parietal regions are involved in processes of estimating whether a response option available will be helpful for each case. During gate closing, on the other hand, medial and superior frontal regions, which have been associated with conflict monitoring, come into play, as well as orbitofrontal and dorsolateral prefrontal processing at later times when decreasing activity resembling stopping or downregulating cognitive branching has occurred, confirming earlier theories about these areas being essential for estimation of usefulness already stored within long-term memories ( Yu et al., 2022 ).

Declarative and non-declarative memory

The distinctions between declarative and non-declarative memory are often based on the anatomical features of medial temporal lobe regions, specifically those involving the hippocampus ( Squire and Zola, 1996 ; Squire and Wixted, 2011 ). In the investigation of systems implicated in the process of learning and memory formation, it has been posited that the participation of the hippocampus is essential for the acquisition of declarative memories ( Eichenbaum and Cohen, 2014 ). In contrast, a comparatively reduced level of hippocampal involvement may suffice for non-declarative memories ( Squire and Zola, 1996 ; Williams, 2020 ).

Declarative memory (explicit) pertains to knowledge about facts and events. This type of information can be consciously retrieved with effort or spontaneously recollected without conscious intention ( Dew and Cabeza, 2011 ). There are two types of declarative memory: Episodic and Semantic. Episodic memory is associated with the recollection of personal experiences. It involves detailed information about events that happened in one’s life. Semantic memory refers to knowledge stored in the brain as facts, concepts, ideas, and objects; this includes language-related information like meanings of words and mathematical symbol values along with general world knowledge (e.g., capitals of countries) ( Binder and Desai, 2011 ). The difference between episodic and semantic memory is that when one retrieves episodic memory, the experience is known as “remembering”; when one retrieves information from semantic memory, the experience is known as “knowing” ( Tulving, 1985 ; Dew and Cabeza, 2011 ). The hippocampus, medial temporal lobe, and the areas in the diencephalon are implicated in declarative memory ( Richter-Levin and Akirav, 2003 ; Derner et al., 2020 ). The ventral parietal cortex (VPC) is involved in declarative memory processes, specifically episodic memory retrieval ( Henson et al., 1999 ; Davis et al., 2018 ). The evidence suggests that VPC and hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of contextual details, such as the location and timing of the event, and the information is critical for the formation of episodic memory ( Daselaar, 2009 ; Hutchinson et al., 2009 ; Wiltgen et al., 2010 ). The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is involved in the encoding (medial PFC) and retrieval (lateral PFC) of declarative memories, specifically in the integration of information across different sensory modalities ( Blumenfeld and Ranganath, 2007 ; Li et al., 2010 ). Research also suggests that the amygdala may modulate other brain regions involved with memory processing, thus, contributing to an enhanced recall of negative or positive experiences ( Hamann, 2001 ; Ritchey et al., 2008 ; Sendi et al., 2020 ). Maintenance of the integrity of hippocampal circuitry is essential for ensuring that episodic memory, along with spatial and temporal context information, can be retained in short-term or long-term working memory beyond 15 min ( Ito et al., 2003 ; Rasch and Born, 2013 ). Moreover, studies have suggested that the amygdala plays a vital role in encoding and retrieving explicit memories, particularly those related to emotionally charged stimuli which are supported by evidence of correlations between hippocampal activity and amygdala modulation during memory formation ( Richter-Levin and Akirav, 2003 ; Qasim et al., 2023 ).

Current findings in neuroimaging studies assert that a vast array of interconnected brain regions support semantic memory ( Binder and Desai, 2011 ). This network merges information sourced from multiple senses alongside different cognitive faculties necessary for generating abstract supramodal views on various topics stored within our consciousness. Modality-specific sensory, motor, and emotional system within these brain regions serve specialized tasks like language comprehension, while larger areas of the brain, such as the inferior parietal lobe and most of the temporal lobe, participate in more generalized interpretation tasks ( Binder and Desai, 2011 ; Kuhnke et al., 2020 ). These regions lie at convergences of multiple perceptual processing streams, enabling increasingly abstract, supramodal representations of perceptual experience that support a variety of conceptual functions, including object recognition, social cognition, language, and the remarkable human capacity to remember the past and imagine the future ( Binder and Desai, 2011 ; Binney et al., 2016 ). The following section will discuss the processes underlying memory consolidation and storage within declarative memory.

Non-declarative (implicit) memories refer to unconscious learning through experience, such as habits and skills formed from practice rather than memorizing facts; these are typically acquired slowly and automatically in response to sensory input associated with reward structures or prior exposure within our daily lives ( Kesner, 2017 ). Non-declarative memory is a collection of different phenomena with different neural substrates rather than a single coherent system ( Camina and Güell, 2017 ). It operates by similar principles, depending on local changes to a circumscribed brain region, and the representation of these changes is unavailable to awareness ( Reber, 2008 ). Non-declarative memory encompasses a heterogenous collection of abilities, such as associative learning, skills, and habits (procedural memory), priming, and non-associative learning ( Squire and Zola, 1996 ; Camina and Güell, 2017 ). Studies have concluded that procedural memory for motor skills depends upon activity in diverse set areas such as the motor cortex, striatum, limbic system, and cerebellum; similarly, perceptual skill learning is thought to be associated with sensory cortical activation ( Karni et al., 1998 ; Mayes, 2002 ). Research suggests that mutual connections between brain regions that are active together recruit special cells called associative memory cells ( Wang et al., 2016 ; Wang and Cui, 2018 ). These cells help integrate, store, and remember related information. When activated, these cells trigger the recall of memories, leading to behaviors and emotional responses. This suggests that co-activated brain regions with these mutual connections are where associative memories are formed ( Wang et al., 2016 ; Wang and Cui, 2018 ). Additionally, observational data reveals that priming mechanisms within distinct networks, such as the “repetition suppression” effect observed in visual cortical areas associated with sensory processing and in the prefrontal cortex for semantic priming, are believed to be responsible for certain forms of conditioning and implicit knowledge transfer experiences exhibited by individuals throughout their daily lives ( Reber, 2008 ; Wig et al., 2009 ; Camina and Güell, 2017 ). However, further research is needed to better understand the mechanisms of consolidation in non-declarative memory ( Camina and Güell, 2017 ).

The process of transforming memory into stable, long-lasting from a temporary, labile memory is known as memory consolidation ( McGaugh, 2000 ). Memory formation is based on the change in synaptic connections of neurons representing the memory. Encoding causes synaptic Long-Term potentiation (LTP) or Long-Term depression (LTD) and induces two consolidation processes. The first is synaptic or cellular consolidation which involves remodeling synapses to produce enduring changes. Cellular consolidation is a short-term process that involves stabilizing the neural trace shortly after learning via structural brain changes in the hippocampus ( Lynch, 2004 ). The second is system consolidation, which builds on synaptic consolidation where reverberating activity leads to redistribution for long-term storage ( Mednick et al., 2011 ; Squire et al., 2015 ). System consolidation is a long-term process during which memories are gradually transferred to and integrated with cortical neurons, thus promoting their stability over time. In this way, memories are rendered less susceptible to forgetting. Hebb postulated that when two neurons are repeatedly activated simultaneously, they become more likely to exhibit a coordinated firing pattern of activity in the future ( Langille, 2019 ). This proposed enduring change in synchronized neuronal activation was consequently termed cellular consolidation ( Bermudez-Rattoni, 2010 ).

The following sections of this paper incorporate a more comprehensive investigation into various essential procedures connected with memory consolidation- namely: long-term potentiation (LTP), long-term depression (LTD), system consolidation, and cellular consolidation. Although these mechanisms have been presented briefly before this paragraph, the paper aims to offer greater insight into each process’s function within the individual capacity and their collective contribution toward memory consolidation.

Synaptic plasticity mechanisms implicated in memory stabilization

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) and Long-Term Depression (LTP) are mechanisms that have been implicated in memory stabilization. LTP is an increase in synaptic strength, whereas LTD is a decrease in synaptic strength ( Ivanco, 2015 ; Abraham et al., 2019 ).

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) is a phenomenon wherein synaptic strength increases persistently due to brief exposures to high-frequency stimulation ( Lynch, 2004 ). Studies of Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) have led to an understanding of the mechanisms behind synaptic strengthening phenomena and have provided a basis for explaining how and why strong connections between neurons form over time in response to stimuli.

The NMDA receptor-dependent LTP is the most commonly described LTP ( Bliss and Collingridge, 1993 ; Luscher and Malenka, 2012 ). In this type of LTP, when there is high-frequency stimulation, the presynaptic neuron releases glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter. Glutamate binds to the AMPA receptor on the postsynaptic neuron, which causes the neuron to fire while opening the NMDA receptor channel. The opening of an NMDA channel elicits a calcium ion influx into the postsynaptic neuron, thus initiating a series of phosphorylation events as part of the ensuing molecular cascade. Autonomously phosphorylated CaMKII and PKC, both actively functional through such a process, have been demonstrated to increase the conductance of pre-existing AMPA receptors in synaptic networks. Additionally, this has been shown to stimulate the introduction of additional AMPA receptors into synapses ( Malenka and Nicoll, 1999 ; Lynch, 2004 ; Luscher and Malenka, 2012 ; Bailey et al., 2015 ).

There are two phases of LTP: the early phase and the late phase. It has been established that the early phase LTP (E-LTP) does not require RNA or protein synthesis; therefore, its synaptic strength will dissipate in minutes if late LTP does not stabilize it. On the contrary, late-phase LTP (L-LTP) can sustain itself over a more extended period, from several hours to multiple days, with gene transcription and protein synthesis in the postsynaptic cell ( Frey and Morris, 1998 ; Orsini and Maren, 2012 ). The strength of presynaptic tetanic stimulation has been demonstrated to be a necessary condition for the activation of processes leading to late LTP ( Luscher and Malenka, 2012 ; Bailey et al., 2015 ). This finding is supported by research examining synaptic plasticity, notably Eric Kandel’s discovery that CREB–a transcription factor–among other cytoplasmic and nuclear molecules, are vital components in mediating molecular changes culminating in protein synthesis during this process ( Kaleem et al., 2011 ; Kandel et al., 2014 ). Further studies have shown how these shifts ultimately lead to AMPA receptor stabilization at post-synapses facilitating long-term potentiation within neurons ( Luscher and Malenka, 2012 ; Bailey et al., 2015 ).

The “synaptic tagging and capture hypothesis” explains how a weak event of tetanization at synapse A can transform to late-LTP if followed shortly by the strong tetanization of a different, nearby synapse on the same neuron ( Frey and Morris, 1998 ; Redondo and Morris, 2011 ; Okuda et al., 2020 ; Park et al., 2021 ). During this process, critical plasticity-related proteins (PRPs) are synthesized, which stabilize their own “tag” and that from the weaker synaptic activity ( Moncada et al., 2015 ). Recent evidence suggests that calcium-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs) are involved in this form of heterosynaptic metaplasticity ( Park et al., 2018 ). The authors propose that the synaptic activation of CP-AMPARs triggers the synthesis of PRPs, which are then engaged by the weak induction protocol to facilitate LTP on the independent input. The paper also suggests that CP-AMPARs are required during the induction of LTP by the weak input for the full heterosynaptic metaplastic effect to be observed ( Park et al., 2021 ). Additionally, it has been further established that catecholamines such as dopamine plays an integral part in memory persistence by inducing PRP synthesis ( Redondo and Morris, 2011 ; Vishnoi et al., 2018 ). Studies have found that dopamine release in the hippocampus can enhance LTP and improve memory consolidation ( Lisman and Grace, 2005 ; Speranza et al., 2021 ).

Investigations into neuronal plasticity have indicated that synaptic strength alterations associated with certain forms of learning and memory may be analogous to those underlying Long-Term Potentiation (LTP). Research has corroborated this notion, demonstrating a correlation between these two phenomena ( Lynch, 2004 ). The three essential properties of Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) that have been identified are associativity, synapse specificity, and cooperativity ( Kandel and Mack, 2013 ). These characteristics provide empirical evidence for the potential role of LTP in memory formation processes. Specifically, associativity denotes the amplification of connections when weak stimulus input is paired with a powerful one; synapse specificity posits that this potentiating effect only manifests on synaptic locations exhibiting coincidental activity within postsynaptic neurons, while cooperativity suggests stimulated neuron needs to attain an adequate threshold of depolarization before LTP can be induced again ( Orsini and Maren, 2012 ).

There is support for the idea that memories are encoded by modification of synaptic strengths through cellular mechanisms such as LTP and LTD ( Nabavi et al., 2014 ). The paper by Nabavi et al. (2014) shows that fear conditioning, a type of associative memory, can be inactivated and reactivated by LTD and LTP, respectively. The findings of the paper support a causal link between these synaptic processes and memory. Moreover, the paper suggests that LTP is used to form neuronal assemblies that represent a memory, and LTD could be used to disassemble them and thereby inactivate a memory ( Nabavi et al., 2014 ). Hippocampal LTD has been found to play an essential function in regulating synaptic strength and forming memories, such as long-term spatial memory ( Ge et al., 2010 ). However, it is vital to bear in mind that studies carried out on LTP exceed those done on LTD; hence the literature on it needs to be more extensive ( Malenka and Bear, 2004 ; Nabavi et al., 2014 ).

Cellular consolidation and memory

For an event to be remembered, it must form physical connections between neurons in the brain, which creates a “memory trace.” This memory trace can then be stored as long-term memory ( Langille and Brown, 2018 ). The formation of a memory engram is an intricate process requiring neuronal depolarization and the influx of intracellular calcium ( Mank and Griesbeck, 2008 ; Josselyn et al., 2015 ; Xu et al., 2017 ). This initiation leads to a cascade involving protein transcription, structural and functional changes in neural networks, and stabilization during the quiescence period, followed by complete consolidation for its success. Interference from new learning events or disruption caused due to inhibition can abort this cycle leading to incomplete consolidation ( Josselyn et al., 2015 ).

Cyclic-AMP response element binding protein (CREB) has been identified as an essential transcription factor for memory formation ( Orsini and Maren, 2012 ). It regulates the expression of PRPs and enhances neuronal excitability and plasticity, resulting in changes to the structure of cells, including the growth of dendritic spines and new synaptic connections. Blockage or enhancement of CREB in certain areas can affect subsequent consolidation at a systems level–decreasing it prevents this from occurring, while aiding its presence allows even weak learning conditions to produce successful memory formation ( Orsini and Maren, 2012 ; Kandel et al., 2014 ).

Strengthening weakly encoded memories through the synaptic tagging and capture hypothesis may play an essential role in cellular consolidation. Retroactive memory enhancement has also been demonstrated in human studies, mainly when items are initially encoded with low strength but later paired with shock after consolidation ( Dunsmoor et al., 2015 ). The synaptic tagging and capture theory (STC) and its extension, the behavioral tagging hypothesis (BT), have both been used to explain synaptic specificity and the persistence of plasticity ( Moncada et al., 2015 ). STC proposed that electrophysiological activity can induce long-term changes in synapses, while BT postulates similar effects of behaviorally relevant neuronal events on learning and memory models. This hypothesis proposes that memory consolidation relies on combining two distinct processes: setting a “learning tag” and synthesizing plasticity-related proteins ( De novo protein synthesis, increased CREB levels, and substantial inputs to nearby synapses) at those tagged sites. BT explains how it is possible for event episodes with low-strength inputs or engagements can be converted into lasting memories ( Lynch, 2004 ; Moncada et al., 2015 ). Similarly, the emotional tagging hypothesis posits that the activation of the amygdala in emotionally arousing events helps to mark experiences as necessary, thus enhancing synaptic plasticity and facilitating transformation from transient into more permanent forms for encoding long-term memories ( Richter-Levin and Akirav, 2003 ; Zhu et al., 2022 ).

Cellular consolidation, the protein synthesis-dependent processes observed in rodents that may underlie memory formation and stabilization, has been challenging to characterize in humans due to the limited ability to study it directly ( Bermudez-Rattoni, 2010 ). Additionally, multi-trial learning protocols commonly used within human tests as opposed to single-trial experiments conducted with non-human subjects suggest there could be interference from subsequent information that impedes individual memories from being consolidated reliably. This raises important questions regarding how individuals can still form strong and long-lasting memories when exposed to frequent stimuli outside controlled laboratory conditions. Although this phenomenon remains undiscovered by science, it is of utmost significance for gaining a deeper understanding of our neural capacities ( Genzel and Wixted, 2017 ).

The establishment of distributed memory traces requires a narrow temporal window following the initial encoding process, during which cellular consolidation occurs ( Nader and Hardt, 2009 ). Once this period ends and consolidation has been completed, further protein synthesis inhibition or pharmacological disruption will be less effective at altering pre-existing memories and interfering with new learning due to the stabilization of the trace in its new neuronal network connections ( Nader and Hardt, 2009 ). Thus, systems consolidation appears critical for the long-term maintenance of memory within broader brain networks over extended periods after their formation ( Bermudez-Rattoni, 2010 ).

System consolidation and memory

Information is initially stored in both the hippocampus and neocortex ( Dudai et al., 2015 ). The hippocampus subsequently guides a gradual process of reorganization and stabilization whereby information present within the neocortex becomes autonomous from that in the hippocampal store. Scholars have termed this phenomenon “standard memory consolidation model” or “system consolidation” ( Squire et al., 2015 ).

The Standard Model suggests that information acquired during learning is simultaneously stored in both the hippocampus and multiple cortical modules. Subsequently, it posits that over a period of time which may range from weeks to months or longer, the hippocampal formation directs an integration process by which these various elements become enclosed into single unified structures within the cortex ( Gilboa and Moscovitch, 2021 ; Howard et al., 2022 ). These newly learned memories are then assimilated into existing networks without interference or compression when necessary ( Frankland and Bontempi, 2005 ). It is important to note that memory engrams already exist within cortical networks during encoding. They only need strengthening through links enabled by hippocampal assistance-overtime allowing remote memory storage without reliance on the latter structure. Data appears consistent across studies indicating that both AMPA-and NMDA receptor-dependent “tagging” processes occurring within the cortex are essential components of progressive rewiring, thus enabling longer-term retention ( Takeuchi et al., 2014 ; Takehara-Nishiuchi, 2020 ).

Recent studies have additionally demonstrated that the rate of system consolidation depends on an individual’s ability to relate new information to existing networks made up of connected neurons, popularly known as “schemas” ( Robin and Moscovitch, 2017 ). In situations where prior knowledge is present and cortical modules are already connected at the outset of learning, it has been observed that a hippocampal-neocortical binding process occurs similarly to when forming new memories ( Schlichting and Preston, 2015 ). The proposed framework involves the medial temporal lobe (MTL), which is involved in acquiring new information and binds different aspects of an experience into a single memory trace. In contrast, the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) integrates this information with the existing knowledge ( Zeithamova and Preston, 2010 ; van Kesteren et al., 2012 ). During consolidation and retrieval, MTL is involved in replaying memories to the neocortex, where they are gradually integrated with existing knowledge and schemas and help retrieve memory traces. During retrieval, the mPFC is thought to use existing knowledge and schemas to guide retrieval and interpretation of memory. This may involve the assimilation of newly acquired information into existing cognitive schemata as opposed to the comparatively slow progression of creating intercortical connections ( Zeithamova and Preston, 2010 ; van Kesteren et al., 2012 , 2016 ).

Medial temporal lobe structures are essential for acquiring new information and necessary for autobiographical (episodic) memory ( Brown et al., 2018 ). The consolidation of autobiographical memories depends on a distributed network of cortical regions. Brain areas such as entorhinal, perirhinal, and parahippocampal cortices are essential for learning new information; however, they have little impact on the recollection of the past ( Squire et al., 2015 ). The hippocampus is a region of the brain that forms episodic memories by linking multiple events to create meaningful experiences ( Cooper and Ritchey, 2019 ). It receives information from all areas of the association cortex and cingulate cortex, subcortical regions via the fornix, as well as signals originating within its entorhinal cortex (EC) and amygdala regarding emotionally laden or potentially hazardous stimuli ( Sorensen, 2009 ). Such widespread connectivity facilitates the construction of an accurate narrative underpinning each remembered episode, transforming short-term into long-term recollections ( Richter-Levin and Akirav, 2003 ).

Researchers have yet to establish a consensus regarding where semantic memory information is localized within the brain ( Roldan-Valadez et al., 2012 ). Some proponents contend that such knowledge is lodged within perceptual and motor systems, triggered when we initially associate with a given object. This point of view is supported by studies highlighting how neural activity occurs initially in the occipital cortex, followed by left temporal lobe involvement during processing and pertinent contributions to word selection/retrieval via activation of left inferior frontal cortices ( Patterson et al., 2007 ). Moreover, research indicates elevated levels of fusiform gyrus engagement (a ventral surface region encompassing both temporal lobes) occurring concomitantly with verbal comprehension initiatives, including reading and naming tasks ( Patterson et al., 2007 ).

Research suggests that the hippocampus is needed for a few years after learning to support semantic memory (factual information), yet, it is not needed for the long term ( Squire et al., 2015 ). However, some forms of memory remain dependent on the hippocampus, such as the retrieval of spatial memory ( Wiltgen et al., 2010 ). Similarly, the Multiple-trace theory ( Moscovitch et al., 2006 ), also known as the transformation hypothesis ( Winocur and Moscovitch, 2011 ), posits that hippocampal engagement is necessary for memories that retain contextual detail such as episodic memories. Consolidation of memories into the neocortex is theorized to involve a loss of specific finer details, such as temporal and spatial information, in addition to contextual elements. This transition ultimately results in an evolution from episodic memory toward semantic memory, which consists mainly of gist-based facts ( Moscovitch et al., 2006 ).

Sleep and memory consolidation

Sleep is an essential physiological process crucial to memory consolidation ( Siegel, 2001 ). Sleep is divided into two stages: Non-rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep and Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep. NREM sleep is divided into three stages: N1, N2, and N3 (AKA Slow Wave Sleep or SWS) ( Rasch and Born, 2013 ). Each stage displays unique oscillatory patterns and phenomena responsible for consolidating memories in distinct ways. The first stage, or N1 sleep, is when an individual transitions between wakefulness and sleep. This type of sleep is characterized by low-amplitude, mixed-frequency brain activity. N1 sleep is responsible for the initial encoding of memories ( Rasch and Born, 2013 ). The second stage, or N2 sleep, is characterized by the occurrence of distinct sleep spindles and K-complexes in EEG. N2 is responsible for the consolidation of declarative memories ( Marshall and Born, 2007 ). The third stage of sleep N3, also known as slow wave sleep (SWS), is characterized by low-frequency brain activity, slow oscillations, and high amplitude. The slow oscillations which define the deepest stage of sleep are trademark rhythms of NREM sleep. These slow oscillations are delta waves combined to indicate slow wave activity (SWA), which is implicated in memory consolidation ( Tononi and Cirelli, 2003 ; Stickgold, 2005 ; Kim et al., 2019 ). Sleep spindles are another trademark defining NREM sleep ( Stickgold, 2005 ). Ripples are high-frequency bursts, and when combined with irregularly occurring sharp waves (high amplitude), they form the sharp-wave ripple (SWR). These spindles and the SWRs coordinate the reactivation and redistribution of hippocampus-dependent memories to neocortical sites ( Ngo et al., 2020 ; Girardeau and Lopes-dos-Santos, 2021 ). The third stage is also responsible for the consolidation of procedural memories, such as habits and motor skills ( Diekelmann and Born, 2010 ). During SWS, there is minimal cholinergic activity and intermediate noradrenergic activity ( Datta and MacLean, 2007 ).

Finally, the fourth stage of sleep is REM sleep, characterized by phasic REMs and muscle atonia ( Reyes-Resina et al., 2021 ). During REM sleep, there is high cholinergic activity, serotonergic and noradrenergic activity are at a minimum, and high theta activity ( Datta and MacLean, 2007 ). REM sleep is also characterized by local increases in plasticity-related immediate-early gene activity, which might favor the subsequent synaptic consolidation of memories in the cortex ( Ribeiro, 2007 ; Diekelmann and Born, 2010 ; Reyes-Resina et al., 2021 ). The fourth stage of sleep is responsible for the consolidation of emotional memories and the integration of newly acquired memories into existing knowledge structures ( Rasch and Born, 2013 ). Studies indicate that the cholinergic system plays an imperative role in modifying these processes by toggling the entire thalamo-cortico-hippocampal network between distinct modes, namely high Ach encoding mode during active wakefulness and REM sleep and low Ach consolidation mode during quiet wakefulness and NREM sleep ( Bergmann and Staresina, 2017 ; Li et al., 2020 ). Consequently, improving neocortical hippocampal communication results in efficient memory encoding/synaptic plasticity, whereas hippocampo-neocortical interactions favor better systemic memory consolidation ( Diekelmann and Born, 2010 ).

The dual process hypothesis of memory consolidation posits that SWS facilitates declarative, hippocampus-dependent memory, whereas REM sleep facilitates non-declarative hippocampus-independent memory ( Maquet, 2001 ; Diekelmann and Born, 2010 ). On the other hand, the sequential hypothesis states that different sleep stages play a sequential role in memory consolidation. Memories are encoded during wakefulness, consolidated during NREM sleep, and further processed and integrated during REM sleep ( Rasch and Born, 2013 ). However, there is evidence present that contradicts the sequential hypothesis. A study by Goerke et al. (2013) found that declarative memories can be consolidated during REM sleep, suggesting that the relationship between sleep stages and memory consolidation is much more complex than a sequential model. Moreover, other studies indicate the importance of coordinating specific sleep phases with learning moments for optimal memory retention. This indicates that the timing of sleep has more influence than the specific sleep stages ( Gais et al., 2006 ). The active system consolidation theory suggests that an active consolidation process results from the selective reactivation of memories during sleep; the brain selectively reactivates newly encoded memories during sleep, which enhances and integrates them into the network of pre-existing long-term memories ( Born et al., 2006 ; Howard et al., 2022 ). Research has suggested that slow-wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep have complementary roles in memory consolidation. Declarative and non-declarative memories benefiting differently depending on which sleep stage they rely on ( Bergmann and Staresina, 2017 ). Specifically, during SWS, the brain actively reactivates and reorganizes hippocampo-neocortical memory traces as part of system consolidation. Following this, REM sleep is crucial for stabilizing these reactivated memory traces through synaptic consolidation. While SWS may initiate early plastic processes in hippocampo-neocortical memory traces by “tagging” relevant neocortico-neocortical synapses for later consolidation ( Frey and Morris, 1998 ), long-term plasticity requires subsequent REM sleep ( Rasch and Born, 2007 , 2013 ).

The active system consolidation hypothesis is not the only mechanism proposed for memory consolidation during sleep. The synaptic homeostasis hypothesis proposes that sleep is necessary for restoring synaptic homeostasis, which is challenged by synaptic strengthening triggered by learning during wake and synaptogenesis during development ( Tononi and Cirelli, 2014 ). The synaptic homeostasis hypothesis assumes consolidation is a by-product of the global synaptic downscaling during sleep ( Puentes-Mestril and Aton, 2017 ). The two models are not mutually exclusive, and the hypothesized processes probably act in concert to optimize the memory function of sleep ( Diekelmann and Born, 2010 ).

Non-rapid eye movement sleep plays an essential role in the systems consolidation of memories, with evidence showing that different oscillations are involved in this process ( Düzel et al., 2010 ). With an oscillatory sequence initiated by a slow frontal cortex oscillation (0.5–1 Hz) traveling to the medial temporal lobe and followed by a sharp-wave ripple (SWR) in the hippocampus (100–200 Hz). Replay activity of memories can be measured during this oscillatory sequence across various regions, including the motor cortex and visual cortex ( Ji and Wilson, 2006 ; Eichenlaub et al., 2020 ). Replay activity of memory refers to the phenomenon where the hippocampus replays previously experienced events during sharp wave ripples (SWRs) and theta oscillations ( Zielinski et al., 2018 ). During SWRs, short, transient bursts of high-frequency oscillations occur in the hippocampus. During theta oscillations, hippocampal spikes are ordered according to the locations of their place fields during behavior. These sequential activities are thought to play a role in memory consolidation and retrieval ( Zielinski et al., 2018 ). The paper by Zielinski et al. (2018) suggests that coordinated hippocampal-prefrontal representations during replay and theta sequences play complementary and overlapping roles at different stages in learning, supporting memory encoding and retrieval, deliberative decision-making, planning, and guiding future actions.

Additionally, the high-frequency oscillations of SWR reactivate groups of neurons attributed to spatial information encoding to align synchronized activity across an array of neural structures, which results in distributed memory creation ( Swanson et al., 2020 ; Girardeau and Lopes-dos-Santos, 2021 ). Parallel to this process is slow oscillation or slow-wave activity within cortical regions, which reflects synced neural firing and allows regulation of synaptic weights, which is in accordance with the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis (SHY). The SHY posits that downscaling synaptic strengths help incorporate new memories by avoiding saturation of resources during extended periods–features validated by discoveries where prolonged wakefulness boosts amplitude while it diminishes during stretches of enhanced sleep ( Girardeau and Lopes-dos-Santos, 2021 ).

During REM sleep, the brain experiences “paradoxical” sleep due to the similarity in activity to wakefulness. This stage plays a significant role in memory processing. Theta oscillations which are dominant during REM sleep, are primarily observed in the hippocampus, and these are involved in memory consolidation ( Landmann et al., 2014 ). There has been evidence of coherence between theta oscillations in the hippocampus, medial frontal cortex, and amygdala, which support their involvement in memory consolidation ( Popa et al., 2010 ). During REM sleep, phasic events such as ponto-geniculo-occipital waves originating from the brainstem coordinate activity across various brain structures and may contribute to memory consolidation processes ( Rasch and Born, 2013 ). Research has suggested that sleep-associated consolidation may be mediated by the degree of overlap between new and already known material whereby, if the acquired information is similar to the information one has learned, it is more easily consolidated during sleep ( Tamminen et al., 2010 ; Sobczak, 2017 ).

In conclusion, understanding more about how the brains cycle through different stages of sleep, including specific wave patterns, offers valuable insight into the ability to store memories effectively. While NREM sleep is associated with SWRs and slow oscillations, facilitating memory consolidation and synaptic downscaling, REM sleep, characterized by theta oscillations and phasic events, contributes to memory reconsolidation and the coordination of activity across brain regions. By exploring the interactions between sleep stages, oscillations, and memory processes, one may learn more about how sleep impacts brain function and cognition in greater detail.

Century has passed since we addressed memory, and several notable findings have moved from bench-to-bedside research. Several cross-talks between multidiscipline have been encouraged. Nevertheless, further research is needed into neurobiological mechanisms of non-declarative memory, such as conditioning ( Gallistel and Balsam, 2014 ). Modern research indicates that structural change that encodes information is likely at the level of the synapse, and the computational mechanisms are implemented at the level of neural circuitry. However, it also suggests that intracellular mechanisms realized at the molecular level, such as micro RNAs, should not be discounted as potential mechanisms. However, further research is needed to study the molecular and structural changes brought on by implicit memory ( Gallistel and Balsam, 2014 ).

The contribution of non-human animal studies toward our understanding of memory processes cannot be understated; hence recognizing their value is vital for moving forward. While this paper predominantly focused on cognitive neuroscience perspectives, some articles cited within this paper were sourced from non-human animal studies providing fundamental groundwork and identification of critical mechanisms relevant to human memories. A need persists for further investigation—primarily with humans—which can validate existing findings from non-human animals. Moving forward, it is prudent for researchers to bridge the gap between animal and human investigations done while exploring parallels and exploring unique aspects of human memory processes. By integrating findings from both domains, one can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the complexities of memory and its underlying neural mechanisms. Such investigations will broaden the horizon of our memory process and answer the complex nature of memory storage.

This paper attempted to provide an overview and summarize memory and its processes. The paper focused on bringing the cognitive neuroscience perspective on memory and its processes. This may provide the readers with the understanding, limitations, and research perspectives of memory mechanisms.

Data availability statement

Author contributions.

SS and MKA: conceptualization, framework, and manuscript writing. AK: review and editing of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Acknowledgments

We gratefully thank students and Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee (IITR) office staff for their conditional and unconditional support. We also thank the Memory and Anxiety Research Group (MARG), IIT Roorkee for its constant support.

Funding Statement

MKA was supported by the F.I.G. grant (IITR/SRIC/2741). The funding agency had no role in the preparation of the manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

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201 Memory Research Topics & Essay Examples

Memory is a fascinating brain function. Together with abstract thinking and empathy, memory is the thing that makes us human.

❓ Memory Research Questions

🏆 best memory topic ideas & essay examples, 💭 exciting memory research topics, 💫 interesting memory topics for essays, 👍 research topics about memory in psychology, 🕑 learning & memory research topics, 💡 easy memory essay ideas.

In your essay about memory, you might want to compare its short-term and long-term types. Another idea is to discuss the phenomenon of false memories. The connection between memory and the quality of sleep is also exciting to explore.

If you’re looking for memory topics to research & write about, you’re in the right place. In this article, you’ll find 174 memory essay topics, ideas, questions, and sample papers related to the concept of memory.

• How does sensory memory work?
• How is short-term memory different from long-term memory?
• What memory-training techniques are the most effective?
• What are the reasons for memory failures?
• Memory and aging: what is the connection?
• What are the key types of memory disorders?
• How to improve memory?
• Memory Chart Stages in Psychology For instance, the brain uses the procedural memory to encode procedural skills and tasks that an individual is involved in. The stages of memory are very complex and often pass unrecognized.
• Memory Model of Teaching and Its Effectiveness The main objective of the research study was to find out the difference in the effect of the memory model and the traditional method of teaching on students’ performance.
• Memory for Designs Test The examination of the functioning of the memory of an individual cannot be limited to only one memory test, and as a result, there are a variety of assessments that target the various features of […]
• Computer’s Memory Management Memory management is one of the primary responsibilities of the OS, a role that is achieved by the use of the memory management unit.
• Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test and Cognistat Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test and the Cognistat are the assessment tools employed by the occupational therapists in order to determine the levels of impairment in their mental function that directly impact the individuals’ executive abilities […]
• “The Sorrow of War” by Bao Ninh: Memory as a Central Idea The image of soldier Kien in The Sorrow of War demonstrates the difficulties of the Vietnamese people before, through and after this war.
• Chauri Chaura Incident in History and Memory The book’s first half was a reconstruction, a narrative in historical view of the burning of the chowki or station and the account of the trial that focused on the testimony of the principal prosecution […]
• Memory Test The two controversies determine the classification of memory depending on the form of information processing that occurs in the brain and the different types of memories in relation to the accessibility.
• The Effect of Sleep Quality and IQ on Memory Therefore, the major aim of sleep is to balance the energies in the body. However, the nature of the activity that an individual is exposed to determines the rate of memory capture.
• Long and Short Term Memory The procedure of conveying information from STM to LTM entails the encoding and consolidation of information: it is not a task of time; the more the data resides in STM it increases the chances of […]
• Free and Serial Memory Recalls in Experiments In the study, the experimenters changed the order in which the items were presented to the participants before each trial to test the ability of the subject to recognize these words it was observed that […]
• Review of Wordfast: Strengths and Weaknesses of This Translation Memory Tool Recognizing the variety of benefits of using Wordfast in the translation process, it should be noted that the use of this ACT program can have a number of unintended negative implications for the quality of […]
• Community Gatherings and Collective Memory The objective of this paper is to examine some of the gatherings that take place in the community and how these gatherings are related to time.
• Improving Memory and Study Power Study power and memory are important aspects of the learning process and improving them is necessary for success. Working the brain is important in improvement of memory and study power.
• False Memory and Emotions Experiment The hypothesis was as follows: a list of associate words creates a false memory by remembering a critical lure when the list is presented to a subject and a recall test done shortly after that.
• How Memory and Intelligence Change as We Age The central argument of the paper is that intelligence and memory change considerably across the lifespan, but these alterations are different in the two concepts. The article by Ofen and Shing is a valuable contribution […]
• Concreteness of Words and Free Recall Memory The study hypothesized that the free recall mean of concrete words is not statistically significantly higher than that of abstract words.
• Memory Strategies Examples and How They Work A good strategy for memory is the one that improves information encoding, necessitates storage of data in a memorable state and enables the mind to easily retrieve information. Indeed, a malfunction in retrieval of stored […]
• Fabricating the Memory: War Museums and Memorial Sites Due to the high international criticism, a very tiny portion of the East Wing is dedicated to explain the context, yet visitors easily overlook the section after the dense display of tragedies after a-bomb in […]
• The Relationship Between Memory and Oblivion The purpose of this essay is to discuss the relationship between memory and oblivion, private and public recollection of events, and the way these concepts are reflected in the works of Walid Raad, Christo, and […]
• Love and Memory From a Psychological Point of View The commonly known love types include affection, passionate love, friendship, infatuation, puppy love, sexual love, platonic love, romantic love and many other terms that could be coined out to basically describe love.
• Amnesia and Long-Term Memory These factors interfere with the function of hippocampus, the section of the human brain that is responsible for the development of memory, storing and organizing information.
• Information Processing and Improving Learning and Memory Information processing theory is a method of studying cognitive development that arose from the American experimental psychology tradition.
• Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) The first mentioning of shape memory materials was with the discovery of martensite in 1890, which was the first step for phenomenal discovery of the shape memory effect.
• “How Reliable Is Your Memory?” by Elizabeth Loftus Regardless of how disturbing and sorrowful it may be, and even when pointed out that this certain memory is false, a person may be unable to let it go.
• Strategies of the Memory Matlin defines knowledge as the information stored in our memory, the cognitive functioning of our memory and the ability to utilize the acquired information.
• Sleep Improves Memory It is possible to replace a traumatic memory with a pleasant one then take a brief moment of sleep to reinforce the pleasant memory.
• Semantic Memory and Language Production Relationship In the brain, information is arranged both in short-term and long-term memory and this is independent of whether the language in context is first language or a second one.
• Music Role in Memory and Learning Processes As such, the study purposed to test the differences in visuospatial abilities between men and women bearing in mind that the former is perceived to demonstrate greater memory capabilities compared to the latter As such, […]
• Factors of Learners’ and Adults’ Working Memory An individual’s working memory refers to their ability to access and manipulate bits of data in their mind for a short period.
• Statistics: The Self-Reference Effect and Memory After the distraction part was over, the participants were asked to recall the twelve adjectives they rated from a list of 42 words. This brings the question of whether the results would be different if […]
• Memory Mechanisms: Cognitive Load Theory The teacher’s task is not only to give information but also to explain the principles of learning and to work with it.
• The Self-Reference Effect and Memory Accordingly, the analysis has the following hypotheses: the SRE should enhance recognition of words that participants can relate to themselves, and people should feel more confident about their memory under the SRE.
• Henry Molaison and Memory Lessons The case of Henry Molaison serves as a poignant reminder of the complexity of memory and the importance of understanding its various components.
• Memory and Attention as Aspects of Cognition It has specific definitions, such as “consideration with a view to action,” “a condition of readiness involving a selective narrowing or focusing of consciousness and receptivity,” and “the act or state of applying the mind […]
• Intergenerational Trauma and Traumatic Memory The exploration of interconnected issues of intergenerational trauma and traumatic memory in society with historical data of collective violence across the world sensitizes to the importance of acknowledging trauma.
• The Role of Memory Cells in Cellular Immunity Therefore, when a bacterium gets into the body for a second time, the response is swift because the body has fought it before. Thus, a healthy body can recognize and get rid of chronic microorganisms […]
• Psychological Conditions in Addition to Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory The authors, who have many papers and degrees in the field, have noted the features of the brain structure and the differences between HSAM.
• Cognitive Psychology: The Effects of Memory Conformity The experiment’s control conditions did not allow the witnesses to discuss the event seen in the videos, while in the other condition, the witnesses were encouraged to discuss the event.
• Survival and Memory in Music of the Ghosts by Ratner When it comes to individual memory of Teera’s childhood, the author explains the connection between her memories of her father and musical instruments: “Perhaps it’s because as a child she grew up listening to her […]
• Concept for Teaching Memory in Primary School Students Teaching is one of the most demanding and demanding jobs in the world because it is the job that holds the future generation together.
• ”The Mystery of Memory” Documentary by Gray & Schwarz The documentary examines the brain’s ability to form and retrieve a memory, highlights the importance of neurobiology, and focuses on the problems of PTSD treatment and neuroscience backwardness, concluding that human memory is still a […]
• Draw It or Lose It Memory and Storage Considerations Since the size of the biggest component of this data is known and the additional component can be reasonably estimated, memory for it can be assigned at load time.
• The Multi-Storage Memory Model by Atkinson and Schiffrin The function of the is to track the stimuli in the input register and to provide a place to store the information coming from the LTS.
• Emotions: The Influence on Memory At the same time, the influence of positive and negative feelings on the process of memorization and reproduction is different. In conclusion, it should be said that the process of the influence of emotions on […]
• Civility, Democracy, Memory in Sophocles’ Antigone In Sophocles’ Antigone, the narrative flow makes the audience empathize with the tragic fate of the characters, deepening the emotional involvement of the readers and viewers.
• The Psychological Nature of Memory Using the numerical representation of the participants’ results, the researchers calculated the dependence of the memory and theory of mind in the process of recalling the interlocutors.
• Functioning of Human Memory Schemas Consecutively, the study aimed to identify the relation between the facilitation of prior knowledge schemas and memories and the ability to form new schemas and inferences in older adults.
• Enhancing Individual and Collaborative Eyewitness Memory Considering the positive results of research utilizing category clustering recall and the reported benefits of group memory, a question arises whether the use of category clustering recall might diminish the negative effects of group inhibition.
• Memory: Its Functions, Types, and Stages of Storage First, information is processed in sensory memory, which perceives sensory events for a couple of seconds to determine whether the information is valuable and should be kept for a longer period. As information goes through […]
• The Relationship Between the Working Memory and Non-Conscious Experiences The structure of the proposal follows the logical layout, beginning from the background of the issue through the methodology to problem significance and research innovation.
• Consciousness: The Link Between Working Memory and Unconscious Experience The present study seeks to address the gap in the research regarding the executive function of VWM and consciousness. This study will follow a modified structure of Bergstrom and Eriksson experiment on non-conscious WM to […]
• The Role of Image Color in Association With the Memory Functions Memory is the cornerstone of human cognition that enables all of its profound mechanisms, and the instrument of knowledge acquisition and exchange.
• The Memory Formation Process: Key Issues Hippocampus plays an essential role in the memory formation process because it is the part of the brain where short-term memories become long-term memories.
• Memory Techniques in Learning English Vocabulary ‘Word’ is defined by Merriam Webster Dictionary as follows: “1a: something that is said b plural: the text of a vocal musical composition c: a brief remark or conversation 2a: a speech sound or series […]
• Covalent Modification of Deoxyribonucleic Acid Regulates Memory Formation The article by Miller and Sweatt examines the possible role of DNA methylation as an epigenetic mechanism in the regulation of memory in the adult central nervous system.
• Repressed Memory in Childhood Experiences The suffering often affects a child’s psychological coping capacity in any respect, and one of the only ways of dealing with it is to force the memory out of conscious perception.
• Adaptive Memory and Survival Subject Correlation The results of the study have revealed that the participants found it slightly easier to recall the words related to the notion of survival.
• Developmental Differences in Memory Over Lifespan While growth refers to the multiplication of the number of individual units or cells in the body, maturation on the other hand can be defined as the successive progress of the individual’s appendage land organs […]
• Memory, the Working-Memory Impairments, and Impacts on Memory The first important argument for a thorough discussion on how ADHD could affect brain functioning and working memory impairments is the existence of prominent factors that could create a link between the disorder and the […]
• Working Memory in 7 &13 Years Aged Children However, it was hypothesized that children with AgCC will show similar performance improvement in verbal working memory task performance from 7 to 13 years of age as indicated in the study with CVLT.
• Working Memory & Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum However, it was hypothesized that children with AgCC will show similar improvement in performance on verbal working memory task performance from 7 to 13 years of age as indicated in the study with CVLT.
• Lifespan Memory Decline, Memory Lapses and Forgetfulness The purpose of the research by Henson et al.was to deepen the understanding of differential aging of the brain on differential patterns of memory loss.
• Elaborative Process and Memory Performance The process is significant in the study and retention of data. In addition, the application of the concepts in the author’s learning process will be highlighted.
• The Essence of Context Dependent Memory The results ought to show that the context in which eyewitnesses observed an event is important in the recall memory of the participants.
• “Neural Processing Associated With True and False Memory Retrieval” by Yoko The researchers noted that both true and distorted memories activate activities in the left parental and left frontal areas of the brain. Parahippocampal gyrus- Is the area of the brain that is responsible for processing […]
• Dementia and Memory Retention Art therapy is an effective intervention in the management of dementia because it stimulates reminiscence and enhances memory retention among patients with dementia.
• Biological Psychology: Memory By and large, there is a general agreement that molecular events are involved in the storage of information in the nervous system. It is about to differentiate different kinds of memory, one which is short-term […]
• The Memory of Silence and Lucy: A Detailed Analysis From damaging relationships to her hope to come back to the native land, Lucy has all kinds of issues to address, but the bigger issue is that Lucy’s progress is cyclical, and she has to […]
• Two Tutorials on the Virtual Memory Subject: Studytonight and Tutorials Point The explanation of the demand paging term leads to the concept of a page fault. It is a phrase that characterizes an invalid memory reference that occurs as a result of a program addressing a […]
• Music and Memory: Discussion Future research should focus on addressing the limitations of the study and exploring the effect of other types of music. The findings of the study are consistent with the current body of knowledge about the […]
• Fuzzy-Trace Theory and False Memory The writers set out to show the common ground for all these varied scenarios and convincingly show that false memories are a result of an interaction between memory and the cognitive process of reasoning. The […]
• Individual Differences in Learning and Memory In the following paper, the variety of learning styles will be evaluated in relation to theories of human learning and memory retrieval on the basis of the findings currently made by academic researchers.
• The Difference Between Females and Males Memory The hippocampus is of importance when it comes to memory formation and preservation and is relatively larger in females than males, giving the females advantage in memory cognition.
• The Nature of False Memory Postevent information is one of the reasons that provoke the phenomenon of misinformation. The participants watched a video of a hockey collision and were asked to estimate the speed of the players.
• Organizational Memory and Intellectual Capital The main emphasis here concerns modalities of motivating the retrieval and use of information and experiences in the OM. The source of intellectual capital arises from the managers’ ability to welcome new information and experiences, […]
• Advertising and Memory: Interaction and Effect An advert sticks into one’s memory when it focuses on the characteristic of the material being advertised, other advertisements competing for the same market niche, and the kind of people it targets.
• The Internet and Autobiographical Memory Allie Young’s blog or journal is a perfect illustration of the impact that social sites and blogs have, since for her autobiographic memory; she uses a blog site to write about issues affecting her life.
• Creativity and Memory Effects in Advertising A study was conducted in China to establish the kind of effects agency creativity has on the total outcome of the advertising campaign.
• Memory, Thinking, and Human Intelligence As Kurt exposits, “The effects of both proactive and retroactive inferences while one is studying can be counteracted in order to maximize absorption of all the information into the long-term memory”.
• Psychological Issues: Self-Identity and Sexual Meaning Issues, and Memory Processing Most sex surveys are run by firms dealing in other products and the motives of the surveys are for marketing of their primary products.
• Human Memory as a Biopsychology Area This paper is going to consider the idea that electrical activity measures of the brain of a human being can be utilized as a great means for carrying out the study of the human memory.
• Biopsychology: Learning and Memory Relationship Memorization involves an integral function of the brain which is the storage of information. Memorization is directly linked to learning through the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
• Apiculture: Memory in Honeybees They have a sharp memory to recall the previous locations of food, the scent, and the color where they can get the best nectar and pollen.
• Collective Memory as “Time Out”: Repairing the Time-Community Link The essay will first give an account of how time helps to shape a community, various events that have been formulated in order to keep the community together and the effectiveness of these events in […]
• “The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci” by Jonathan D. Spence: Concept of Memory Palaces The information concerning Matteo Ricci’s concept of memory palaces presented in the book is generalized to the extent that it is necessary to search for an explanation and some clarifications in the additional sources; “His […]
• Psychology: Memory, Thinking, and Intelligence Information which serves as the stimuli moves from the sensory memory to the short term memory and finally to the long term memory for permanent storage.
• Working With Working Memory Even if we can only make a connection of something we see with a sound, it is easier to remember something we can speak, because the auditory memory helps the visual memory.
• Operant Conditioning, Memory Cue and Perception Operant conditioning through the use of punishment can be used to prevent or decrease a certain negative behavior, for example, when a child is told that he/she will lose some privileges in case he/she misbehaves, […]
• Human Memory: Serial Learning Experiment The background of the current research was stated in Ebbinghaus’ psychological study, and reveals the fact, that if e series of accidental symbols is offered for memorizing, the human memory will be able to memorize […]
• Hot and Cold Social Cognitions and Memory What is mentioned in biology text books and journals about the human brain is so small and almost insignificant compared to the myriad functions and parts of the brain that are yet to be explored.
• Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation After Sleep The memory consolidation of the visual skill tasks is related to the REM sleep and the short wave component of the NREM.
• Attention, Perception and Memory Disorders Analysis Teenage is the time for experimentation, with a desire to be independent and try new and forbidden things like drugs or indulge in indiscrete sexual activity.
• Autobiographical Memory and Cognitive Development During this stage important cognitive processes take place and are fundamental towards the development of autobiographical memory in the infants. This help the infants to have important memory cues that form part of the autobiographical […]
• Sensory and Motor Processes, Learning and Memory There are three processes involved in the sensory function of the eyes: the mechanical process, the chemical process, and the electrical process. The mechanical process starts as the stimuli passes through the cornea and […]
• Repressed Memory and Developing Teaching Strategies The author aims to emphasize the “importance, relevance, and potential to inform the lay public as well as our future attorneys, law enforcement officers, therapists, and current or future patients of therapists” with regards to […]
• Hippocampus: Learning and Memory The limbic cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus are considered the processing parts of the limbic system while the output part comprises the septal nuclei and the hypothalamus.
• The Implications of False Memory and Memory Distortion The former refers to the manner of impressing into our minds the memories which we have acquired while the former refers to the manner by which a person reclaims the memories which have been stored […]
• Memory Comprehension Issue Review To sum up, studying with the background of loud music is counterproductive, as it is also an information channel that interferes with the comprehension and memorization of more important information.
• The Interaction of Music and Memory Therefore, the research is of enormous significance for the understanding of individual differences in the connection between memory and music. Therefore, the research contributes to the understanding of the interaction of age with music and […]
• The Effect of Memory, Intelligence and Personality on Employee Performance and Behaviour The present paper will seek to explain the theoretical background on memory, intelligence and personality and evaluate the influence of these factors on work performance and employee behaviours.
• Elderly Dementia: Holistic Approaches to Memory Care The CMAI is a nursing-rated questionnaire that evaluates the recurrence of agitation in residents with dementia. Since the research focuses on agitation, the CMAI was utilized to evaluate the occurrence of agitation at baseline.
• The Conceptual Relationship Between Memory and Imagination In particular, the scholar draws parallels between these processes by addressing the recorded activity of specific brain structures when “remembering the past and imagining the future”.
• Cognitive Psychology: Memory and Interferences For instance, I remember how to organize words in the right way to form a sentence and I know the capitals of countries.
• Chocolate Consumption and Working Memory in Men and Women In this study, the independent variable was chocolate intake, while the dependent variable was the effect of chocolate on the memory of different genders.
• Memory Acquisition and Information Processing The problem of disagreeing with memories can be explained by a closer look at the process of memory acquisition. Most part of the sensory information is not encoded due to selective attention.
• Varlam Shalamov on Memory and Psychological Resilience The soldiers sent to therapists such as Rivers and Yealland in Regeneration had one problem in common they were unable to forget the traumatic and frightening experiences that had affected them in the past.
• Learning Activity and Memory Improvement The easiest way to explain the difference between implicit and explicit types of learning is to think of the latter as active learning and of the former – as passive one.
• Surrealism and Dali’s “The Persistence of Memory” Of course, The Persistence of Memory is one of the best-known works, which is often regarded as one of the most conspicuous illustrations of the movement.
• Psychology: Short-Term and Working Memory The thing is that the term short-term memory is used to describe the capacity of the mind to hold a small piece of information within a very short period, approximately 20 seconds.
• Dealing With the Limitations of Flash Memory Implanted medical chip technology can help to reduce the amount of medical misdiagnosis that occur in hospitals and can also address the issue of the amount of money that Jones Corp.pays out to its clients […]
• Collective Memory and Patriotic Myth in American History However, to think that colonists and early Americans pursued a general policy of killing or driving out the native Indians is incorrect.
• When the Desire Is Not Enough: Flash Memory As a result, a number of rather uncomfortable proposals were made to the founders of Flash, but the company’s members had to accept certain offers for the financing to continue and the firm not to […]
• Effects of Marijuana on Memory of Long-Term Users The pivotal aim of the proposed study is to evaluate the impact of marijuana use on long-term memory of respondents. The adverse impact of marijuana after the abstinent syndrome refers to significant changes in prefrontal […]
• Amphetamines and Their Effects on Memory The scope of the problem of stimulant abuse is quite important in nowadays medicine since the application of amphetamine is not explored in an in-depth manner.
• Memory Retrieval, Related Processes and Secrets The resulting impression of having experienced what is portrayed in the picture leads to the creation of false memories. The authors of the study make it clear that placing one in specific visual and spatial […]
• Mnemonics for Memory Improvement in Students The selected participants will be split into two groups that will be asked to memorize a set of words from a story with the help of the suggested technique.
• Sociocultural Memory in European and Asian Americans The Asian perspective on the use of memory, however, suggests that a much greater emphasis should be placed on using memory as a learning resource so that it can be expanded with the help of […]
• The Public Memory of the Holocaust In addition to his pain, Levi concerns the increasing temporal distance and habitual indifference of hundreds of millions of people towards the Holocaust and the survivors1 It causes the feeling of anxiety that was fuelled […]
• Memory Formation and Maintenance The first similarity between working memory and long term memory is that in both cases, tasks retrieve information from secondary memory, although sometimes working memory tasks retrieve information from the primary memory. After completion of […]
• Working Memory Training and Its Controversies As a result, a range of myths about WM has been addressed and subverted successfully, including the one stating that WM related training cannot be used to improve one’s intellectual abilities and skills.
• Music and Human Memory Connection The effects of music on people vary considerably, and this project should help to understand the peculiar features of the connection between human memory and music.
• Police Shooting Behaviour, Memory, and Emotions The subject of the study was limited to analyzing the shooting behavior of police officers in danger-related situations. It is supposed that officers with low capacity of working memory are more likely to shoot the […]
• Working Memory Training: Benefits and Biases The research results indicate that the effects of stereotyping on the development of WM and the relevant skills are direct and rather drastic.
• Biopsychology of Learning and Memory The hippocampus is a brain region in the form of a horseshoe that plays an essential role in the transformation of information from the short-term memory to the long-term memory.
• Memory, Thoughts, and Motivation in Learning Moreover, using the knowledge acquired from various sources of information, students can interpret the contents of their various environments and apply them to their advantage.
• Working Memory Concept The central executive, as the name implies, is the primary component of the working memory system; every other component is subservient to it.
• Building of Memory: Managing Creativity Through Action It could be important for the team to understand Kornfield’s vision of the project, the main and secondary tasks, the project timeline, and the general outline of it. The third technique is to ensure face-to-face […]
• Stroop Effect on Memory Function The aim of the study was to examine the Stroop effect on memory function of men and women. The aim of the study was to examine Stroop effect on men and women’s cognitive functions.
• Misinformation Effect and Memory Impairment It is important to determine the science behind the misinformation effect, because the implication of the study goes beyond the confines of psychology.
• Memory Distortions Develop Over Time Memory is the ability to recall what happened in the past or the process through which one’s brain stores events and reproduce them in the future. Simpson were put on a scoreboard to analyze the […]
• Working Memory Load and Problem Solving The present research focuses on the way working memory load affects problem solving ability and the impact working memory capacity has on problem solving ability of people.
• Sensory Memory Duration and Stimulus Perception Cognitive psychologists argue that perceived information takes one second in the sensory memory, one minute in the short-term memory and a life-time in the long-term memory.
• Memory Study: Mnemonics Techniques Having carried out two experiments, Oberauer comes to the conclusion that information in working memory is highly organized and has its own structure and understanding of this structure can help to improve the work of […]
• Memory Study: Different Perspectives Having carried out two experiments, Oberauer comes to the conclusion that information in working memory is highly organized and has its own structure and understanding of this structure can help to improve the work of […]
• Individual Recognition Decisions and Memory Strength Signal The individual recognition decision and the memory strength will be compared to determine their relation. A positive correlation between the individual recognition decisions and the aggregated memory strength will be shown.
• Working Memory Concept: Psychological Views To begin with, the findings support the use of the Working-Memory Model because it offers a clear distinction between the subordinate memory systems and the “central executive” memory.
• Memory Strategies and Their Effects on the Body Memory problems are a common concern in the society due to the increased rate of memory problems among the individuals. This is a strategy that uses chemicals to suppress the adverse effects of memory problems.
• George Santayana’s Philosophy Views on Historical Memory To Plato, democracy was the worst form of governance because it was the tyranny of the multitude. Furthermore, the effects of the war were hard to take because people lost everything they had.
• Cognitive Stimulation on Patients With Impaired Memory Cognitive stimulation therapy is effective in mitigating the effects of dementia. As a result, the researchers tested cognitive stimulation therapy in clinical trials.
• Memory and Emotions in Personal Experience I tried to convince Sherry that the kind of life she led will not do good to her. I thought that Sherry is a grown-up person who would understand the mistakes she had done and […]
• Face Recognition and Memory Retention It is imperative to mention that cognitive process is very significant in face recognition especially due to its role in storage and retrieval of information from long-term memory.
• False Memory Condition: Experimental Studies It is therefore important to conduct some experiments to see the differences between the correct memory and the false memory. The distracters and words to be identified were the variables that were independent.
• Memory Capacity and Age Correlation Since young adults have high levels of positive emotions and low levels of negative emotions, the positive emotions enable them to enhance their memory capacity for positive information.
• Conflict at Walt Disney Company: A Distant Memory? The conflict between Michael Eisner and the Weinstein brothers, the two board members, and Steve Jobs was related to a dysfunctional form of conflict.
• Eye-Path and Memory-Prediction Framework Online marketing and advertising actively develop nowadays, and modern advertisers need to focus on the customers’ attitudes and behaviours in the context of the effectiveness of the advertisement’s location on the web page.
• Long Term Memory and Retrieval The mode of presenting the items in sequence in the first presentation has great impact on the results and validity of the study.
• Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory by Deborah Lipstadt The book is divided into chapters that focus on the history and methods that are used to distort the truth and the memory of the Holocaust.
• Power, Memory and Spectacle on Saddam Hussein’s Death His rational was that the only way to unite the country was to eliminate the elements of division who in his opinion were the opposition.
• Theoretical Models in Understanding Working Memory The second model for understanding the processes involved in working memory is the Baddeley and Hitch multi-component model which states that working memory operates via a system of “slave systems” and a central controller which […]
• Semantic Memory and Language Production From the foregoing discussions, it can be deduced that the nature and function of semantic memory is closely related to the process of language comprehension. Moreover, lexical retrieval of the semantic memory and phonological facilitation […]
• Basic Functions of Memory and Language The area of semantic memory involves stored information regarding the features and characteristics, which determine the processes of retrieving, using, and producing information in various cognitive processes such as thought and language comprehension/production.
• The Concept of Autobiographical Memory The research findings show that memory phenomenology determined the relationship between attachment avoidance and depression, while the negative affective content of the autobiographical memory determined the link between attachment anxiety and depression. The concept of […]
• Neuroimaging Experiments and Memory Loss Studies This is because it enables the examination of the cognitive and affective processes. This is relative to the effects of alcohol consumption.
• Chinese Novellas: The Role of Memory and Perception This is one of the details that attract attention of the readers, and one can say that it is important for understanding the passage and the short story, in general.
• Memory Lane and Morality In the first experiment where participants were expected to remember their childhood experience, those memories aided the experimenter more than they let the participants take control.
• Autonoetic Consciousness in Autobiographical Memory One characteristic of AEM is the mental time travelling on the subjective time in order to connect the past with the current memory status.
• Memory by Analogy: Hiroshima Mon Amour It is quite painful to recall the events that took place in Japan during the Second World War in the aftermath of the atomic bombing of the cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima.
• “Memory by Analogy” Film Concepts However, upon critical analysis, the author notes that the major focus of the film is not to compare the traumatic events experienced by the two main protagonists; rather, it attempts to demonstrate the common devastating […]
• Film About Hirosima Memory by Analogy She uses her memory of the human tragedy she witnesses in Hiroshima as a means to forget the pain she has felt since the demise of her lover.
• Ecstasy and Memory Impairment Neurological Correlation
• Memory Theories in Developing Marketing Strategies of the iPad
• Definition of Storage Locations in Memory
• Establishing False Memory in Humans
• Constructive Nature of Memory
• Comparison and Contrast Assignment on “Paradoxical Effects of Presentation Modality on False Memory,” Article and “Individual Differences in Learning and Remembering Music.”
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Short vs. long term memory: why you remember your birthday but not where you left your keys.

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Rather than holding information in specific areas of the brain, our memories are represented by the ... [+] connections between neurons, called synapses.

According to a recent study from the Salk Institute in California, the brain’s storage capacity may be 10x greater than initially thought. Rather than holding information in specific areas of the brain, our memories are represented by the connections between neurons, called synapses. How our brains learn and store information is dependent on synaptic plasticity, or the tendency for these connections to strengthen or weaken. Applying highly precise algorithms, the team of computational neuroscientists were able to measure the strength of these syntactic connections, and indirectly, the maximum storage capacity of our brains.

Understanding how memories are stored first requires recognizing that there are different types of memory. Short-term memory holds information that our brains are actively processing, while our working memory enables us to manipulate those ideas in real time. Let’s say, you are tasked with remembering a random list of numbers. After a brief delay, the average person can only recall about 5-9 numbers. Short-term memory has a limited storage capacity, only holding information for a few seconds to a minute. The flexibility of short-term memory enables us to direct attention to immediate tasks, such as remembering a phone number long enough to dial it.

Long term memory, on the other hand, is virtually limitless. Here, our brain stores information, skills, and experiences that make us who we are. Not every thought or experience, however, is stored long-term. Have you ever gone into a room in search of something only to forget what you were looking for? Or perhaps, forgot someone’s name just after being introduced? Transferring information from short-term to long-term memory requires active encoding, during which this information is linked to existing memories, given meaning, and organized into long-term storage for easy retrieval.

When a memory undergoes encoding, activated neurons send chemical signals through their synapses, or connections with other neurons. This forms an interconnected network of neurons containing information regarding that memory. As you continue to recant or rehearse the memory, the network strengthens. The more you are exposed to that information, the more likely you are to remember it. In their study, Samavat et. al found that activating parallel neural networks containing the same number of connections, or synapses, produces a consistent increase in strength. Considering that the brain contains trillions of synapses, they were able to estimate the brain’s storage capacity, which seems to be much larger than initially thought.

If long-term memory is so large, why are our brains prone to forgetting? Forgetting is a normal part of being human and increases with age. Psychologists and neuroscientists have proposed several theories for why and how forgetting occurs. Famed psychologist Sigmund Freud, for example, argued that forgetting enables individuals to avoid unwanted memories. Freud proposed that these memories are not merely erased but rather pushed into our subconscious.

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Modern theories in neuroscience, however, suggest that information is forgotten as the connections between neurons weaken. The less a memory is activated or rehearsed, the weaker the connection becomes. Eventually, the connection is so weak that retrieval of that memory is no longer possible.

Structural changes in the brain as we age also diminish these connections, increasing forgetfulness. In fact, a significant loss of synapses is a major hallmark of Alzheimer's disease and other forms of dementia. Reduced synapses between neurons prevent the formation and maintenance of memories, since information is unable to be passed from one neuron to another. Alzheimer’s disease also impairs synaptic plasticity, making the brain less responsive to learning.

The technique that investigators at the Salk Institute applied to study synaptic strength may help us to elucidate the mysteries of Alzheimer’s disease. Deciphering how the brain makes and stores memories may one day pave the way for treatments that guard against this and other forms of dementia. As Alzheimer’s disease becomes more prevalent, it is becoming increasingly important to develop tools that can identify and treat individuals early.

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out to pasture —

It’s not just us: other animals change their social habits in old age, long-term studies reveal what elderly deer, sheep, and macaques are up to in their later years..

Tim Vernimmen, Knowable Magazine - Jul 27, 2024 11:08 am UTC

Walnut was born on June 3, 1995, at the start of what would become an unusually hot summer, on an island called Rum (pronounced room ), the largest of the Small Isles off the west coast of Scotland. We know this because since 1974, researchers have diligently recorded the births of red deer like her, and caught, weighed and marked every calf they could get their hands on—about 9 out of every 10.

Near the cottage in Kilmory on the northern side of the island where the researchers are based, there has been no hunting since the project began, which allowed the deer to relax and get used to human observers. Walnut was a regular there, grazing the invariably short-clipped grass in this popular spot. “She would always just be there in the group, with her sisters and their families,” says biologist Alison Morris, who has lived on Rum for more than 23 years and studies the deer year-round.

Walnut raised 14 offspring, the last one in 2013, when she was 18 years old. In her later years, Morris recalls, Walnut would spend most of her time away from the herd, usually with Vanity, another female (called a hind) of the same age who had never calved. “They were often seen affectionately grooming each other, and after Walnut died of old age in October 2016, at the age of 21—quite extraordinary for a hind—Vanity spent most of her time alone. She died two years later, at the grand age of 23.”

Are old hinds left behind?

Such a shift in social life is common in aging red deer females, says ecologist Gregory Albery, now at Georgetown University in Washington, DC, who spent months on the island studying the deer during his PhD training. (Males roam around more and associate less consistently with others, so they are harder to study.) “Older females tend to be observed in the company of fewer others. That was easy to establish,” he says. “The more difficult question to answer has been why we are seeing this pattern, and what it means.”

The first question one should ask, Albery says, is whether individual deer alter their behavior to associate with fewer others as they age, or whether individuals that associate with fewer others tend to live to an older age. This is the kind of question that many researchers are unable to answer when simply comparing individuals of different ages. But long-term studies like the one at Rum can do so through long-term tracking of populations. Forty times a year, the deer are censused by fieldworkers like Morris who recognize the deer on sight and meticulously note where they are and with whom.

When they accounted for the age and survival of the deer in their analysis, Albery and colleagues found that the link between age and number of associates remained solid: Social connections do, indeed, decrease as individuals age. Might this be because many of the older deer’s friends have died? On the contrary, Albery and colleagues found that older deer who had recently lost friends tended to hang out with others more often.

So why do old hinds have fewer contacts? Part of the explanation may be that they don’t range as widely as they grow older. Studying the deer for a couple of months would not have exposed this trend, says Albery: It was only revealed by tracking the same individuals through time. “Deer with a larger home range generally live longer,” he explains, so an analysis at any single point in time would show larger ranges for older deer and suggest that home ranges expand with age. Tracking individuals through time reveals the opposite is true. “Their home ranges decrease in size as they age,” Albery says.

It is unlikely that older deer move around less because they are concentrating on the core of their favorite habitat, says Albery. The center of their range shifts with age, and they are observed more often in taller and probably less nutritious vegetation, away from the most popular spots. This indicates there might be some kind of competitive exclusion going on: Perhaps more energetic, younger deer with offspring to feed are colonizing the best grazing patches.

On the other hand, older deer may also have different preferences. “Perhaps the longer grasses are easier to eat when your incisors are too worn to clip the short grass everyone else is after,” Albery says. Plus the deer don’t have to bend over as far to reach the longer grass.

A recent study by Albery and colleagues in Nature Ecology & Evolution found that older deer reduce their contacts more than you’d expect if their shrinking range was the only cause. That suggests the behavior may have evolved for a reason—one that Albery prosaically summarizes as, “Deer shit where they eat. ”

Gastrointestinal worms are rampant on the island. And though the deer do not get infected through direct contact with others, being at the same place at the same time probably does increase their risk of ingesting eggs or larvae in the still-warm droppings of one of their associates.

“Younger animals need to put themselves out there to make friends, but perhaps when you’re older and you already have some, the risk of disease just isn’t worth it,” says study coauthor Josh Firth, a behavioral ecologist at the University of Oxford.

In addition, says ecologist Daniel Nussey of the University of Edinburgh, another coauthor, “there are indications that the immune system of aging deer is less effective in suppressing worm infections, so they might be more likely to die from them.”

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JSmol Viewer

Runoff simulation in data-scarce alpine regions: comparative analysis based on lstm and physically based models.

1. Introduction

2. study area and data, 2.1. study area, 2.2.1. forcing data, 2.2.2. static data, 3. methodology, 3.1. btop model, 3.2. long short-term memory network, 3.3. experimental design, 3.3.1. pre-experiment of lstm, 3.3.2. basin-based lstm and gauge-based lstm, 3.3.3. transfer-based lstm, 3.4. model evaluation criteria, 4. results and discussion, 4.1. hyperparameters of lstm, 4.2. performance of btop model, 4.3. performance of b-lstm and g-lstm models, 4.4. performance of t-lstm model, 4.5. discussion about gz station.

• Scheme a: The model was trained only with data from GB and BHQ stations and then transferred to the GZ station (Case ②-a).
• Scheme b: The model was trained only with data from Lhasa station and then transferred to the GZ station (Case ②-b).

4.6. Limitations and Future Research Directions

5. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Yue, J.; Zhou, L.; Du, J.; Zhou, C.; Nimai, S.; Wu, L.; Ao, T. Runoff Simulation in Data-Scarce Alpine Regions: Comparative Analysis Based on LSTM and Physically Based Models. Water 2024 , 16 , 2161. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16152161

Yue J, Zhou L, Du J, Zhou C, Nimai S, Wu L, Ao T. Runoff Simulation in Data-Scarce Alpine Regions: Comparative Analysis Based on LSTM and Physically Based Models. Water . 2024; 16(15):2161. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16152161

Yue, Jiajia, Li Zhou, Juan Du, Chun Zhou, Silang Nimai, Lingling Wu, and Tianqi Ao. 2024. "Runoff Simulation in Data-Scarce Alpine Regions: Comparative Analysis Based on LSTM and Physically Based Models" Water 16, no. 15: 2161. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16152161

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