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What is Secondary Research? | Definition, Types, & Examples

What is Secondary Research? | Definition, Types, & Examples

Published on January 20, 2023 by Tegan George . Revised on January 12, 2024.

Secondary research is a research method that uses data that was collected by someone else. In other words, whenever you conduct research using data that already exists, you are conducting secondary research. On the other hand, any type of research that you undertake yourself is called primary research .

Secondary research can be qualitative or quantitative in nature. It often uses data gathered from published peer-reviewed papers, meta-analyses, or government or private sector databases and datasets.

When to use secondary research, types of secondary research, examples of secondary research, advantages and disadvantages of secondary research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions.

Secondary research is a very common research method, used in lieu of collecting your own primary data. It is often used in research designs or as a way to start your research process if you plan to conduct primary research later on.

Since it is often inexpensive or free to access, secondary research is a low-stakes way to determine if further primary research is needed, as gaps in secondary research are a strong indication that primary research is necessary. For this reason, while secondary research can theoretically be exploratory or explanatory in nature, it is usually explanatory: aiming to explain the causes and consequences of a well-defined problem.

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Secondary research can take many forms, but the most common types are:

Statistical analysis

Literature reviews, case studies, content analysis.

There is ample data available online from a variety of sources, often in the form of datasets. These datasets are often open-source or downloadable at a low cost, and are ideal for conducting statistical analyses such as hypothesis testing or regression analysis .

Credible sources for existing data include:

The government
Government agencies
Non-governmental organizations
Educational institutions
Businesses or consultancies
Libraries or archives
Newspapers, academic journals, or magazines

A literature review is a survey of preexisting scholarly sources on your topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant themes, debates, and gaps in the research you analyze. You can later apply these to your own work, or use them as a jumping-off point to conduct primary research of your own.

Structured much like a regular academic paper (with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion), a literature review is a great way to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject. It is usually qualitative in nature and can focus on a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. A case study is a great way to utilize existing research to gain concrete, contextual, and in-depth knowledge about your real-world subject.

You can choose to focus on just one complex case, exploring a single subject in great detail, or examine multiple cases if you’d prefer to compare different aspects of your topic. Preexisting interviews , observational studies , or other sources of primary data make for great case studies.

Content analysis is a research method that studies patterns in recorded communication by utilizing existing texts. It can be either quantitative or qualitative in nature, depending on whether you choose to analyze countable or measurable patterns, or more interpretive ones. Content analysis is popular in communication studies, but it is also widely used in historical analysis, anthropology, and psychology to make more semantic qualitative inferences.

Secondary research is a broad research approach that can be pursued any way you’d like. Here are a few examples of different ways you can use secondary research to explore your research topic .

Secondary research is a very common research approach, but has distinct advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of secondary research

Advantages include:

Secondary data is very easy to source and readily available .
It is also often free or accessible through your educational institution’s library or network, making it much cheaper to conduct than primary research .
As you are relying on research that already exists, conducting secondary research is much less time consuming than primary research. Since your timeline is so much shorter, your research can be ready to publish sooner.
Using data from others allows you to show reproducibility and replicability , bolstering prior research and situating your own work within your field.

Disadvantages of secondary research

Disadvantages include:

Ease of access does not signify credibility . It’s important to be aware that secondary research is not always reliable , and can often be out of date. It’s critical to analyze any data you’re thinking of using prior to getting started, using a method like the CRAAP test .
Secondary research often relies on primary research already conducted. If this original research is biased in any way, those research biases could creep into the secondary results.

Many researchers using the same secondary research to form similar conclusions can also take away from the uniqueness and reliability of your research. Many datasets become “kitchen-sink” models, where too many variables are added in an attempt to draw increasingly niche conclusions from overused data . Data cleansing may be necessary to test the quality of the research.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Normal distribution
Degrees of freedom
Null hypothesis
Discourse analysis
Control groups
Mixed methods research
Non-probability sampling
Quantitative research
Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

Rosenthal effect
Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Selection bias
Negativity bias
Status quo bias

A systematic review is secondary research because it uses existing research. You don’t collect new data yourself.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

Sources in this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

George, T. (2024, January 12). What is Secondary Research? | Definition, Types, & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved August 12, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/secondary-research/

Largan, C., & Morris, T. M. (2019). Qualitative Secondary Research: A Step-By-Step Guide (1st ed.). SAGE Publications Ltd.

Peloquin, D., DiMaio, M., Bierer, B., & Barnes, M. (2020). Disruptive and avoidable: GDPR challenges to secondary research uses of data. European Journal of Human Genetics , 28 (6), 697–705. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-020-0596-x

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In the social sciences, a secondary source is usually a scholar book, journal article, or digital or print document that was created by someone who did not directly experience or participate in the events or conditions under investigation. Secondary sources are not evidence per se, but rather, provide an interpretation, analysis, or commentary derived from the content of primary source materials and/or other secondary sources.

Value of Secondary Sources

To do research, you must cite research. Primary sources do not represent research per se, but only the artifacts from which most research is derived. Therefore, the majority of sources in a literature review are secondary sources that present research findings, analysis, and the evaluation of other researcher's works.

Reviewing secondary source material can be of valu e in improving your overall research paper because secondary sources facilitate the communication of what is known about a topic. This literature also helps you understand the level of uncertainty about what is currently known and what additional information is needed from further research. It is important to note, however, that secondary sources are not the subject of your analysis. Instead, they represent various opinions, interpretations, and arguments about the research problem you are investigating--opinions, interpretations, and arguments with which you may either agree or disagree with as part of your own analysis of the literature.

Examples of secondary sources you could review as part of your overall study include: * Bibliographies [also considered tertiary] * Biographical works * Books, other than fiction and autobiography * Commentaries, criticisms * Dictionaries, Encyclopedias [also considered tertiary] * Histories * Journal articles [depending on the discipline, they can be primary] * Magazine and newspaper articles [this distinction varies by discipline] * Textbooks [also considered tertiary] * Web site [also considered primary]

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Secondary Research: Definition, Methods, Sources, Examples, and More

Two images representing secondary research: a report with charts and data, and book shelves filled with books.

Table of Contents

What is Secondary Research? Secondary Research Meaning

Secondary research involves the analysis and synthesis of existing data and information that has been previously collected and published by others. This method contrasts with primary research , which entails the direct collection of original data from sources like surveys, interviews, and ethnographic studies.

The essence of secondary research lies in its efficiency and accessibility. Researchers who leverage secondary sources, including books, scholarly articles, government reports, and market analyses, gather valuable insights without the need for time-consuming and costly data collection efforts. This approach is particularly vital in marketing research, where understanding broad market trends and consumer behaviors is essential, yet often constrained by budgets and timelines. Secondary research serves as a fundamental step in the research process, providing a solid foundation upon which additional, targeted research can be built.

Secondary research enables researchers to quickly grasp the landscape of existing knowledge, identify gaps in the literature, and refine their research questions or business strategies accordingly. In marketing research, for instance, secondary research aids in understanding competitive landscapes, identifying market trends, and benchmarking against industry standards, thereby guiding strategic decision-making.

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When to Use Secondary Research

Choosing between secondary and primary research methods depends significantly on the objectives of your study or project. Secondary research is particularly beneficial in the initial stages of research planning and strategy, offering a broad understanding of the topic at hand and helping to pinpoint areas that may require more in-depth investigation through primary methods.

In academic contexts, secondary research is often used to build a theoretical foundation for a study, allowing researchers to position their work within the existing body of knowledge. Professionally, it serves as a cost-effective way to inform business strategies, market analyses, and policy development, providing insights into industry trends, consumer behaviors, and competitive landscapes.

Combining secondary research with primary research methods enhances the comprehensiveness and validity of research findings. For example, secondary research might reveal general trends in consumer behavior, while subsequent primary research could delve into specific consumer motivations and preferences, offering a more nuanced understanding of the market.

Key considerations for integrating secondary research into your research planning and strategy include:

Research Objectives : Clearly defining what you aim to discover or decide based on your research.
Availability of Data : Assessing the extent and relevance of existing data related to your research question.
Budget and Time Constraints : Considering the resources available for conducting research, including time, money, and personnel.
Research Scope : Determining the breadth and depth of the information needed to meet your research objectives.

Secondary research is a powerful tool when used strategically, providing a cost-effective, efficient way to gather insights and inform decision-making processes across academic and professional contexts.

How to Conduct Secondary Research

Conducting secondary research is a systematic process that involves several key steps to ensure the relevance, accuracy, and utility of the information gathered. Here's a step-by-step guide to effective secondary research:

Identifying Research Objectives, Topics, and Questions : Begin with a clear understanding of what you aim to achieve with your research. This includes defining your research objectives, topics, and specific questions you seek to answer. This clarity guides the entire research process, ensuring that you remain focused on relevant information.
Finding Relevant Data Sources : Search for secondary data sources that are likely to contain the information you need. This involves exploring a variety of sources such as academic journals, industry reports, government databases, and news archives. Prioritize sources known for their credibility and authority in the subject matter.
Collecting and Verifying Existing Data : Once you've identified potential sources, collect the data that pertains to your research questions. Pay close attention to the publication date, authorship, and the methodology used in collecting the original data to ensure its relevance and reliability.
Data Compilation and Analysis : Compile the collected data in a structured format that allows for analysis. Employ analytical methods suited to your research objectives, such as trend analysis, comparative analysis, or thematic analysis, to draw insights from the data.

The success of secondary research hinges on the critical evaluation of sources for their credibility, relevance, and timeliness. It's essential to approach this process with a discerning eye, acknowledging the limitations of secondary data and the potential need for further investigation through primary research.

Types of Secondary Research Methods with Examples

Secondary research methods offer a range of approaches for leveraging existing data, each providing value in extracting insights relevant to various business and academic needs. Understanding the unique advantages of each method can guide researchers in choosing the most appropriate approach for their specific objectives.

Literature Reviews

Literature reviews synthesize existing research and publications to identify trends, gaps, and consensus within a field of study. This method provides a comprehensive overview of what is already known about a topic, saving time and resources by building on existing knowledge rather than starting from scratch.

Real-World Example : A marketing firm conducting a literature review on consumer behavior in the digital age might uncover a trend towards increased mobile shopping. This insight leads to a strategic recommendation for a retail client to prioritize mobile app development and optimize their online store for mobile users, directly impacting the client's digital marketing strategy.

Data Mining

Data mining involves analyzing large sets of data to discover patterns, correlations, or trends that are not immediately apparent. This method can uncover hidden insights from the data that businesses can use to inform decision-making, such as identifying new market opportunities or optimizing operational efficiencies.

Real-World Example : Through data mining of customer purchase histories and online behavior data, a retail company identifies a previously unnoticed correlation between the purchase of certain products and the time of year. Utilizing this insight, the company adjusts its inventory levels and marketing campaigns seasonally, significantly boosting sales and customer satisfaction.

Meta-Analysis

Meta-analysis aggregates and systematically analyzes results from multiple studies to draw general conclusions about a research question. This method provides a high level of evidence by combining findings, offering a powerful tool for making informed decisions based on a broader range of data than any single study could provide.

Real-World Example : A pharmaceutical company uses meta-analysis to combine findings from various clinical trials of a new drug. The meta-analysis reveals a statistically significant benefit of the drug that was not conclusive in individual studies. This insight supports the company's application for regulatory approval and guides the development of marketing strategies targeting specific patient demographics.

Data Analysis

Secondary data analysis applies statistical techniques to analyze existing datasets, offering a cost-effective way to gain insights without the need for new data collection. This method can identify trends, patterns, and relationships that inform strategic planning and decision-making.

Real-World Example : An investment firm analyzes historical economic data and stock market trends using secondary data analysis. They identify a recurring pattern preceding market downturns. By applying this insight to their investment strategy, the firm successfully mitigates risk and enhances portfolio performance for their clients.

Content Analysis

Content analysis systematically examines the content of communication mediums to understand messages, themes, or biases . This qualitative method can reveal insights into public opinion, media representation, and communication strategies, offering valuable information for marketing, public relations, and media strategies.

Real-World Example : A technology company employs content analysis to review online customer reviews and social media mentions of its products. The analysis uncovers a common concern among customers about the usability of a product feature. Responding to this insight, the company revises its product design and launches a targeted communication campaign to address the concerns, improving customer satisfaction and brand perception.

Historical Research

Historical research examines past records and documents to understand historical contexts and trends, offering insights that can inform future predictions, strategy development, and understanding of long-term changes. This method is particularly valuable for understanding the evolution of markets, industries, or consumer behaviors over time.

Real-World Example : A consultancy specializing in sustainable business practices conducts historical research into the adoption of green technologies in the automotive industry. The research identifies key drivers and barriers to adoption over the decades. Leveraging these insights, the consultancy advises new green tech startups on strategies to overcome market resistance and capitalize on drivers of adoption, significantly impacting their market entry strategy.

Each of these secondary research methods provides distinct advantages and can yield valuable insights for businesses and researchers. By carefully selecting and applying the most suitable method(s), organizations can enhance their understanding of complex issues, inform strategic decisions, and achieve competitive advantage.

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Examples of Secondary Sources in Research

Secondary sources are crucial for researchers across disciplines, offering a wealth of information that can provide insights, support hypotheses, and inform strategies. Understanding the unique value of different types of secondary sources can help researchers effectively harness this wealth of information. Below, we explore various secondary sources, highlighting their unique contributions and providing real-world examples of how they can yield valuable business insights.

Books provide comprehensive coverage of a topic, offering depth and context that shorter pieces might miss. They are particularly useful for gaining a thorough understanding of a subject's historical background and theoretical framework.

Example : A corporation exploring the feasibility of entering a new international market utilizes books on the country's cultural and economic history. This deep dive helps the company understand market nuances, leading to a tailored market entry strategy that aligns with local consumer preferences and cultural norms.

Scholarly Journals

Scholarly journals offer peer-reviewed, cutting-edge research findings, making them invaluable for staying abreast of the latest developments in a field. They provide detailed methodologies, rigorous data analysis, and discussions of findings in a specific area of study.

Example : An investment firm relies on scholarly articles to understand recent advancements in financial technology. Discovering research on blockchain's impact on transaction security and efficiency, the firm decides to invest in fintech startups specializing in blockchain technology, positioning itself ahead in the market.

Government Reports

Government reports deliver authoritative data on a wide range of topics, including economic indicators, demographic trends, and regulatory guidelines. Their reliability and the breadth of topics covered make them an essential resource for informed decision-making.

Example : A healthcare provider examines government health reports to identify trends in public health issues. Spotting an increase in lifestyle-related diseases, the provider expands its wellness programs, directly addressing the growing demand for preventive care services.

Market Research Reports

Market research reports provide insights into industry trends, consumer behavior, and competitive landscapes. These reports are invaluable for making informed business decisions, from product development to marketing strategies.

Example : A consumer goods company reviews market research reports to analyze trends in eco-friendly packaging. Learning about the positive consumer response to sustainable packaging, the company redesigns its packaging to be more environmentally friendly, resulting in increased brand loyalty and market share.

White Papers

White papers offer in-depth analysis or arguments on specific issues, often highlighting solutions or innovations. They are a key resource for understanding complex problems, technological advancements, and industry best practices.

Example : A technology firm exploring the implementation of AI in customer service operations consults white papers on AI applications. Insights from these papers guide the development of an AI-powered customer service chatbot, enhancing efficiency and customer satisfaction.

Private Company Data

Data from private companies, such as annual reports or case studies, provides insight into business strategies, performance metrics, and operational challenges. This information can be instrumental in benchmarking and strategic planning.

Example : By analyzing competitor annual reports, a retail chain identifies a gap in the market for affordable luxury products. This insight leads to the launch of a new product line that successfully captures this underserved segment, boosting the company's revenue and market positioning.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Research

Secondary research offers a foundation upon which organizations can build their knowledge base, informing everything from strategic planning to day-to-day decision-making. However, like any method, it comes with its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Understanding these can help researchers and businesses make the most of secondary research while being mindful of its limitations.

Advantages of Secondary Research

Cost-Effectiveness : Secondary research is often less expensive than primary research, as it involves the analysis of existing data, eliminating the need for costly data collection processes like surveys or experiments.
Time Efficiency : Accessing and analyzing existing data is generally faster than conducting primary research, allowing organizations to make timely decisions based on available information.
Broad Scope of Data : Secondary research provides access to a wide range of data across different geographies and time periods, enabling comprehensive market analyses and trend identification.
Basis for Primary Research : It can serve as a preliminary step to identify gaps in existing research, helping to pinpoint areas where primary research is needed.

Disadvantages of Secondary Research

Relevance and Specificity : Existing data may not perfectly align with the current research objectives, leading to potential mismatches in relevance and specificity.
Data Quality and Accuracy : The quality and accuracy of secondary data can vary, depending on the source. Researchers must critically assess the credibility of their sources to ensure the reliability of their findings.
Timeliness : Data may be outdated, especially in fast-moving sectors where recent information is crucial for making informed decisions.
Limited Control Over Data : Researchers have no control over how data was collected and processed, which may affect its suitability for their specific research needs.

Secondary research, when approached with an understanding of its strengths and weaknesses, has the potential be a powerful tool. By effectively navigating its advantages and limitations, businesses can lay a solid foundation for informed decision-making and strategic planning.

Primary vs. Secondary Research: A Comparative Analysis

When undertaking a research project, understanding the distinction between primary and secondary research is pivotal. Both forms of research serve their own purposes and can complement each other in providing a comprehensive overview of a given topic.

What is Primary Research?

Primary research involves the collection of original data directly from sources. This method is firsthand and is specific to the researcher's questions or hypotheses.

The main advantage of primary research is its specificity and relevancy to the particular issue or question at hand. It offers up-to-date and highly relevant data that is directly applicable to the research objectives.

Example : A company planning to launch a new beverage product conducts focus groups and survey research to understand consumer preferences. Through this process, they gather firsthand insights on flavors, packaging, and pricing preferences specific to their target market.

What is Secondary Research?

Secondary research involves the analysis of existing information compiled and collected by others. It includes studies, reports, and data from government agencies, trade associations, and other organizations.

Secondary research provides a broad understanding of the topic at hand, offering insights that can help frame primary research. It is cost-effective and time-saving, as it leverages already available data.

Example : The same company explores industry reports, academic research, and market analyses to understand broader market trends, competitor strategies, and consumer behavior within the beverage industry.

Comparative Analysis


Data Type	Original, firsthand data	Pre-existing, compiled data
Collection Method	Surveys, interviews, observations	Analysis of existing sources
Cost and Time	Higher cost, more time-consuming	Lower cost, less time-consuming
Specificity	High specificity to research question	General overview of the topic
Application	In-depth analysis of specific issues	Preliminary understanding, context setting

Synergistic Use in Research

The most effective research strategies often involve a blend of both primary and secondary research. Secondary research can serve as a foundation, helping to inform the development of primary research by identifying gaps in existing knowledge and refining research questions.

Understanding the distinct roles and benefits of primary and secondary research is crucial for any successful research project. By effectively leveraging both types of research, researchers can gain a deeper, more nuanced understanding of their subject matter, leading to more informed decisions and strategies. Remember, the choice between primary and secondary research should be guided by your research objectives, resources, and the specificity of information required.

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Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Sources

What they are and how they compare (with examples)

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewed By: Kerryn Warren (PhD) | January 2023

If you’re new to the wild world of research, you’re bound to encounter the terrible twins, “ primary source ” and “ secondary source ” sooner or later. With any luck, “ tertiary sources ” will get thrown into the mix too! In this post, we’ll unpack both what this terminology means and how to apply it to your research project.

Overview: Source Types

Primary sources
Examples of primary sources
Pros and cons of primary data
Secondary sources
Examples of secondary sources
Pros and cons of secondary data
Tertiary sources
Summary & recap

What are primary sources?

Simply put, primary sources (also referred to as primary data) are the original raw materials, evidence or data collected in a study. Primary sources can include interview transcripts , quantitative survey data, as well as other media that provide firsthand accounts of events or phenomena. Primary sources are often considered to be the purest sources because they provide direct, unfiltered data which has not been processed or interpreted in any way.

In addition to the above, examples of primary sources can include

Results from a social media poll
Letters written by a historical figure
Photographs taken during a specific time period
Government documents such as birth certificates and census records
Artefacts like clothing and tools from past cultures

Naturally, working with primary data has both benefits and drawbacks. Some of the main advantages include

Purity : primary sources provide firsthand accounts of events, ideas, and experiences, which means you get access to the rawest, purest form of data.
Perspective : primary sources allow you to gain a deeper understanding of the perspectives of the people who created them, providing insights into how different groups of people viewed an event or phenomenon.
Richness : primary data often provide a wealth of detail and nuance that can be missed in secondary data (we’ll cover that shortly). This can provide you with a more complete and nuanced understanding of their topic.

On the flip side, some of the main disadvantages include

Bias : given their “rawness”, primary sources can often contain biases that can skew or limit your understanding of the issue at hand.
Inaccessibility : sometimes, collecting fresh primary data can be difficult or even impossible. For example, photographs held in private collections or letters written in a language that you’re not fluent in.
Fragility : physical artefacts such as manuscripts may be fragile and require special handling, which can make them difficult for you to access or study.
Limited scope : primary sources often only provide a glimpse of a particular event, person, or period of time, so you may need to rely on multiple primary sources to gain a more complete understanding of a topic.

As you can see, the strengths and weaknesses of primary sources are oftentimes two sides of the same coin . For example, primary data allow you to gain insight into peoples’ unique perspectives, but at the same time, it bakes in a significant level of each participant’s personal bias. So, it’s important to carefully consider what your research aim is and whether it lends itself to this type of data source.

Now that you’ve got a clearer picture of what primary sources/data are, let’s take a look at secondary sources.

What are secondary sources?

Secondary sources are materials that provide an analysis or interpretation of primary sources (primary data). For example, secondary sources of information can include books, journal articles and documentaries . Unlike primary sources (which are raw and uninterpreted), secondary sources provide a distilled, interpreted view of the data.

Other examples of secondary sources include

A book that provides an analysis of an event
A biography of a pop icon
An article that provides an interpretation of a public opinion poll
A blog post that reviews and compares the performance of competing products

As with primary sources, secondary sources have their own set of pros and cons. Some of the main advantages include:

Convenience: secondary sources are often easier to access and use than primary sources, as they are widely available in libraries, journal databases, etc.
Interpretation and synthesis : secondary sources provide a synthesis of the topic of interest, which can help you to quickly understand the most important takeaways from a data set.
Time-saving : secondary sources can save you time, as you don’t need to analyse primary sources yourself – you can just read summaries or interpretations provided by experts in the field.

At the same time, it’s important to be aware of the disadvantages of secondary sources. Some of the main ones to consider are

Distance from original sources : secondary sources are based on primary data, but the information has been filtered through the lens of the author, which will naturally carry some level of bias and perhaps even a hidden agenda.
Limited context: secondary sources may not provide the same level of contextual information or detail as primary sources, which can limit your understanding of the situation and contribute toward a warped understanding.
Inaccuracies : since secondary sources are the product of human efforts, they may contain inaccuracies or errors, especially if the author has misinterpreted primary data.
Outdated information : secondary sources may be based on primary sources that are no longer valid or accurate, or they may not take into account more recent research or discoveries.

It’s important to mention that primary and secondary data are not mutually exclusive . In other words, it doesn’t always need to be one or the other. Secondary sources can be used to supplement primary data by providing additional information or context for a particular topic.

For example, if you were researching Martin Luther King Jr., your primary source could be transcripts of the speeches he gave during the civil rights movement. To supplement this information, you could then use secondary sources such as biographies written about him or newspaper articles from the time period in which he was active.

So, once again, it’s important to think about what you’re trying to achieve with your research – that is to say, what are your research aims? As with all methodological choices, your decision to make use of primary or secondary data (or both), needs to be informed by your overall research aims .

Before we wrap up though, it’s important to look at one more source type – tertiary sources.

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What are tertiary sources?

Last but not least, we’ve got tertiary sources . Simply put, tertiary sources are materials that provide a general overview of a topic . They often summarise or synthesise information from a combination of primary and secondary sources, such as books, articles, and other documents.

Some examples of tertiary sources include

Encyclopedias
Study guides
Dictionaries

Tertiary sources can be useful when you’re just starting to learn about a completely new topic , as they provide an overview of the subject matter without getting too in-depth into specific details. For example, if you’re researching the history of World War II, but don’t know much about it yet, reading an encyclopedia article (or Wikipedia article) on the war would be helpful in providing you with some basic facts and background information.

Tertiary sources are also useful in terms of providing a starting point for citations to primary and secondary source material which can help guide your search for more detailed, credible information on a particular topic. Additionally, these types of resources may also contain lists of related topics or keywords which you can use to find more information regarding your topic of interest.

Importantly, while tertiary sources are a valuable starting point for your research, they’re not ideal sources to cite in your dissertation, thesis or research project. Instead, you should aim to cite high-quality, credible secondary sources such as peer-reviewed journal articles and research papers . So, remember to only use tertiary sources as a starting point. Don’t make the classic mistake of citing Wikipedia as your main source!

Let’s recap

In this post, we’ve explored the trinity of sources: primary, secondary and tertiary.

Primary sources include the original raw evidence or data that you collect yourself in a study. For example, interview transcripts or statistical data.
Secondary sources include distilled analyses and interpretations of primary data that someone else collected in their study. For example, journal articles and critical analysis pieces.
Tertiary sources include materials that provide a general overview of a topic. For example, encyclopedias, study guides and handbooks.
Each source type has its own set of strengths and weaknesses , and can play a different role within a research project.
Primary sources and secondary sources are not necessarily mutually exclusive – they can work together to provide a comprehensive view.
It’s important to ensure that your choice of source (or sources) is guided by and aligned with your research aims .

If you’d like to learn more about primary and secondary research, be sure to check out the rest of the Grad Coach blog here . Alternatively, if you’re looking for hands-on help with your project, take a look at our 1-on-1 private coaching service .

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Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources

Source Types
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tertiary Sources
Examples by Discipline

What are secondary sources?

Secondary sources depend upon primary sources. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. The important thing to keep in mind when trying to decide if a source is primary or secondary is whether or not the author did the thing they are reporting on. If they did, it is a primary source; if they did not, it is a secondary source.

What is the role of secondary sources in research?

Secondary sources represent the scholarly conversation that has taken place, or is currently taking place, on a given topic. Thus, it is imperative that researchers acquire a comprehensive knowledge of the secondary literature on their topic to be able to then engage with it and offer their own perspective through their writing. Scholars show their deep knowledge of their topic by demonstrating in their writing their awareness of secondary literature. Research that does not include substantial references to both primary and secondary sources is not likely to be authoritative or reliable. For that reason, looking at the listed references in a piece of research can help you determine its value.

What are some examples of secondary sources?

Like primary sources, secondary sources can be lots of different kinds of resources depending on discipline and application. Secondary sources can be:

Journal articles
Monographs (books written on a single subject)
Newspaper or magazine articles
Book or movie reviews

In the sciences, secondary sources tend to be things like literature reviews (synthesized descriptions of previous scholarship on a topic), systematic reviews (overviews of primary sources on a topic), or meta analyses (studies in which conclusions are drawn from consideration of systematic reviews).

In the humanities, secondary sources tend to be journal articles that discuss or evaluate someone else's research, monographs, or reviews.

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Next: Tertiary Sources >>
Last Updated: Aug 24, 2023 1:08 PM
URL: https://libguides.uky.edu/sourcetypes

Primary Sources Research Guide

What Are Primary Sources?
What Are Secondary Sources?
Examples of Primary & Secondary Sources
Where to Look for Primary Sources

Defining Secondary Sources

Secondary sources interpret, analyze, and discuss the evidence provided by primary sources. Examples of secondary sources include scholarly books and articles.
Secondary sources are generally a second-hand account or observation at least one step removed from the event, i.e., accounts written after the fact by people not present when an event took place. Such sources are second-hand interpretations of what occurred.
Secondary sources, however, can be considered to be primary sources depending on the context of their use. For example, Ken Burns' documentary of the Civil War is a secondary source for Civil War researchers (because it consists of Burns' interpretation of primary source materials from the Civil War), but a primary source for those studying documentary filmmaking.
Secondary sources benefit from the filter of time and differing cultural contexts and perspectives which may assist (or interfere with) scholarly analysis.

Secondary sources can include:

biographical works;
commentaries and critical reviews;
books other than fiction or autobiographies
journal, newspaper, and magazine articles written well after an event takes place

*Some of the above material is used with permission from the University of Pittsburgh Library's research guide on Primary Sources

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Next: Examples of Primary & Secondary Sources >>
Last Updated: Mar 1, 2024 9:31 AM
URL: https://guides.libraries.emory.edu/main/primary_sources_overview

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Methodology
What is Secondary Research? | Definition, Types, & Examples

What is Secondary Research? | Definition, Types, & Examples

Published on 20 January 2023 by Tegan George .

When to use secondary research, types of secondary research, examples of secondary research, advantages and disadvantages of secondary research, frequently asked questions.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Secondary research can take many forms, but the most common types are:

Statistical analysis

Literature reviews, case studies, content analysis.

Credible sources for existing data include:

The government
Government agencies
Non-governmental organizations
Educational institutions
Businesses or consultancies
Libraries or archives
Newspapers, academic journals, or magazines

A literature review is a survey of preexisting scholarly sources on your topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant themes, debates, and gaps in the research you analyse. You can later apply these to your own work, or use them as a jumping-off point to conduct primary research of your own.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject. It is usually qualitative in nature and can focus on a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. A case study is a great way to utilise existing research to gain concrete, contextual, and in-depth knowledge about your real-world subject.

Content analysis is a research method that studies patterns in recorded communication by utilizing existing texts. It can be either quantitative or qualitative in nature, depending on whether you choose to analyse countable or measurable patterns, or more interpretive ones. Content analysis is popular in communication studies, but it is also widely used in historical analysis, anthropology, and psychology to make more semantic qualitative inferences.

Secondary research is a broad research approach that can be pursued any way you’d like. Here are a few examples of different ways you can use secondary research to explore your research topic .

Secondary research is a very common research approach, but has distinct advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of secondary research

Advantages include:

Secondary data is very easy to source and readily available .
It is also often free or accessible through your educational institution’s library or network, making it much cheaper to conduct than primary research .
As you are relying on research that already exists, conducting secondary research is much less time consuming than primary research. Since your timeline is so much shorter, your research can be ready to publish sooner.
Using data from others allows you to show reproducibility and replicability , bolstering prior research and situating your own work within your field.

Disadvantages of secondary research

Disadvantages include:

Ease of access does not signify credibility . It’s important to be aware that secondary research is not always reliable , and can often be out of date. It’s critical to analyse any data you’re thinking of using prior to getting started, using a method like the CRAAP test .
Secondary research often relies on primary research already conducted. If this original research is biased in any way, those research biases could creep into the secondary results.

Many researchers using the same secondary research to form similar conclusions can also take away from the uniqueness and reliability of your research. Many datasets become ‘kitchen-sink’ models, where too many variables are added in an attempt to draw increasingly niche conclusions from overused data . Data cleansing may be necessary to test the quality of the research.

A systematic review is secondary research because it uses existing research. You don’t collect new data yourself.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts, and meanings, use qualitative methods .
If you want to analyse a large amount of readily available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how they are generated, collect primary data.
If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

Sources for this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

George, T. (2023, January 20). What is Secondary Research? | Definition, Types, & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 12 August 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/secondary-research-explained/

Largan, C., & Morris, T. M. (2019). Qualitative Secondary Research: A Step-By-Step Guide (1st ed.). SAGE Publications Ltd.

Peloquin, D., DiMaio, M., Bierer, B., & Barnes, M. (2020). Disruptive and avoidable: GDPR challenges to secondary research uses of data. European Journal of Human Genetics , 28 (6), 697–705. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-020-0596-x

Is this article helpful?

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Other students also liked, primary research | definition, types, & examples, what is a literature review | guide, template, & examples, case study | definition, examples & methods.

Healey Library
Research Guides

Primary Sources: A Research Guide

Primary vs. Secondary
Historical Newspapers
Book Collections
Find Videos
Open Access
Local Archives and Archival Societies
University Archives and Special Collections at UMass Boston

Primary Sources

Texts of laws and other original documents.

Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did.

Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or wrote.

Original research.

Datasets, survey data, such as census or economic statistics.

Photographs, video, or audio that capture an event.

Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include:

Most books about a topic.

Analysis or interpretation of data.

Scholarly or other articles about a topic, especially by people not directly involved.

Documentaries (though they often include photos or video portions that can be considered primary sources).

When is a Primary Source a Secondary Source?

Whether something is a primary or secondary source often depends upon the topic and its use.

A biology textbook would be considered a secondary source if in the field of biology, since it describes and interprets the science but makes no original contribution to it.

On the other hand, if the topic is science education and the history of textbooks, textbooks could be used a primary sources to look at how they have changed over time.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources



Artwork		Article critiquing the piece of art
Diary		Book about a specific subject
Interview		Biography
Letters		Dissertation
Performance		Review of play
Poem		Treatise on a particular genre of poetry
Treaty		Essay on a treaty

Adapted from Bowling Green State University, Library User Education, Primary vs. Secondary Sources .

<< Previous: Home
Next: Find Primary Sources >>
Last Updated: Aug 9, 2024 2:00 PM
URL: https://umb.libguides.com/PrimarySources

Understanding and Evaluating Resources

Evaluating Journal Articles
Evaluating News Resources
Evaluating Web Resources
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Different Types of Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tertiary Sources

What is a primary source?


Anthropology, Archeology	Articles describing research, ethnographies, surveys, cultural and historical artifacts
Communications, Journalism	News (printed, radio, TV, online), photographs, blogs, social media sites
Education, Political Science, Public Policy	Government publications, laws, court cases, speeches, test results, interviews, polls, surveys
Fine Arts	Original artwork, photographs, recordings of performances and music, scripts (film, theater, television), music scores, interviews, memoirs, diaries, letters
History	Government publications, newspapers, photographs, diaries, letters, manuscripts, business records, court cases, videos, polls, census data, speeches
Language and Literature	Novels, plays, short stories, poems, dictionaries, language manuals
Psychology, Sociology, Economics	Articles describing research, experiment results, ethnographies, interviews, surveys, data sets
Sciences	Articles describing research and methodologies, documentation of lab research, research studies

Search Primary Sources @ RWU

What is a secondary source.


Anthropology, Archeology	Reviews of the literature, critical interpretations of scholarly studies
Communications, Journalism	Interpretive journal articles, books, and blogs about the communications industry.
Education, Political Science, Public Policy	Reviews of the literature, critical interpretations of scholarly studies
Fine Arts	Critical interpretations of art and artists—biographies, reviews, recordings of live performances
History	Interpretive journal articles and books
Language and Literature	Literary criticism, biographies, reviews, text books
Psychology, Sociology, Economics	Reviews of the literature, critical interpretations of scholarly studies
Sciences	Publications about the significance of research or experiments

What is a tertiary source?

Encyclopedias, like Wikipedia, Encyclopedia Brittanica, etc.
Dictionaries, like Oxford English Dictionary, Etymology Online, etc.
Almanacs, like World Almanac, Book of Facts, etc.
Factbooks, like CIA World Factbook
Chronologies, like Chronicle of the 20th Century
Some Textbooks
Last Updated: Aug 16, 2024 12:07 PM
URL: https://rwu.libguides.com/EvaluatingSources

How it works

Primary Vs Secondary Source – Which to Use?

Published by Owen Ingram at August 21st, 2023 , Revised On August 21, 2023

When researching or exploring a new topic, the distinction between primary and secondary sources is paramount. The relevance, validity and reliability of the information you gather will heavily depend on the type of source you consult.

Let’s discuss the difference between primary and secondary sources.

What is a Primary Source?

Primary source s offer first-hand accounts or direct evidence of the events, objects, people, or works of art they represent. These sources are often created by witnesses or first recorders of these events when they occurred or even later.

Some examples of primary sources include:

Original Documents: Diaries, letters, manuscripts, autobiographies, interview transcripts.
Artefacts: Clothing, tools, works of art, architectural structures.
Official Records: Census data, marriage certificates, birth certificates.
Photographs & Audio-Visual Materials: Photographs, films, audio recordings, video recordings.
Raw Data: Original research data and laboratory notes.
Oral Histories: Interviews, oral reports, and personal storytelling.
Contemporary Newspapers, Magazines, or Reports: From the time period in question.

Advantages of Primary Sources

Authenticity: Primary sourc es provide direct evidence or first-hand account of an event, making them highly authentic.
Depth and Detail: They offer in-depth insights, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the subject.
Original Perspective: They reflect the personal perspective of the original author or the direct observer, allowing a closer connection to the events or phenomena.

Limitations of Primary Sources

Potential Bias: Primary sources may carry the creator’s cognitive bias or explicit bias , which could impact their accuracy.
Time-Consuming: Analysing and interpreting primary sources can be time-intensive.
Limited Scope: Due to an actor-observer bias , they may not provide a broader context or interpretation of the events.

What is a Secondary Source?

Secondary source s analyse, interpret, or summarise information from primary sources. They offer a second-hand account and often provide context, interpretation, or a broader topic overview. The challenge here is to be wary of confirmation bias that can inadvertently influence these interpretations.

Examples of secondary sources include:

Books: Often scholarly source books that interpret or analyse a topic or event.
Articles: Journal or magazine articles that provide commentary, criticism, or analysis.
Biographies: Life stories of individuals, which are interpretive accounts.
Documentaries: Films that interpret or analyse historical events or figures.
Encyclopedias & Reference Works: Summarised information on topics.
Reviews: Literature reviews , Critiques of books, films, art, and other works.
Essays & Critiques: Where the author analyses or comments on someone else’s work.

Advantages of Secondary Sources

Comprehensive Overview: Secondary sources usually present a broader topic overview, providing context.
Time-Efficiency: They summarise and interpret vast amounts of primary data, making it easier for the researcher, especially if they have a bias for action .
Expert Analysis: Many secondary sources are produced by experts, offering informed and scholarly interpretations of primary information.

Limitations of Secondary Sources

Potential for Misinterpretation: As these sources provide an interpretation, there’s a risk of publication bias or the Pygmalion effect influencing their perspectives.
Possible Bias: The authors of secondary sources might introduce their own affinity bias , influencing the interpretation.
Not as Current: Secondary interpretations might not reflect the latest findings or recent changes in understanding.

What is the Difference Between Primary and Secondary Sources?


	Original, first-hand account of an event or piece of information.	Interpretation or analysis of primary sources or second-hand accounts.
	Diaries, letters, photographs, raw data, original manuscripts.	Textbooks, journal articles, biographies, and documentaries.
	Provide direct evidence or first-hand testimony.	Provide interpretation, analysis, context, or summary.
	More authentic, but can contain biases or limited perspectives.	Can contain bias, interpretation, or errors in translation.
	Often used as evidence in historical and scientific research.	Often used to get an overview or understanding of a topic or perspective.

How to Tell if a Source is Primary or Secondary

Telling if a source is primary or secondary can be pivotal in many types of research. When doing this differentiation, a good source evaluation method is indispensable.

Here is a guide to help you differentiate:

Primary Sources

Characteristics.

Original Materials: Uninterpreted, unfiltered records of a time, event, people, or work.
First-hand Information: It is directly from the person(s) involved or who directly witnessed an event.
Unaltered State: Usually not changed or altered after their creation, unless they have been annotated or transcribed.
Period: Typically from the time of the event or shortly thereafter.
Autobiographies and memoirs
Diaries, letters, emails, and other correspondence
Photographs, audio recordings, and videos
Raw research data
Original hand-written manuscripts
Official documents (birth certificates, trial transcripts)
Artefacts, such as clothing, tools, or weapons
Interviews, surveys, or fieldwork
Newspapers and magazine articles written at the time of an event

Questions to Ask:

Was this source created by someone directly involved in the events I’m researching?
Was it created at the time of the event or shortly thereafter?
Does it provide first-hand testimony or direct evidence concerning my topic?

Secondary Sources:

Interpretation/Analysis: These sources discuss, interpret, analyse, consolidate, or “repackage” primary sources.
Second-hand Information: It is one step removed from the primary original source.
Summary/Overview: Often summarises or provides an overview of a topic based on primary sources.
Books discussing a subject or historical event
Journal articles reviewing past research
Histories or documentaries
Commentaries or critiques
Encyclopedias or biographical works

Questions to Ask

Does this source reinterpret or evaluate primary source materials?
Was it created significantly after the events being discussed?
Does it summarise or repackage information from other sources?

Remember, the distinction is not always clear-cut. Depending on the research question and context, some sources can function as both primary and secondary. For instance, a newspaper article can be a primary source when studying media portrayal of events at the time, but a secondary source is used for a historical overview. Always consider the nature of your research and the purpose of using the source.

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Primary Vs Secondary Sources: Which is Better?

Whether primary or secondary sources are “better” is subjective and depends on the context and purpose of your research or inquiry. Both types of sources have their strengths and weaknesses. Here’s a breakdown:

For a Comprehensive Understanding

Using a combination of both primary and secondary sources is ideal. Secondary sources can provide context, while primary sources offer a direct window into events or experiences.

For Academic or Historical Research

Primary sources are often valued because they provide direct evidence and can help researchers verify facts or understand first-hand accounts. However, secondary sources are crucial for understanding the broader context, historical interpretations, and trends.

For Quick Learning or an Overview

If you are just trying to grasp a topic or need a summary, secondary sources are often more accessible and straightforward due to the ceiling effect , which means reaching a limit in the amount of new information a source can provide.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a primary source vs a secondary.

A primary source is direct or first-hand evidence about an event, person, object, or work of art, often created during the event. A secondary source interprets, analyses, or summarises information from primary sources, offering a second-hand account or perspective on the original data.

Is an interview a primary vs secondary source?

An interview is a primary source because it provides first-hand testimony or direct evidence concerning a topic under investigation. It captures the interviewee’s direct experiences, views, or knowledge without being filtered, interpreted, or summarised by others, offering an original perspective on the discussed subject.

What is considered primary source vs secondary source in citations?

In citations, a primary source refers to direct or first-hand evidence, like original documents, artworks, or interviews. A secondary source, on the other hand, analyses, interprets or summarises primary sources, such as books that critique literature or articles that review original research. Secondary sources provide context or interpretation to primary data.

How to cite a primary source?

To cite a primary source, follow the citation style guide you’re using (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). Generally, include the author’s name, title of the source, publication or creation date, and any relevant details (e.g., publisher, location, page numbers). Different source types (letters, interviews, documents) might require specific citation elements.

Is a textbook a secondary source?

Yes, a textbook is typically considered a secondary source. It synthesises, interprets, and summarises information from primary and secondary sources, presenting an overview or comprehensive topic explanation. Textbooks provide context, commentary, and analysis rather than direct, first-hand evidence of events or original research.

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources

Search catalog, what are the differences.

Sources of information or evidence are often categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary material. These classifications are based on the originality of the material and the proximity of the source or origin. This informs the reader as to whether the author is reporting information that is first hand or is conveying the experiences and opinions of others which is considered second hand. Determining if a source is primary, secondary or tertiary can be tricky. Below you will find a description of the three categories of information and examples to help you make a determination.

Primary Sources

These sources are records of events or evidence as they are first described or actually happened without any interpretation or commentary. It is information that is shown for the first time or original materials on which other research is based. Primary sources display original thinking, report on new discoveries, or share fresh information.

Secondary Sources

These sources offer an analysis or restatement of primary sources. They often try to describe or explain primary sources. They tend to be works which summarize, interpret, reorganize, or otherwise provide an added value to a primary source.

Tertiary Sources

These are sources that index, abstract, organize, compile, or digest other sources. Some reference materials and textbooks are considered tertiary sources when their chief purpose is to list, summarize or simply repackage ideas or other information. Tertiary sources are usually not credited to a particular author.

University Library

Types of Sources and Where to Find Them: Secondary Sources

This is the second video in a two-part tutorial on primary and secondary sources. Historians and other scholars classify sources as primary or secondary. Whereas primary sources are considered the raw material of the historical record, and are usually created around the same time as the events they purport to document, secondary sources are further removed from these historical events or circumstances. Typically, secondary sources offer an interpretation of the past based on analysis and synthesis of primary sources.

Examples of secondary sources include:

surveys of broad historical periods,
works that focus on specific events or topics,
literary and cultural criticism,
and works on theory and methodology.

Secondary sources can be found in books, journals, or Internet resources.

When we talk about secondary sources, most of the time we are referring to the published scholarship on a subject, rather than supplementary material like bibliographies, encyclopedias, handbooks, and so forth. These supplementary materials are sometimes referred to as tertiary sources.

A secondary source is analytical and interpretive. It may offer a new reading of historical events and primary sources that have been analyzed before, or present an analysis of events and sources that were previously unknown or not written about. A secondary source might also synthesize the work of other historians in order to formulate a totally new interpretation. You will use secondary sources to identify the main currents of thought on your topic, and to answer questions, like:

Which historians have taken up this topic?
What were their main arguments?
How have historians’ understanding of the topic changed over time?

To identify secondary literature, you can do subject searches in the library catalog to find books, or subject searches in article databases to find articles. The most important databases for finding peer-reviewed articles by historians are: America: History and Life, which covers the history of North America and Historical Abstracts, which covers the rest of the world since 1450. You can also consult standard published bibliographies, like the American Historical Association’s Guide to Historical Literature, or specialized bibliographies, like this bibliography of medieval warfare. You may find more lengthy treatments of the topic published as book chapters, journal articles, or even as individual monographs. You can read about the topic in a subject encyclopedia and look at the bibliography at the end of the entry. You can find a major work of scholarship on the topic, and follow up on the sources used by the author.

Most of the time you will find the secondary literature you need by using

the library catalog,
the appropriate article databases,
subject encyclopedias,
bibliographies,
and by consulting with your instructor.

Remember to keep track of all the sources you’ve used. At some point, you’ll want to list them in a bibliography of your own.

Secondary Sources: ALRs, Encyclopedias, Law Reviews, Restatements, & Treatises

Legal encyclopedias, law review articles, american law reports, restatement drafts, getting help, introduction.

Secondary sources are a great place to begin your research . Although the primary sources of law--case law, statutes, and regulations--establish the law on a given topic, it is often difficult to quickly locate answers in them. Secondary sources often explain legal principles more thoroughly than a single case or statute, so using them can help you save time . Secondary sources also help you avoid unnecessary research, since you're tapping into work that someone else has already done on an issue.

Secondary sources include:

Legal encyclopedias
American Law Reports (ALR)
Law review articles

Restatements

Secondary sources are particularly useful for:

Learning the basics of a particular area of law
Understanding key terms of art in an area
Identifying essential cases and statutes

This guide provides a basic overview of each source, including their strengths and why you might use them, as well as tips on finding, using, and citing them.

This guide is based on material written by Deanna Barmakian.

This guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 United States License .

You may reproduce any part of it for noncommercial purposes as long as credit is included and it is shared in the same manner.

Intro to Legal Encyclopedias

Legal encyclopedias contain brief, broad summaries of legal topics, providing introductions to legal topics and explaining relevant terms of art.They also provide citations to relevant primary law and sometimes give citations to relevant major law review articles.

There are two main legal encyclopedias in the United States that are national in scope. They are useful, but not well-suited for jurisdiction specific research.

State legal encyclopedias provide background and explanations of state legal topics. Not every state has a legal encyclopedia. Depth of coverage and quality vary. State encyclopedia articles are updated irregularly.

Electronic versions of the encyclopedias are updated directly. If using a print encyclopedia, always remember to check the pocket parts for any updates.

National Legal Encyclopedias

American Jurisprudence 2d (AmJur) Reading Room KF 154.A42 Am Jur 2d articles summarize broad principles of U.S. law and provide citations to cases, statutes, rules, forms, and A.L.R. annotations. A six-volume general index is located at KF 154.A42. Topical indexes are located in the last volume of every topic.
American Jurisprudence Available on Lexis
American Jurisprudence on Westlaw
Corpus Juris Secundum (CJS) Reading Room KF 154.C56 This 152-volume set is arranged into approximately 400 topics. Articles within topics begin with a general rule of law and are followed by the exceptions and qualifications to that general rule. A four-volume general index is located at KF 154.C56. There are also individual indexes for each major topic.
Corpus Juris Secundum on Westlaw CJS is not available on Lexis.

State Legal Encyclopedias

Legal encyclopedias are listed alphabetically by state. Electronic versions are included only if they are comprehensive in scope.

For a few states, Westlaw offers a practice series that contains selective coverage of state law, usually covering a few major topics and information useful to litigators. To find them, browse the Westlaw directory by U.S. State Materials > Other U.S. States > State name > Forms, Treatises, CLEs, and Other Practice Materials, then browse the page for "practice series."

California Jurisprudence 3d Reading Room KFC 80 .C29
Summary of California Law Reading Room KFC 80 .W5
California Jurisprudence 3d (Westlaw)
Summary of California Law (Lexis) Available on Lexis
Summary of California Law (Westlaw)
Colorado Law Annotated 2d Reading Room KFC 1880 .P76
Florida Jurisprudence 2d Reading Room KFF 80 .F56
Florida Jurisprudence 2d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
Florida Jurisprudence 2d (Westlaw)
Georgia Jurisprudence Reading Room KFG 80 .G45
Georgia Jurisprudence (Westlaw)
Illinois Law and Practice Reading Room KFI 1265 .I44x
Illinois Jurisprudence (Lexis) Available on Lexis
Illinois Law and Practice (Westlaw)
Indiana Law Encyclopedia Reading Room KFI 3065 .W44
Indiana Law Encyclopedia (Westlaw)
Louisiana Civil Law Treatise Reading Room, KFL 92 - 583 (call numbers vary)
Louisiana Civil Law Treatise (Westlaw)
Maryland Law Encylopedia Reading Room KFM 1265 .W4x
Maryland Law Encyclopedia (Westlaw)
Michigan Law and Practice Encyclopedia Reading Room KFM 4265 .M63x
Michigan Law and Practice (Lexis) Available on Lexis
Michigan Civil Jurisprudence (Westlaw)
Dunnell Minnesota Digest (Lexis) Available on Lexis
Encyclopedia of Mississippi Law Reading Room KFM 6665 .E53x
Summary of Mississippi Law Reading Room KRM 6665 .G7
New Hampshire Practice Reading Room KFN 1280 .N48
New Jersey Practice Reading Room KFN 1880 .N4
New Jersey Practice (Westlaw)
New York Jurisprudence 2d Reading Room KFN 5065 .N48
New York Jurisprudence 2d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
New York Jurisprudence 2d (Westlaw)
Strong's North Carolina Index Reading Room KFN 7445 .6 .S82
Strong's North Carolina Index (Westlaw)
Ohio Jurisprudence 3d Reading Room KFO 65 .O35
Ohio Jurisprudence 3d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
Ohio Jurisprudence 3d (Westlaw)
Pennsylvania Law Encyclopedia Reading Room KFP 65 .P46x
Pennsylvania Law Encyclopedia (Lexis) Available on Lexis
Summary of Pennsylvania Jurisprudence 2d (Westlaw)
South Carolina Jurisprudence Reading Room KFS 1865 .S68x
South Carolina Jurisprudence (Westlaw)
Tennessee Jurisprudence Reading Room KFT 65 .T46
Tennessee Jurisprudence (Lexis) Available on Lexis
Texas Jurisprudence 3d Reading Room KFT 1265 .T49
Texas Jurisprudence 3d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
Texas Jurisprudence 3d (Westlaw)
Michie's Jurisprudence of Virginia and West Virginia Reading Room KFV 2465 .M52
Michie's Jurisprudence of Virginia and West Virginia (Lexis) Available on Lexis

How to Cite Legal Encyclopedias

See Bluebook B8.15 and Rule 15.8.

Quick example:

17 AM. JUR. 2d Contracts § 74 (1964).

Intro to Treatises

Treatises , not to be confused with treaties , are book-length expositions on the law as it pertains to a particular subject. Treatises may be scholarly in nature, such as Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Law , or they may be geared toward a legal practitioner, such as a manual or handbook.

A legal treatise may be a short, single volume or a large, multivolume set. Many are available electronically as well as in print. Different kinds of treatises have different purposes:

Legal hornbooks are designed as teaching tools for law students. Hornbooks provide more detailed treatments of particular areas of law than an encyclopedia or ALR entry. They generally contain summaries of landmark cases and other useful details.

Nutshells provide an overview of a legal topic without the detailed analysis or extensive case referencing found in other treatises.

Some treatises are designed to serve as practitioners’ tools. These works tend to address realistic legal problems and often provide useful features for practicing lawyers, such as forms and tables.

Looseleaf services are an example of treatises designed to serve as tools for practitioners. Such works address realistic legal problems and often provide useful features for practicing lawyers, such as forms and tables. Looseleaf services are frequently supplemented treatises--hence the looseleaf binder format that enables single pages to be easily updated without republishing the entire volume--that often contain primary legal sources and finding aids in addition to secondary analytical material, making them an invaluable resource if one exists for your topic.

Still other treatises are designed to serve as self-help publications for the public, such as those published by Nolo Press .

Finding treatises

There are several ways to locate legal treatises:

Use the HLS Library Guide to Legal Treatises by Subject for librarian-recommended treatises in many areas of law
Do a keyword or subject search in Hollis , Hollis Classic , or another library catalog . Use the expanded search or facets to limit your search to the law school library.
Ask a research librarian to help you locate treatises on your topic
Consult reference sources that review treatises by subject such as:

The Legal Information Buyer's Guide and Reference Manual by Ken Svengalis Legal Information: How to Find It, How to Use It by Kent C. Olson (note: this guide does not include single volume works) Legal Looseleafs in Print by Arlene Eis

Using treatises

Using legal treatises is like using any non-law book with a few special advisories.

First, as with any book, use the table of contents and the index to quickly locate relevant sections .

Second, remember that for a publication to provide reliable coverage of contemporary issues, it must be updated regularly and accurately to reflect any changes in the law . Updating may happen through the addition of pocket parts (which are usually tucked in a pocket in the back cover of a volume), by updated pages in a looseleaf, or periodic republication or an entire volume. Researchers should always make sure they are working with the most current edition of the treatise and be sure to consult pocket parts.

Third, while many treatises are still only available in print, more treatises are becoming available online . For example, major treatises on insurance law are available in both Lexis and Westlaw. Electronic versions of treatises allow for full text searching, which can be valuable for research. For more focused search results, consider narrowing your search to relevant sections, if possible. In many cases, you can still access the tables of contents and indexes to help locate chapters or sections of interest.

Remember that you can (and should!) check to see how current the electronic text is by clicking the I link next to the title of the treatise to see how regularly it is updated and when the last update took place.

How to Cite Treatises

See Bluebook Rule 15.

RICHARD H. FALLON, JR. ET AL., HART AND WECHSLER'S THE FEDERAL COURTS AND THE FEDERAL SYSTEM 330 (5th ed. 2003).

Intro to Law Review Articles

Law review or journal articles are another great secondary source for legal research, valuable for the depth in which they analyze and critique legal topics, as well as their extensive references to other sources, including primary sources.

Law reviews are scholarly publications, usually edited by law students in conjunction with faculty members. They contain both lengthy articles and shorter essays by professors and lawyers, as well as comments, notes, or developments in the law written by students. Law review articles often focus on new or emerging areas of law and they can offer more critical commentary than a legal encyclopedia or ALR entry .

Some law reviews are dedicated to a particular topic, such as gender and the law or environmental law, and will include in their contents the proceedings of a wide range of panels and symposia on timely legal issues.

Sources of full text law review articles

These resources all provide comprehensive coverage of United States law reviews, and allow you to search the full text of the articles that they index.

Bloomberg Law Bloomberg Law is available to all HLS students, faculty, and staff. Register with your HLS email address. Law reviews are included in Bloomberg Law's selection of secondary sources.
HeinOnline Law Journal Library Database of full text, PDF law review articles; use advanced search to search by topic or search specific titles. HeinOnline is the most comprehensive law review articles database, as coverage begins with the first issue of each journal.
LexisNexis U.S. Law Reviews and Journals, Combined Combined full text database of United States Law Reviews and Bar Journals. Coverage begins in 1982; regular updates as received from publishers. Lexis also contains databases for Canadian law reviews articles and law review articles by jurisdiction and topic.
Westlaw Journals & Law Reviews Journals and Law Reviews contains full text documents from law reviews and CLE materials from U.S. and Canadian based publications. Coverage varies by publication with most going back to the 1980s or 1990s.

Indexes to law reviews and journals

These resources only index articles, usually by author, title, keywords, and subject; you will have to find the full text separately. However, they provide additional ways of searching, including taking advantage of subject indexing by expert librarians, and they enable finding material that may not be found in full text databases. In most cases, there will be a link to find the article you desire at Harvard. If we do not own the journal in question, you may request the article via interlibrary loan .

Current Index to Legal Periodicals A weekly publication by the University of Washington Library, CILP indexes the most recent law review and journal publications by subject as well as provides the tables of contents of the journals indexed. Also available on Westlaw and in print in the reference room at K 33 .C86.
Index to Foreign Legal Periodicals IFLP indexes legal literature worldwide, covering all forms of foreign law, including comparative law and legal systems, such as Islamic law; socialist law; public and private international law; and transnational commercial law. Although Anglo-American law is not covered, British and American publications concerning foreign law are included. IFLP includes journal articles, congress reports, essay collections, yearbooks and book reviews in all languages. Coverage begins in 1985.
Index to Legal Periodicals, Retrospective (1908 - 1981) This retrospective database indexes over 750 legal periodicals published in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. Annual surveys of the laws of a jurisdiction, annual surveys of the federal courts, yearbooks, annual institutes, and annual reviews of the work in a given field or on a given topic will also be covered.
Index to Legal Periodicals and Books (1981 - ) ILP indexes articles in over 800 legal periodicals such as law reviews, bar association journals, yearbooks, institutes, and government publications from August 1981 to the present. In 1994, ILP began indexing legal books and now indexes approximately 2,000 per year. ILP can be searched simultaneously with ILP Retrospective (see next link) through the open database selection area link.

Restricted Access: HarvardKey or Harvard ID and PIN required

Index to Canadian Legal Literature (Westlaw) ICLL is a periodical index and bibliography of Canadian legal literature from 1985 to present. ICLL indexes monographs, essays, federal and provincial government publications, publications of law faculties and legal research institutes and associations, including theses, publications from the law societies and associations, legal education materials, and more. Also available in print in the reference room at KE 1 .I532 2001
Nineteenth Century Masterfile Jones & Chipman's Index to Legal Periodical Literature covers the content of about 235 British legal periodicals and 67 Law Report titles from 1786-1937. Jones & Chipman is available as part of 19th Century Masterfile, a collection of indexes covering 19th century periodicals and newspapers. Also available in print in the Library at Reference K 33 .I53. more... less... Help Searching
Legal Journals Index (Westlaw) Legal Journals Index provides citations to articles in over 450 legal journals published in the United Kingdom and other European countries from 1986 to the present. The index covers topics pertaining to the laws of the European Union and its member states. Citations include abstracts and links to the full-text of the article and referenced cases when available. Also available in print in the reference room at KD 59 .L44.

Working Paper Repositories

Working papers are an additional source of secondary analysis. They are frequently draft or pre-publication versions of law review articles, though you will also find published versions of articles in these databases. When citing or relying on a draft paper, be sure to carefully check its citations and request the author's permission before citing.

SSRN Legal Scholarship Network Contains both published and working papers by law faculty, as well as scholars working in the fields of accounting, economics, financial economics, and management. Search by author and by title and abstract keywords. Most papers are available for download in pdf format.
BePress Legal Repository Contains approximately 3000 articles and papers by law faculty.

How to Cite Law Review and Journal Articles

See Bluebook Rule 16.

Quick example: Paul Butler et. al., Race, Law and Justice: The Rehnquist Court and the American Dilemma, 45 Am. U. L. REV. 567, 569 (1996).

Intro to ALR

American Law Reports (frequently abbreviated and referred to as ALR) contains in-depth articles on narrow topics of the law. ALR articles, called annotations, provide background, analysis, and citations to relevant cases, statutes, law review articles, and other annotations .

ALR is published in series:

two series under its original title Lawyers Reports Annotated
eight ALR series, one through six
two federal series

ALR annotations are not jurisdiction specific. Each annotation contains a Table of Jurisdictions to help you find relevant cases within specific states. In the federal series, the Table of Jurisdictions directs you to cases by circuit.

All ALR series continue to be updated, though not on a regular schedule. When using the set in print, always check the pocket parts for updates. ALR is also available in both Lexis and Westlaw, and the electronic versions incorporate updates into the text. ALR annotations can also be completely superceded by more recent annotations. Electronic versions will provide referrals to the superceding annotations, but in print, you should check the History Table at the end of the ALR Index to verify that your annotation has not been superceded.

Find relevant annotations by using the print indices or searching the ALR databases in Lexis or Westlaw. When using ALR electronically, it is most efficient to look for your terms in the titles of the annotations, since their titles are specific, and reflect their contents.

Finding ALR in print and online

ALR on Westlaw Contains the full text of the annotations included in the First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Federal, and Federal Second series of American Law Reports (ALR) and the Index to Annotations covering these series. Because West publishes ALR, this is the most comprehensive electronic version.

The ALR Index is located in the Reading Room at KF 132.2.I53. It covers annotations written since 1948.
The ALR Quick Index is located in the Reading Room at KF 132.6.A543. It covers major annotations from the ALR 3d series to the present.

How to Cite ALR Annotations

See Bluebook Rule 16.6.6

William B. Johnson, Annotation, Use of Plea Bargain or Grant of Immunity as Improper Vouching for Credibility of Witness in Federal Cases, 76 A.L.R. FED. 409 (1986).

Intro to Restatements

Restatements are highly regarded distillations of common law . They are prepared by the American Law Institute (ALI), a prestigious organization comprising judges, professors, and lawyers. The ALI's aim is to distill the "black letter law" from cases to indicate trends in common law, and occasionally to recommend what a rule of law should be. In essence, they restate existing common law into a series of principles or rules.

Restatements cover broad topics, such as Contracts or Property. They are organized into chapters, titles, and sections. Sections contain a concisely stated rule of law, comments to clarify the rule, hypothetical examples, explanation of purpose, as well as exceptions to the rule.

Restatements are not primary law. Due to the prestige of the ALI and its painstaking drafting process, however, they are considered persuasive authority by many courts. The most heavily cited Restatements are the Restatement of Torts and the Restatement of Contracts.

The ALI web site contains information regarding Restatement projects, ALI membership, history and institutional processes.

Finding Cases Discussing Restatements

Annotations of cases citing a Restatement section can be found in the Appendix volumes the Restatements in print. There may be one or many Appendix volumes. They are organized by Restatement series, (i.e. citations to the first Restatement, then second, etc.), then by section number. Appendices are not cumulative. The spines indicate sections and years covered. They are updated with pocket parts, cumulative annual supplements, and semiannual pamphlets called Interim Case Citations. The same case annotations are available when using the Restatements on LexisNexis or Westlaw.

You can Shepardize a Restatement section on LexisNexis using the following formats. Note that Bluebook citation format for Restatements, or permutations thereof, will not work.

torts second sec. 46
property second (donative transfers) sec 25.9
conflict of laws second sec. 6
contracts second sec. 35 cmt. d illus. 7

You can also KeyCite a Restatement section on Westlaw using the following formats. Note that KeyCite finds significantly more citing material than Shepard's for Restatements. (See the KeyCite Publications List for additional help with citation format.)

rest agen s 1
rest 2d contr s 3
rest 2d prop-lt s 1.1
rest 3d trusts-pir s 170

Current Restatements

Listed below are print editions of the Restatements and their locations in the library. Restatements are also available on both Lexis and Westlaw:

Restatements on LexisNexis Rules (along with comments, illustrations, and notes) are searchable in separate sources from case citations. This makes searching for relevant rules very efficient on LexisNexis. Case citations are linked from individual rules. Browse tables of contents or search by keyword. Restatement drafts are in separate sources from final versions of Restatements. The first series of Restatements is not available on LexisNexis.

Retreiving Restatement sections using Get a Document is not intuitive. Search for restatement in the Get a Document Citation Formats list to determine the proper format.

Restatements on Westlaw All series of Restatements are available on Westlaw. Browse tables of contents or search by keyword. Searching the Restatements on Westlaw can be problematic, because multiple series as well as selected drafts are combined into one database along with case citations to all of them, e.g. Torts first, second, and the topic-specialized Torts third series along with citations to all series are in one database. This can make keyword searching inefficient unless you use a fielded search or use the Table of Contents mode to search within a particular Restatement. Examine your search results carefully to ensure you are looking at the current version of a rule. If a rule has been superceded, there will be note above the rule text indicating this.

Retrieving Restatement sections using Find is somewhat intuitive. The format mimics the database ID. See the listed format for KeyCite below; they will also work for Find. For a complete list of Restatement retrieval formats, search the Find Publications List for restatement.

Agency 2d Reading Room KF 1345 .A764
Agency 3d Reading Room KF 1345 .A764
Conflict of Laws 2d Reading Room KF 411 .A453
Contracts 2d Reading Room KF 801 .R47
Foreign Relations Law of the United States 3d Reading Room KF 4651 .A748x
Judgments 2d Reading Room KF 8990 .R48
Law Governing Lawyers 3d Reading Room KF 300 .R47
Property Reading Room KF 570 .A73
Property, Donative Transfers 2d Reading Room KF 613 .R47
Property, Landlord and Tenant 2d Reading Room KF 590 .A84
Property, Mortgages 3d Reading Room KF 695 .R49
Property, Servitudes 3d Reading Room KF 656 .R475x
Property, Wills and Other Donative Transfers 3rd Reading Room KF613 .R479x
Restitution: Quasi Contracts & Constructive Trusts Reading Room KF 1244 .R46x
Security Reading Room KF 1050 .A745
Suretyship and Guaranty 3d Reading Room KF 1045 .R463x
Torts 2d Reading Room KF 1249 .A4 R47
Torts, Apportionment of Liability 3d Reading Room KF 1249 .A4 R4774x
Torts, Liability for Physical and Emotional Harm 3d Reading Room KF1286 .R473x
Torts, Products Liability 3d Reading Room KF 1296 .R476x
Trusts 2d Reading Room KF 730 .A8
Trusts 3d Reading Room KF 730 .R4763x
Trusts, Prudent Investor Rule 3d Reading Room KF 730 .R4725
Unfair Competition 3d Reading Room KF 3195 .R475x

Restatements in Draft Status

For more information about the drafting process, see the Restatements Drafts sub-tab.

Employment Law 3d (discussion draft) Reading Room KF3319 .R473x
Restitution and Unjust Enrichment 3d (tentative draft) Reading Room KF 1244 .R463x
Torts, Economic Torts and Related Wrongs 3d This project began in 2010; there are no drafts yet.
U.S. Law of International Commercial Arbitration 3d

How to Cite Restatements

See Bluebook Rule 12.8.5

RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF PROP.: DONATIVE TRANSFERS § 2 (2000).

Liability for Economic Harm (tentative draft) (Torts 3d)

The Drafting Process

For a short overview of the drafting process for a Restatement, see How the ALI Works .

Parties Involved

ALI Officers: a group of approximately ten, including the Chair of the Council, President, Vice Presidents, Treasurer, Director, and Deputy Directors
ALI Council: an elected, standing group of approximately sixty judges, professors, and lawyers
Reporter: Head of the Restatement project appointed by the ALI Officers and Council, responsible for drafting the language of the Restatement
Advisers: Group of professors and lawyers (usually 12-30 for a Restatement) with subject expertise appointed to advise the Reporter
Members Consultative Group: Groups of ALI members (usually 50-75 for a Restatement) interested in the topic of a Restatement who wish to offer input
ALI Membership: a approximately 3000 ALI members who discuss and ocasionally vote on Restatement language at annual meetings; membership gives input only near the end stages of the drafting process

Drafting Process

The following process typically takes between 9 and 21 years:

A Reporter is appointed by the Council
The Reporter divides the project into parts that go through the following process separately:
The Reporter writes a preliminary draft
The Preliminary draft is sent to the Advisers and the Members Consultative Group
The Advisers and Members Consultative Group recommend revisions
The Reporter, at his/her discretion, makes the revisions
The draft goes back and forth between the Advisers and the Reporter and a series of revised preliminary drafts are made
The Reporter and Advisers send a council draft to the Council of the Institute
The Council suggests revisions
The Reporter is somewhat obliged to make the suggested revisions
The draft goes back and forth between the Advisors and the Council and a series of council drafts are made
The Council presents a tentative draft to the ALI membership
The draft goes back and forth between the Council and the Membership and a series of tentative drafts are made
Issues surrounding the draft settle and a proposed final draft is usually created
The proposed final draft (or last tentative draft) is submitted to the ALI Membership at the annual meeting
The Membership and the Council approve the proposed final draft
The Restatement is adopted and promulgated and the official text of the Restatement is published

Other ALI-authored works, such as Uniform Commercial Code articles, are created in a similar process. If you want assistance locating materials relating to non-Restatement ALI projects, please ask a research librarian .

TRACING THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RESTATEMENT SECTIONS

Legal researchers sometimes need to trace the historical development of a Restatement section, the impetus for its inclusion, which section of a prior Restatement it derived from, or how it came to be worded a certain way.

For many sections, Reporter's notes explain the development of a section, often explaining earlier versions and citations to cases that were used as the basis for the rule. Reporters notes can be found in the Appendix volumes of individual Restatements.

To trace how the text changed during the drafting process, you can compare various drafts: the tentative drafts, council drafts, preliminary drafts and proposed final drafts. Each draft has its own record in the library catalog. Use the Title Keywords search in Hollis Classic --for example, search restatement torts --to locate them. Drafts are also available in the microform set Archive Publications described below.

Some Restatement volumes contain conversion tables. These tables indicate where sections of drafts or sections from earlier series were included in the final, adopted version of a Restatement.

Although some Restatements are designated 2d or 3d, there are not always antecedents. For instance, the Restatement of the Law Governing Lawyers is a Restatement of the Law Third, but there has never been a first or second Restatement of the Law Governing Lawyers.

The Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Law Institute Available online from 1997 Available on Westlaw from 2000 For additional and older material, see: Reading Room KF 294 .A5 A3 Microform Room Drawer 812 An excellent research tool for those tracing the development of a Restatement section. The ALI has published the Proceedings annually since 1923, except for 1945-1955. The Proceedings contain reports to ALI members, Reporter presentations, transcripts of discussions of drafts, the text of proposed amendments, and include an index of sections discussed. For the years 1945-1955, the Proceedings are only available in the Archive Publications set described below.
The ALI Reporter Available online from 1999 Reading Room KF 200 .A455 The ALI's quarterly newsletter contains the latest information about ALI projects, meetings, and members, including reports on actions taken on drafts and the full text of chapters approved for discussion at the annual meeting with revisions explained.
Archive Publications Microfilm Room KF 294.A5 A43, Drawers 963-965 A microfiche set containing the text of of Restatements, all drafts, and ALI Proceedings from annual meetings for the years that were not officially published, 1945-55. It also contains drafts of four Restatement projects that were terminated before completion. The set is arranged by Restatement, by section, and chronologically. Coverage starts with the founding of the ALI in 1923. All drafts produced for ALI projects are added to this set a few years after the project is completed or terminated. There is a print guide to this microfiche collection in the Microform Room at KF 294 .A5 A43.
American Law Institute Archives Finally, there is a well-indexed, comprehensive collection of the American Law Institute Archives at the Biddle Law Library of the University of Pennsylvania. The archive contains drafts, comments, and correspondence related to ALI projects.

Determining the Current Status of Restatement Drafts

The American Law Institute is continually working on Restatements and other projects. Researchers are often interested in determining whether a Restatement has become final, or what stage the drafting process has reached. The following tools can help answer those questions, as well as provide a history of the development of ALI projects.

ALI Catalog of Publications The catalog contains information about draft content and authorship. It mentions which portions of Restatements are superceded or in development.
Annual Report of the ALI Director The Annual Report summarizes work contemplated, underway, and completed during the year on various Restatements. Available online from 1999. Reports 1988-1998, are available in the Reading Room KF 294 .A5 A14 .
Proceedings of ALI Annual Meetings The Proceedings contain proposed amendments, an index of sections discussed, and records of discussions. Meetings take place in May and the Proceedings are usually available by March or April of the following year. Available online from 1997 Available on Westlaw from 2000 For additional and older material, see: Reading Room KF 294 .A5 A3 Microform Room Drawer 812

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What is the Difference Between a Primary and Secondary Source?

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Gathering research requires putting together evidence and information from a variety of sources. Citing sources shows readers how a writer has researched and formed conclusions. Sources provide historical context and allow scholars to extend credit to other researchers’ and ideas.

In academic research, whether it’s in the social sciences, humanities, or natural sciences, it’s important to distinguish between the types of sources used. From creating a convincing argument that informs the reader that an author is reporting firsthand impressions, to relaying the experiences and opinions of others, both primary and secondary sources are essential to creating novel, interesting, and effective academic research and writing.

When writers use primary sources, they are using raw information and firsthand evidence such as interview transcripts, memoirs, statistical data, and works of art. Secondary sources , on the other hand, constitute secondhand information and commentary made by other researchers. Secondary sources include journal articles, reviews, and academic books.

What is a Primary Source?

A primary source is an original material created at the time a historical event occurs, or soon afterward, and can be original documents, creative works, material published in modern times, institutional and government documents, or relics and artifacts. Authors citing primary sources relay the subjective interpretation of a witness to an event, which allows historians to use the materials to interpret and analyze the past.

Diaries, letters, memoirs, personal journals, speeches, manuscripts, direct interviews, and other unpublished works can be primary sources and typically serve as the main objects of an analysis or research work. Published pieces, including newspaper or magazine articles, photographs, audio or video recordings, research reports in the natural or social sciences, or original literary or theatrical works are all considered primary sources.

An example of how a primary source is used includes the collection of research associated with the spread of a particular disease and the use of source material that may include medical statistical data, interviews with medical experts and patients, and laboratory results. In cases of research related to historical events, an author may not be able to access direct evidence because the people associated with the event may no longer be alive, but sources produced by witnesses at that time may be used. This includes photographs, video footage, letters, diary entries, and newspaper reports at the time of the event.

What is a Secondary Source?

Secondary sources are created by someone who did not experience firsthand or participate in the events or conditions being researched. Secondary sources are used to interpret and analyze primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event and may contain pictures, quotes, or graphics of primary sources. They are used to interpret, assign value to, conjecture upon, and draw conclusions about the events reported in primary sources. Textbooks, edited works, books, and articles that interpret or review research works, histories, biographies, literary criticism and interpretation, reviews of law and legislation, political analyses, and commentaries are all examples of secondary sources.

Authors of research studies cite secondary sources to support arguments, formulate new theories, or argue against existing information in the field. Using secondary sources, researchers reinforce theories or arguments based on primary sources.

Differences Between a Primary and Secondary Source

Primary and secondary sources are the two types of materials used for research, and while both are important to creating well-developed projects, they are vastly different. Primary sources offer raw information, or the first-hand evidence compiled by research, whereas secondary sources interpret or analyze the information from primary sources.

The most significant difference between two different types of sources is that primary sources gives direct access to the subject of the research, while secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers.

Secondary sources offer summaries, critiques, opinions, and analyses, and are written by people who did not witness or have a direct part in the event or events they are describing. Based on the accounts of primary sources, this type of source is the author’s interpretation of the event or subject matter they are writing about.

Information

The information gathered using primary sources offers direct, first-hand information, while secondary sources relay other peoples’ interpretation of the event. Information based on primary source material gives readers direct access to the subject of the research, while secondary sources provide commentary from other researchers.

Objectivity

On occasion, primary sources can be both subjective and personal because an individual’s firsthand account is based on the views and opinions formed from the experience.

Secondary sources are typically objective and gives the reader the opportunity to evaluate a source by purpose and objectivity by asking questions such as if the information provided is biased, or whether the purpose of the research is to inform, teach, sell, entertain, provide public services, or persuade.

As a firsthand or contemporary account of an event or topic, a primary source has not been modified by interpretation and offers an original thought or new information. Primary sources function as the main object of analysis in a research study, whereas secondary resources are used to describe, interpret, generalize, or synthesize primary sources. Secondary sources help readers understand second-hand information and commentary and can detail how and why a historical event occurred.

Primary or Secondary Source?

Determining if a document or research project uses primary or secondary sources isn’t always easily discernible based on the publication it’s found in. Newspaper and magazine articles are usually considered secondary sources. However, if a story in a newspaper describes a war through an eyewitness account, then it would be a primary source.

To use sources efficiently and in the correct manner, it’s important to identify the background of each source and the reason for including it in an author’s work. This helps researchers distinguish between their contribution and the argument expressed by the sources used. Helpful questions a writer may ask when citing primary or secondary sources include:

How does the author know these details (names, dates, times)?
Was the author present at the event or soon on the scene?
Where does this information come from—personal experience, eyewitness accounts, or reports written by others?
Are the author's conclusions based on a single piece of evidence, or have many sources been taken into account (e.g., diary entries, third-party eyewitness accounts, impressions of contemporaries, and newspaper accounts)?

All source materials used should be assessed critically, as even the most ethical and thorough work is viewed through the eyes of the writer or interpreter.

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Secondary Sources in Research

Other Academics' Observations on Primary Sources

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In contrast to primary sources in research activities, secondary sources consist of information that has been gathered and often interpreted by other researchers and recorded in books, articles, and other publications.

In her "Handbook of Research Methods , " Natalie L. Sproull points out that secondary sources "are not necessarily worse than primary sources and can be quite valuable. A secondary source may include more information about more aspects of the event than did a primary source ."

Most often though, secondary sources act as a way to keep up with or discuss progress in a field of study, wherein a writer may use another's observations on a topic to summarize his or her own viewpoints on the matter to progress the discourse further.

The Difference Between Primary and Secondary Data

In the hierarchy of the relevance of the evidence to an argument, primary sources like original documents and first-hand accounts of events provide the strongest support to any given claim. By contrast, secondary sources provide a type of back-up to their primary counterparts.

To help explain this difference, Ruth Finnegan distinguishes primary sources as forming the "basic and original material for providing the researcher's raw evidence" in her 2006 article "Using Documents." Secondary sources, while still highly useful, are written by someone else after an event or about a document and can therefore only serve the purpose of furthering an argument if the source has credibility in the field.

Some, therefore, argue that secondary data is neither better nor worse than primary sources—it's simply different. Scot Ober discusses this concept in "Fundamentals of Contemporary Business Communication," saying "the source of the data is not as important as its quality and its relevance for your particular purpose."

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

Secondary sources also provide advantages unique from primary sources, but Ober posits that the major ones are economic saying that "using secondary data is less costly and time-consuming than collecting primary data."

Still, secondary sources can also provide hindsight to historical events, providing the context and missing pieces of narratives by relating each event to others happening nearby at the same time. In terms of evaluations of documents and texts, secondary sources offer unique perspectives like historians have on the impact of bills such as the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution.

However, Ober warns researchers that secondary sources also come with their fair share of disadvantages including quality and scarcity of sufficient secondary data, going so far as to say "never use any data before you have evaluated its appropriateness for the intended purpose."

A researcher must, therefore, vet the qualifications of the secondary source as it relates to the topic—for instance, a plumber writing an article about grammar may not be the most credible resource, whereas an English teacher would be more qualified to comment on the subject.

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Reference management. Clean and simple.

What is a secondary source?

How do I know if my material is a secondary source?

How do i find secondary sources, why do i need secondary sources, do i need to cite secondary sources, frequently asked questions about secondary sources, related articles.

Secondary sources are sources that describe an event but did not originate in the time period they describe. They were created by someone based on firsthand accounts. They are the second time the event has been described or depicted. In most cases, secondary sources are books or scholarly articles.

➡️ What is a primary source?

If your point of reference is a book, an article, or an overview of an event, the chances are that it is a secondary source. These texts will have a bibliography and a list of references. This bibliography will include the works that inspired the research, or were quoted within the text itself. Examples of secondary sources are:

An overview of an event written by someone who did not witness the event
Reviews of books/pieces of art
A commentary
Encyclopedias

These guides can provide more clarification on secondary sources and cases where things are not 100% clear:

➡️ Is an Encyclopedia a primary or secondary source?

➡️ Is a documentary a secondary source?

➡️ Is a textbook a secondary source?

Secondary sources are a lot easier to come by than primary sources. Secondary sources will help you find introductory information about your research. Encyclopaedia entries are secondary sources, and so are commentaries, reviews, and criticisms.

Any material which summarizes research undertaken by someone else is a secondary source. A project you complete, if consulted by someone else and used in their research, is a secondary source.

Secondary sources will provide you with different ideas and standpoints about the subject you are researching. Each text will have its own bias and will look at the subject from a different angle, so by reading secondary sources you are engaging with multiple interpretations of the same event.

This broad reading gives you a solid foundation to analyze the event/text/object while acknowledging the bias and outlook of research professionals. By engaging in the reading of secondary sources, you are also backing up your arguments with the support of well-known experts in the field. Without reading secondary sources, you cannot be sure if your argument is valid, or if you are plagiarizing.

Yes! Without a shadow of a doubt, yes. Secondary sources are written by people who are arguing for or against the point you are making. You also need to reference where you got your ideas and quotes from. If you are paraphrasing, you need to reference where you are paraphrasing from.

If you do not cite your secondary sources, you are plagiarizing. Plagiarism is completely unacceptable. It is an act of fraud because you are stealing someone else’s idea and pretending it is yours. In some countries, plagiarism is illegal if/when it violates copyright.

How you cite your secondary sources depends on the requirements of your publication/university, but what is important is that you make sure you cite everything correctly. This includes not only the author and title of the text, but also the issue or edition of the book/article, the page number, publisher, and in the case of websites, the date you accessed the information.

Tip: You’ll find more information about citation requirements in the style guide of the system you are required to use.

A documentary can either be a secondary or a tertiary source. It is a secondary source if it analyses different types of sources and a tertiary source if it only repackages information and doesn't provide interpretations or opinions. Take a look at Is a documentary a secondary source? for more insight on the topic.

It depends. A textbook can either be a secondary or tertiary source and, in seldom cases, a primary source. Take a look at Is a textbook a secondary source? for more insight on the topic.

Secondary source data is time-saving and cost-efficient, as the data was collected by someone other than the researcher. In other words, the work is already done by someone else, and you can use this to your advantage.

No, an encyclopedia is a tertiary source. Take a look at Is an encyclopedia a primary source? for more insight on the topic.

Some examples of secondary sources are: Biographies, histories, reviews, literary criticism, discussions of importance, analysis of clinical trials, and reviews of results.

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Primary Sources

Original materials that provide direct evidence or first-hand testimony concerning a topic or event.
Primary sources can be contemporary sources created at the time when the event occurred (e.g., letters and newspaper articles) or later (e.g., memoirs and oral history interviews).
Primary sources may be published or unpublished. Unpublished sources are unique materials (e.g., family papers) often referred to as archives and manuscripts.
What constitutes a primary source varies by discipline. How the researcher uses the source generally determines whether it is a primary source or not.

Secondary Sources

Works that interpret, analyze, and discuss the evidence provided by primary sources (e.g., scholarly books and articles).
Secondary sources are generally a second-hand account or observation at least one step removed from the event.
Secondary sources, however, can be considered to be primary sources depending on the context of their use. For example, Ken Burns' documentary of the Civil War is a secondary source for Civil War researchers, but a primary source for those studying documentary filmmaking.

Library Catalogs

Search PittCat to find primary source materials at ULS libraries.
Search WorldCat to find collections at thousands of libraries worldwide. Use the Advanced Search feature to limit by format or publication date.

Finding Aids

A finding aid is "a description of records that gives the repository physical and intellectual control over the materials and that assists users to gain access to and understand the materials." Source: Richard Pearce-Moses. Glossary of Archival and Records Terminology. Chicago: The Society of American Archivists, 2005.

Use finding aids to locate processed archival collections in archives, libraries, and museums. Finding aids are increasingly available online and freely accessible.

Search Guides to Archives and Manuscript Collections at the University of Pittsburgh Library System to learn what's available at Pitt's Archives Services Center and Special Collections

Reference & Other Print Sources

Make use of the many excellent print resources that are available to find primary source materials. These include:

Bibliographies
Film, Literature, and Periodical Indexes
Biographical Resources
Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Handbooks
Secondary Sources (search the text, footnotes, and bibliographies for references to primary sources used)

Internet Search Engines

Use the Internet to find primary source materials by adding primary source specific terms (see Searching PittCat ) to a Search Engine search. For example, "Civil War + Pennsylvania soldiers + diaries."
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What is secondary analysis? A comprehensive overview

Last updated

16 August 2024

Reviewed by

Miroslav Damyanov

Within your projects and initiatives, you can leverage secondary analysis, like case studies, census data, or past clinical trials, to accelerate growth and innovation. But there’s more to understand when peeling back this onion.

Building on the idea of leveraging existing work, we’ll provide a comprehensive overview of what secondary analysis really is, including its applications in various fields and its advantages and disadvantages. You’ll also discover the most effective ways to incorporate it into your projects.

What is secondary data analysis?

Secondary analysis is any form of research that relies on or uses previously conducted research for the purposes of a new study. If existing data is cited or previously conducted studies help to achieve a new outcome, it’s secondary analysis.

It happens quite often, especially when researchers use quantitative or qualitative data that has been gathered previously and analyze it in a new way. The secondary data in these instances is often published or made available publicly with permission to cite and use it

Why is secondary data analysis important?

Secondary data analysis is important for innovation. It can serve as a historical reference to studies of yesterday.

This kind of previously summarized data, usually written by other parties, can be great for reaffirming a similar result or finding you may have. It’s also where you can find commentary or analysis of the steps taken before you’re on the scene.

Secondary analysis is important because it can accelerate your research by providing reliable springboards from previous research. This allows you to pick up where someone else left off in the field.

Imagine you’re studying a local population or community demographic. In this case, turning to the latest census data will be more useful than conducting your own headcount. Even simpler: if you’re making a cake from scratch, it’s a good thing you don’t have to churn your own butter to complete the recipe. You get the idea. But there’s more to secondary analysis than just census and cake.

Types of secondary research

Imagine all the libraries of studies and the internet’s access to peer reviews, case studies, statistics, and data. Think about how much data is out there. A lot! However, it won’t all be useful in your studies or projects. This is why it’s best to understand the categories and types of secondary research. From there, you can narrow your focus to the data and research that best applies to your work.

Statistical analysis

A collection of thousands of data points is combined with the intention of discovering new insights. And those statistics are applied to every corner of business, government, health, and science.

This type of secondary analysis is great for drawing new insights, testing new hypotheses, and validating new findings. We rely on statistics to help us identify areas of improvement and avoid mistakes every day.

Literature reviews

Think of these as published pieces of information within a particular segment or subject area.

The primary purpose of any literature review is to provide a multifaceted and comprehensive overview of current knowledge, identify gaps, and establish a theoretical framework for further research.

Sometimes, literature reviews are part of a topic within a specific time period. Researchers can present them as an in-depth analysis or just a simple source summary.

Case studies

Case studies are more in-depth analyses of a person, group, or specific event.

In secondary research, you’ll look for existing case study reports, published papers, and documented instances to gather and analyze data. These studies can provide comprehensive insights into specific phenomena, processes, or practices.

Nearly every aspect of the topic is explored, highlighting challenges, solutions, how those solutions are applied, and final outcomes. They can prove or disprove a theory but typically serve as a demonstrative piece of evidence or analysis.

Content analysis

Content analysis is, as it sounds, the study of certain phrases, words, or themes within a body of qualitative data.

This type of secondary analysis provides context so you can analyze particular relationships between words, meanings, or concepts. It’s a type of secondary research that involves examining and interpreting pre-existing material to uncover patterns, trends, and insights.

Advantages of conducting secondary data analysis

Starting your research from an advanced position of knowledge gives you an advantage. Secondary data analysis presents many benefits, regardless of the topic or information you’re exploring.

Cost-effectiveness

Secondary analytics are cost-effective. Since studies and data already exist, you don’t have to repeat certain tests or steps, alleviating costs without compromising your findings. You’ll gain access to high-level data that might be too cost-prohibitive to perform independently.

It can also be cost-saving in exploratory research. It’s helpful to gain valuable preliminary or exploratory research first to refine your hypothesis before committing to primary data collection.

Time-saving

Someone else may have already invested in the study, producing findings and data you can readily use within your research and saving you time.

Being able to access large datasets, which are typically extensive and robust, provides researchers with a wealth of information that would otherwise be too time-consuming or difficult to gather independently.

Ability to answer additional research questions

Within the scope of your project or research, there will be questions you can’t answer first-hand. Using secondary analysis allows you to answer those additional research questions using pre-existing findings or results.

You can also analyze old longitudinal data and still find new trends, theories, or applications. Enabling longitudinal studies can also help you track changes and trends over time.

Disadvantages of secondary data analysis

You can’t run your business and projects entirely by piggybacking on secondary data alone. There are some disadvantages to relying solely on analysis that has already been published.

Data quality concerns

You weren’t “there.” You weren’t part of the study or model behind the secondary analysis, so there’s a risk that mistakes were present or findings weren’t entirely accurate. You’ll need to verify that the sources aren’t citing outdated information or presenting original data with bias.

Relevance is another potential issue. Some data might be outdated or not reflective of current conditions, especially in rapidly changing fields or industries. These concerns about data quality could be problematic for your new research project or objective.

Data accessibility

Access to certain secondary data sources may be restricted, require payment, or come with usage limitations. Statista and Deloitte, for example, provide high-quality reports, but some are only accessible after payment.

Also, some academic articles may require a subscription or an account affiliated with a higher education institution.

Need to de-identify information

When you incorporate secondary analysis into your project, you’ll need to remove identifiers from the original source. For example, de-identified patient data won’t have specifics about the patient’s personal information.

How to carry out secondary data analysis

Follow this simple roadmap for carrying out your own secondary analysis study.

1. Identify and define the research topic

The first step is recognizing the goal of the project or question you’re attempting to answer. Define your research topic in a way that provides clarity for the datasets you’ll need to collect.

2. Find research and existing data sources

Consider which data sources exist that might present the findings you need to help answer your question.

Start digging through reputable sources within relevant timelines to explore what data already exists. These might include academic databases, government records, organizational reports, and online repositories.

3. Begin searching and collecting the existing data

With an idea of what types of secondary analysis will offer the best data for your project, start searching for relevant studies and collect those that might help. Collect several sets of metrics and analyses to inform your analysis.

4. Combine the data and compare the results

When you feel you’ve collected the right studies, you can begin combining your findings and comparing results.

Before you get started, you might have to “clean” the data, handle missing values, or merge datasets from different sources.

Look for trends and common themes or results. Verify if outlier statistics are anomalies or valuable to your study.

5. Analyze your data and explore further

Analyze your collected data through the lens of market research. Look to determine what the data shows, ensure it makes sense, and connect the dots to reach your original goal.

Use appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis methods to examine your data. For you, that might involve descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, or thematic analysis, depending on the nature of the data and your research questions.

Sources of secondary research

With literally thousands of websites and research at your fingertips, you can find relevant secondary research sources practically anywhere. You might also locate research from both internal and external sources.

Internal data

As a company, you can look for internal secondary data to help you reach the answers you’re looking for. Here are some examples:

Historical sales reporting

Website analytics from previous years

Past employee training and testing results

News articles

Internal conversations

Customer databases

Internal communications records

Financial reports

External data

Look outside your company for similar reports other companies may have already executed. Trust industry-specific sources on the web as well as municipal or non-profit studies that may also lend credibility to your work.

Academic journals, public databases, industry reports, trade publications, and government agencies can all be valuable resources for secondary data. Here are some examples:

Springer Nature

Census.gov/data

Demographics Now

Which is better, primary or secondary analysis?

Most of the best innovations and research initiatives are served by both primary and secondary research analysis.

Don’t look at one or the other. Instead, harness both for the most impactful research. Springboard from the work of others and use secondary research to bridge gaps in your efforts. Then, conduct your primary research to deep dive into those arenas, combining both for the most thorough investigation.

What are some use-case examples of secondary analysis?

Secondary analysis is more common than you might realize. You may have used it before without realizing it.

Here are some use case examples of secondary analysis used across business applications, research and development, learning, healthcare, and more.

A grad student expands on an advisor’s research to contribute to a thesis.

A data analyst uses their own data to run additional reports.

A researcher uses new software to further explore historical reporting.

An entrepreneur studies demographic information to create more effective marketing personas.

A school principal uses nationwide studies to inform curriculum development.

A digital marketing specialist uses site metrics to outline areas of improvement for user experiences.

How can you be sure to remove bias from secondary analysis?

As a researcher, be sure to evaluate the data you source to make sure it’s accurate, timely, and reputable. Before applying any secondary analysis, remove bias by answering the following questions about the source:

What was the secondary study’s original purpose?

Who collected the original data? (credentials)

What data was collected and when?

What were the methods used and dataset limitations at the time?

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Do you analyze research data?

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There is unfortunately no single source where you can find a comprehensive collection of all municipal codes. The following is a list of places to check if looking for the codes, ordinances, bylaws, or measures of a specific locality or municipality. Always check any available currency information in the source you're referencing.

Municipal codes may be available on the municipality's website or those of local government leagues or groups.
Georgetown Law Library State Research Guides Many of the Georgetown Law Library state research guides include guidance on where to find municipal codes in a particular state; check under "Local Government" in the left-hand menu.
Lexis: Muncipal Codes Lexis has a collection of select municipal codes by state. Select a state from the menu at the above link to begin. Once on a state's Municipal Codes page, click the plus (+) sign to expand the list of available municipal codes. more... less... Older/Archived Codes available at the "Archived Code Search" link on the right.
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The Law Library of Congress also has a research guide on this topic, Municipal Codes: A Beginner's Guide (navigate using the menu on the left); this guide is particularly helpful if you are looking for older or superseded municipal codes , sample codes and guidance, or related secondary sources.

Local Government Law (2019) ( Reading Room Study Aids KF5300 .R49 2019 & West Study Aid) an in-depth Hornbook that covers such areas as forms of local government, state limitations on local governments, relationship to federal government, municipal powers and legislation, public officers and employees, finances, utilities, property, regulation, contracts and liabilities, urban renewal and public housing.
Understanding Local Government (2009) ( Reading Room Study Aids KF5300 .S74 2009) covers local authority, local regulations, contracts, voting rights, public officials and employees, finances and contracts.
Local Government Law in a Nutshell (2003) (West Study Aid) discusses local governing power, formation of the local government, boundary changes, organization and operation, land use and more.

Treatises and Books

Antieau on Local Government Law offers in-depth analyses of new developments in local laws; organization of local government; relationship with federal, state and other local governments; general local powers; contracts, constitutional, civil rights and tort liability; local judiciary, finances, land use, elections and education; and more.
Local Government Law covers local laws, local regulatory powers, and intergovernmental relationships.
Westlaw's Secondary Sources: Topic Municipal Laws provides a list of all Municipal Law secondary sources -- including treatises -- offered on Westlaw.

To identify books, both in print and electronically, found in the Law Library, conduct an advanced catalog search with Subject is (exact) Local government -- Law and legislation -- United States .

Periodicals

The following periodicals have a primary focus on municipal law practice.

McQuillin Municipal Law Report is a monthly newsletter that covers key state and federal court decisions affecting municipalities.
Urban Lawyer (also found in HeinOnline, Lexis Advance, Westlaw).
Municipal Lawyer is published by the International Municipal Lawyers Association offers in-depth analyses on issues that are of special interest to local government lawyers.
Harvard Law Review: Local Government focuses on recent legislation and cases in local jurisdictions.

Web Resources

Governing: The Future of States and Localities is a service aimed primarily for public leaders that provides news and analyses on states and localities.
<< Previous: Cases & Courts
Next: Ethics >>
© Georgetown University Law Library. These guides may be used for educational purposes, as long as proper credit is given. These guides may not be sold. Any comments, suggestions, or requests to republish or adapt a guide should be submitted using the Research Guides Comments form . Proper credit includes the statement: Written by, or adapted from, Georgetown Law Library (current as of .....).
Last Updated: Aug 16, 2024 4:21 PM
URL: https://guides.ll.georgetown.edu/statelegalresearch

9 Best Marketing Research Methods to Know Your Buyer Better [+ Examples]

Published: August 08, 2024

One of the most underrated skills you can have as a marketer is marketing research — which is great news for this unapologetic cyber sleuth.

marketer using marketer research methods to better understand her buyer personas

From brand design and product development to buyer personas and competitive analysis, I’ve researched a number of initiatives in my decade-long marketing career.

And let me tell you: having the right marketing research methods in your toolbox is a must.

Market research is the secret to crafting a strategy that will truly help you accomplish your goals. The good news is there is no shortage of options.

How to Choose a Marketing Research Method

Thanks to the Internet, we have more marketing research (or market research) methods at our fingertips than ever, but they’re not all created equal. Let’s quickly go over how to choose the right one.

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1. Identify your objective.

What are you researching? Do you need to understand your audience better? How about your competition? Or maybe you want to know more about your customer’s feelings about a specific product.

Before starting your research, take some time to identify precisely what you’re looking for. This could be a goal you want to reach, a problem you need to solve, or a question you need to answer.

For example, an objective may be as foundational as understanding your ideal customer better to create new buyer personas for your marketing agency (pause for flashbacks to my former life).

Or if you’re an organic sode company, it could be trying to learn what flavors people are craving.

2. Determine what type of data and research you need.

Next, determine what data type will best answer the problems or questions you identified. There are primarily two types: qualitative and quantitative. (Sound familiar, right?)

Qualitative Data is non-numerical information, like subjective characteristics, opinions, and feelings. It’s pretty open to interpretation and descriptive, but it’s also harder to measure. This type of data can be collected through interviews, observations, and open-ended questions.
Quantitative Data , on the other hand, is numerical information, such as quantities, sizes, amounts, or percentages. It’s measurable and usually pretty hard to argue with, coming from a reputable source. It can be derived through surveys, experiments, or statistical analysis.

Understanding the differences between qualitative and quantitative data will help you pinpoint which research methods will yield the desired results.

For instance, thinking of our earlier examples, qualitative data would usually be best suited for buyer personas, while quantitative data is more useful for the soda flavors.

However, truth be told, the two really work together.

Qualitative conclusions are usually drawn from quantitative, numerical data. So, you’ll likely need both to get the complete picture of your subject.

For example, if your quantitative data says 70% of people are Team Black and only 30% are Team Green — Shout out to my fellow House of the Dragon fans — your qualitative data will say people support Black more than Green.

(As they should.)

Primary Research vs Secondary Research

You’ll also want to understand the difference between primary and secondary research.

Primary research involves collecting new, original data directly from the source (say, your target market). In other words, it’s information gathered first-hand that wasn’t found elsewhere.

Some examples include conducting experiments, surveys, interviews, observations, or focus groups.

Meanwhile, secondary research is the analysis and interpretation of existing data collected from others. Think of this like what we used to do for school projects: We would read a book, scour the internet, or pull insights from others to work from.

So, which is better?

Personally, I say any research is good research, but if you have the time and resources, primary research is hard to top. With it, you don’t have to worry about your source's credibility or how relevant it is to your specific objective.

You are in full control and best equipped to get the reliable information you need.

3. Put it all together.

Once you know your objective and what kind of data you want, you’re ready to select your marketing research method.

For instance, let’s say you’re a restaurant trying to see how attendees felt about the Speed Dating event you hosted last week.

You shouldn’t run a field experiment or download a third-party report on speed dating events; those would be useless to you. You need to conduct a survey that allows you to ask pointed questions about the event.

This would yield both qualitative and quantitative data you can use to improve and bring together more love birds next time around.

Best Market Research Methods for 2024

Now that you know what you’re looking for in a marketing research method, let’s dive into the best options.

Note: According to HubSpot’s 2024 State of Marketing report, understanding customers and their needs is one of the biggest challenges facing marketers today. The options we discuss are great consumer research methodologies , but they can also be used for other areas.

Primary Research

1. interviews.

Interviews are a form of primary research where you ask people specific questions about a topic or theme. They typically deliver qualitative information.

I’ve conducted many interviews for marketing purposes, but I’ve also done many for journalistic purposes, like this profile on comedian Zarna Garg . There’s no better way to gather candid, open-ended insights in my book, but that doesn’t mean they’re a cure-all.

What I like: Real-time conversations allow you to ask different questions if you’re not getting the information you need. They also push interviewees to respond quickly, which can result in more authentic answers.

What I dislike: They can be time-consuming and harder to measure (read: get quantitative data) unless you ask pointed yes or no questions.

Best for: Creating buyer personas or getting feedback on customer experience, a product, or content.

2. Focus Groups

Focus groups are similar to conducting interviews but on a larger scale.

In marketing and business, this typically means getting a small group together in a room (or Zoom), asking them questions about various topics you are researching. You record and/or observe their responses to then take action.

They are ideal for collecting long-form, open-ended feedback, and subjective opinions.

One well-known focus group you may remember was run by Domino’s Pizza in 2009 .

After poor ratings and dropping over $100 million in revenue, the brand conducted focus groups with real customers to learn where they could have done better.

It was met with comments like “worst excuse for pizza I’ve ever had” and “the crust tastes like cardboard.” But rather than running from the tough love, it took the hit and completely overhauled its recipes.

The team admitted their missteps and returned to the market with better food and a campaign detailing their “Pizza Turn Around.”

The result? The brand won a ton of praise for its willingness to take feedback, efforts to do right by its consumers, and clever campaign. But, most importantly, revenue for Domino’s rose by 14.3% over the previous year.

The brand continues to conduct focus groups and share real footage from them in its promotion:

What I like: Similar to interviewing, you can dig deeper and pivot as needed due to the real-time nature. They’re personal and detailed.

What I dislike: Once again, they can be time-consuming and make it difficult to get quantitative data. There is also a chance some participants may overshadow others.

Best for: Product research or development

Pro tip: Need help planning your focus group? Our free Market Research Kit includes a handy template to start organizing your thoughts in addition to a SWOT Analysis Template, Survey Template, Focus Group Template, Presentation Template, Five Forces Industry Analysis Template, and an instructional guide for all of them. Download yours here now.

3. Surveys or Polls

Surveys are a form of primary research where individuals are asked a collection of questions. It can take many different forms.

They could be in person, over the phone or video call, by email, via an online form, or even on social media. Questions can be also open-ended or closed to deliver qualitative or quantitative information.

A great example of a close-ended survey is HubSpot’s annual State of Marketing .

In the State of Marketing, HubSpot asks marketing professionals from around the world a series of multiple-choice questions to gather data on the state of the marketing industry and to identify trends.

The survey covers various topics related to marketing strategies, tactics, tools, and challenges that marketers face. It aims to provide benchmarks to help you make informed decisions about your marketing.

It also helps us understand where our customers’ heads are so we can better evolve our products to meet their needs.

Apple is no stranger to surveys, either.

In 2011, the tech giant launched Apple Customer Pulse , which it described as “an online community of Apple product users who provide input on a variety of subjects and issues concerning Apple.”

Screenshot of Apple’s Consumer Pulse Website from 2011.

"For example, we did a large voluntary survey of email subscribers and top readers a few years back."

While these readers gave us a long list of topics, formats, or content types they wanted to see, they sometimes engaged more with content types they didn’t select or favor as much on the surveys when we ran follow-up ‘in the wild’ tests, like A/B testing.”

Pepsi saw similar results when it ran its iconic field experiment, “The Pepsi Challenge” for the first time in 1975.

The beverage brand set up tables at malls, beaches, and other public locations and ran a blindfolded taste test. Shoppers were given two cups of soda, one containing Pepsi, the other Coca-Cola (Pepsi’s biggest competitor). They were then asked to taste both and report which they preferred.

People overwhelmingly preferred Pepsi, and the brand has repeated the experiment multiple times over the years to the same results.

What I like: It yields qualitative and quantitative data and can make for engaging marketing content, especially in the digital age.

What I dislike: It can be very time-consuming. And, if you’re not careful, there is a high risk for scientific error.

Best for: Product testing and competitive analysis

Pro tip: " Don’t make critical business decisions off of just one data set," advises Pamela Bump. "Use the survey, competitive intelligence, external data, or even a focus group to give you one layer of ideas or a short-list for improvements or solutions to test. Then gather your own fresh data to test in an experiment or trial and better refine your data-backed strategy."

Secondary Research

8. public domain or third-party research.

While original data is always a plus, there are plenty of external resources you can access online and even at a library when you’re limited on time or resources.

Some reputable resources you can use include:

Pew Research Center
McKinley Global Institute
Relevant Global or Government Organizations (i.e United Nations or NASA)

It’s also smart to turn to reputable organizations that are specific to your industry or field. For instance, if you’re a gardening or landscaping company, you may want to pull statistics from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

If you’re a digital marketing agency, you could look to Google Research or HubSpot Research . (Hey, I know them!)

What I like: You can save time on gathering data and spend more time on analyzing. You can also rest assured the data is from a source you trust.

What I dislike: You may not find data specific to your needs.

Best for: Companies under a time or resource crunch, adding factual support to content

Pro tip: Fellow HubSpotter Iskiev suggests using third-party data to inspire your original research. “Sometimes, I use public third-party data for ideas and inspiration. Once I have written my survey and gotten all my ideas out, I read similar reports from other sources and usually end up with useful additions for my own research.”

9. Buy Research

If the data you need isn’t available publicly and you can’t do your own market research, you can also buy some. There are many reputable analytics companies that offer subscriptions to access their data. Statista is one of my favorites, but there’s also Euromonitor , Mintel , and BCC Research .

What I like: Same as public domain research

What I dislike: You may not find data specific to your needs. It also adds to your expenses.

Best for: Companies under a time or resource crunch or adding factual support to content

Which marketing research method should you use?

You’re not going to like my answer, but “it depends.” The best marketing research method for you will depend on your objective and data needs, but also your budget and timeline.

My advice? Aim for a mix of quantitative and qualitative data. If you can do your own original research, awesome. But if not, don’t beat yourself up. Lean into free or low-cost tools . You could do primary research for qualitative data, then tap public sources for quantitative data. Or perhaps the reverse is best for you.

Whatever your marketing research method mix, take the time to think it through and ensure you’re left with information that will truly help you achieve your goals.

Don't forget to share this post!

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15 Secondary Research Examples (2024)
How Do You Analyse Sources in Academic Writing?: A Useful Guide for
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primary and secondary sources in research methodology pdf
Primary vs Secondary Sources
Primary Vs. Secondary Sources Anchor Chart

COMMENTS

Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews ...
What is a Secondary Source?
For a historical research project, secondary sources are usually scholarly books and articles, but as you can see from this list there are other possibilties. Find Secondary Sources. History of Science, Technology and Medicine (Harvard Login) (1975- ) is an index of books, book chapters, and journal articles. Some social sciences material is ...
What is Secondary Research?
Secondary research can be qualitative or quantitative in nature. It often uses data gathered from published peer-reviewed papers, meta-analyses, or government or private sector databases and datasets. Tip: Primary vs. secondary sources It can be easy to get confused about the difference between primary and secondary sources in your
Secondary Sources
Therefore, the majority of sources in a literature review are secondary sources that present research findings, analysis, and the evaluation of other researcher's works. Reviewing secondary source material can be of value in improving your overall research paper because secondary sources facilitate the communication of what is known about a ...
Secondary Research: Definition, Methods, Sources, Examples, and More
Secondary research involves the analysis and synthesis of existing data and information that has been previously collected and published by others. This method contrasts with , which entails the direct collection of original data from sources like surveys, interviews, and ethnographic studies. The essence of secondary research lies in its ...
Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Sources (+ Examples)
Primary sources include the original raw evidence or data that you collect yourself in a study. For example, interview transcripts or statistical data. Secondary sources include distilled analyses and interpretations of primary data that someone else collected in their study. For example, journal articles and critical analysis pieces.
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
A primary source gives you direct access to the subject of your research. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books. A secondary source describes, interprets, or synthesises primary sources. Primary sources are more credible as evidence ...
Secondary Sources
Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. The important thing to keep in mind when trying to decide if a source is primary or secondary is whether or not the author did the thing they are reporting on. If they did, it is a primary source; if they did not, it is a ...
What Are Secondary Sources?
Such sources are second-hand interpretations of what occurred. Secondary sources, however, can be considered to be primary sources depending on the context of their use. For example, Ken Burns' documentary of the Civil War is a secondary source for Civil War researchers (because it consists of Burns' interpretation of primary source materials ...
Primary Sources
Each academic discipline creates and uses primary and secondary sources differently. The definition of a primary source only makes sense in the context of a specific discipline or field of inquiry. ... actual data or research results (e.g. a scientific article presenting original findings; statistics); or historical documents (e.g. letters ...
What is Secondary Research?
Secondary research is a very common research method, used in lieu of collecting your own primary data. It is often used in research designs or as a way to start your research process if you plan to conduct primary research later on. Since it is often inexpensive or free to access, secondary research is a low-stakes way to determine if further ...
Primary vs. secondary sources: how to distinguish them
Likewise, a secondary source can tell you about current trends in research and analysis, while providing you with a broad overview or summary of an extended period of time, or the works of an artist. Examples of primary and secondary sources. We have put together a list of examples of primary and secondary sources by fields of study.
Primary vs. Secondary
Original research. Datasets, survey data, such as census or economic statistics. Photographs, video, or audio that capture an event. ... Secondary Sources. Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and ...
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
What is a secondary source? Secondary sources analyze primary sources, using primary source materials to answer research questions. Secondary sources may analyze, criticize, interpret, or summarize data from primary sources. The most common secondary resources are books, journal articles, or literature reviews. Secondary sources may also be ...
Primary Vs Secondary Source
A primary source is direct or first-hand evidence about an event, person, object, or work of art, often created during the event. A secondary source interprets, analyses, or summarises information from primary sources, offering a second-hand account or perspective on the original data.
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources
Sources of information or evidence are often categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary material. These classifications are based on the originality of the material and the proximity of the source or origin. This informs the reader as to whether the author is reporting information that is first hand or is conveying the experiences and ...
Types of Sources and Where to Find Them: Secondary Sources
This is the second video in a two-part tutorial on primary and secondary sources. Historians and other scholars classify sources as primary or secondary. Whereas primary sources are considered the raw material of the historical record, and are usually created around the same time as the events they purport to document, secondary sources are ...
Secondary Sources:
Secondary sources are a great place to begin your research. Although the primary sources of law--case law, statutes, and regulations--establish the law on a given topic, it is often difficult to quickly locate answers in them. ... Law review or journal articles are another great secondary source for legal research, valuable for the depth in ...
Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are books, periodicals, web sites, etc. that people write using the information from primary sources. They are not written by eyewitnesses to events, for instance, but use eyewitness accounts, photographs, diaries and other primary sources to reconstruct events or to support a writer's thesis about the events and their meaning.
What Is the Difference Between a Primary and Secondary Source?
The most significant difference between two different types of sources is that primary sources gives direct access to the subject of the research, while secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Secondary sources offer summaries, critiques, opinions, and analyses, and are written by people who did ...
What Are Secondary Sources in Research?
Secondary Sources in Research. In contrast to primary sources in research activities, secondary sources consist of information that has been gathered and often interpreted by other researchers and recorded in books, articles, and other publications. In her "Handbook of Research Methods, " Natalie L. Sproull points out that secondary sources ...
Primary and Secondary Sources
Primary sources are the most important sources when undertaking a research project. We answer the 5 most asked questions about primary sources. What is a secondary source?
What is a secondary source?
Secondary sources are a lot easier to come by than primary sources. Secondary sources will help you find introductory information about your research. Encyclopaedia entries are secondary sources, and so are commentaries, reviews, and criticisms. Any material which summarizes research undertaken by someone else is a secondary source.
Secondary source
In scholarship, a secondary source[ 1][ 2] is a document or recording that relates or discusses information originally presented elsewhere. A secondary source contrasts with a primary, or original, source of the information being discussed. A primary source can be a person with direct knowledge of a situation or it may be a document created by ...
LibGuides: Getting Started with Research: Primary, Secondary Sources
Keene State College - Mason Library 229 Main St. Keene, NH 03435 P: (603) 358-2711
Understanding Primary & Secondary Sources
Secondary sources, however, can be considered to be primary sources depending on the context of their use. For example, Ken Burns' documentary of the Civil War is a secondary source for Civil War researchers, but a primary source for those studying documentary filmmaking.
What Is Secondary Analysis? Overview, Advantages & FAQs
Researchers can present them as an in-depth analysis or just a simple source summary. Case studies. Case studies are more in-depth analyses of a person, group, or specific event. In secondary research, you'll look for existing case study reports, published papers, and documented instances to gather and analyze data.
HIS 100 Primary and Secondary Sources (docx)
Secondary Source o Secondary sources are based off the primary source. o This could be from journal articles, history textbooks, or any other forms of information that can help build off the primary source. Explain why it is important to consult a variety of sources when conducting historical research. Include specific details and examples.
Local Government
Westlaw's Secondary Sources: Topic Municipal Laws provides a list of all Municipal Law secondary sources -- including treatises -- offered on Westlaw. To identify books, both in print and electronically, found in the Law Library, conduct an advanced catalog search with Subject is (exact) Local government -- Law and legislation -- United States.
9 Best Marketing Research Methods to Know Your Buyer Better [+ Examples]
Primary Research vs Secondary Research. You'll also want to understand the difference between primary and secondary research. Primary research involves collecting new, original data directly from the source (say, your target market). In other words, it's information gathered first-hand that wasn't found elsewhere.

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