safety management research topics

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• v.55(3); 2017 May

Occupational safety and health in construction: a review of applications and trends

Fabián alberto suÁrez sÁnchez.

1 Universidad de Nariño, Department of Civil Engineering, Colombia

Gloria Isabel CARVAJAL PELÁEZ

2 Universidad de Medellín, Department of Civil Engineering, Colombia

Joaquín CATALÁ ALÍS

3 Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Department of Construction Engineering and Civil Engineering Projects, España

Due to the high number of accidents that occur in construction and the consequences this has for workers, organizations, society and countries, occupational safety and health (OSH) has become a very important issue for stakeholders to take care of the human resource. For this reason, and in order to know how OSH research in the construction sector has evolved over time, this article–in which articles published in English were studied–presents an analysis of research conducted from 1930 to 2016. The classification of documents was carried out following the Occupational Safety and Health Cycle which is composed of five steps: regulation, education and training, risk assessment, risk prevention, and accident analysis. With the help of tree diagrams we show that evolution takes place. In addition, risk assessment, risk prevention, and accident analysis were the research topics with the highest number of papers. The main objective of the study was to contribute to knowledge of the subject, showing trends through an exploratory study that may serve as a starting point for further research.

Introduction

In most industrialized countries, the construction industry is one of the most significant industries in terms of contribution to gross domestic product (GDP). It also has a significant impact on the health and safety of workers. The construction industry is both economically and socially important 1 ) . In construction, workers perform a great diversity of activities, each one with a specific associated risk. The worker who carries out a task is directly exposed to its associated risks and passively exposed to risks produced by nearby co-workers 2 ) . Building design, materials, dimensions and site conditions are often unique, which requires adaptation and a learning curve from site to site. Injuries may occur in a number of ways and at every juncture of the process 3 ) .

As a result of this situation there is a high frequency of accidents in construction, which makes it an unsafe industry. Degree of safety in this selected sector of the economy is not indicated by a single accident but by a set of accidents that have occurred within a specified time interval. Knowledge about the noticeable trends in accidents is required in order to assess the level of safety and also directions for changes 4 ) .

Occupational safety and health is an area concerned with the development, promotion, and maintenance of the workplace environment, policies and programs that ensure the mental, physical, and emotional well-being of employees, as well as keeping the workplace environment relatively free from actual or potential hazards that could injure employees 5 ) . However, the number of articles regarding OSH in construction was small until fifteen years ago. Since 2001 the number of OSH publications relating to construction has increased. From different perspectives and using different tools researchers have studied occupational hazards in construction. Sousa, Almeida, and Dias 6 ) state that there are several tools and methods to investigate and understand occupational accidents in the construction industry.

In a systematic review of construction safety studies, Zhou et al. 7 ) found that of all the research topics 44.65% were pertinent to safety management process, 20.27% to the impact of individual and group/organizational characteristics, and 33.03% to accident/incident data. The body of research on safety management process involves safety planning, safety monitoring, safety assessment, safety measurement, safety performance etc.

Taking into account the previously stated remarks, the aim of our paper was to review the literature and define current trends in research in occupational safety and health applied to the construction industry. Trends were obtained through chronological evolution. Thus, they can be properly analyzed and further research can be developed from them.

Methodology

Our literature search analyzed only peer-reviewed papers associated with occupational safety and health in construction, because the state-of-the-art of a discipline is defined in these forums; some very relevant articles from conferences were also considered, and the scope of the research was determined by the following parameters:

• – Language: English.
• – Period: from 1930 to 2016
• – Key descriptors: occupational risk; occupational accident; occupational safety; occupational prevention; occupational health; occupational safety and health and construction
• – Databases: Ebsco Host, Science Direct and Scopus. These were selected as sources of information due to their size and the quality of the publications found in them, however for future research other sources may be considered

The first problem needing to be addressed was how to suitably classify all the information. Occupational safety and health is not a homogenous issue; quite the opposite, there are many stakeholders involved. Besides, it can be considered a multi-stage process. This process approach has already been suggested by many authors in risk management, as traditionally applied to project management 8 ) which proposes a similar process based on four stages: identification, analysis, response, and control. Moreover, the OHSAS 18001:2007 Standard 9 ) proposes a cycle based on continuous improvement which comprises of: establish corporate policies, plan, implement and operate, check and correct, review, and improve. These steps are compatible with the ISO 9001:2008 quality management system 10 ) . Finally, Carvajal 11 ) proposed a five-step cycle: regulation, education and training, risk assessment, risk prevention, and accident analysis. A new Occupational Safety and Health Cycle that includes safety climate was developed, adapting the cycle suggested by Carvajal, which is created in phases of education and training, risk assessment and risk prevention ( Fig. 1 ).

Occupational Safety and Health Cycle. Adapted from Carvajal, G. I. (2008). Modelo de cuantificación de riesgos laborales en la construcción: RIES-CO . (Doctoral Thesis). Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, España.

However, a shortcut in this Occupational Safety and Health Cycle could appear if regulations (either from the company or from public agencies) are not analyzed, improved on, or at least implemented; and later, if education and training is not provided.

A company that does not seriously apply an occupational safety and health management system may enter into a spiral of unsafeness, trying to take the easiest way out of the cycle, and making it shorter and shorter each time until a serious accident takes place. In any event, a “culture of construction safety” should be implemented; this is defined 12 , 13 ) as the whole group of knowledge, habits, and behaviors that drive companies to the willing application of safety and health approaches and procedures in the construction industry. This is a good way to achieve a “climate of safety”, which implies a subjective perception and evaluation of safety issues related to the organization, its members, structures and processes, based on experience of the organizational environment and social relationships 14 ) .

For this article, the previous cycle was taken as an example of a logical and continuous process with feedback, which allowed for an analysis of the evolution of research in occupational safety and health in construction. Risk assessment comprises risk identification and analysis, as stated in traditional risk management literature. Likewise, risk prevention consists of response and control. In order to highlight the importance of setting objectives and of organizational learning through time, two previous steps and a final one are added. Regulation is included to emphasize the significance of corporate policies issued by companies on one hand, and laws and standards issued by public agencies on the other. Training and education reflects the impact that the former steps have upon the people involved if some improvement needs to take place. Finally, accident analysis is needed to investigate the cause of accidents; thus, lessons can be learned and other accidents may be avoided in the future - obviously, this step is skipped if no accident occurs.

Articles were analyzed and classified in the Occupational Safety and Health Cycle, according to the suitability of their content according to each of the steps. Nevertheless, our goal was not to develop a bibliometric study, but to define chronological trends in research by using noteworthy articles to display the main milestones. Thus, in our second analysis of the papers, we chose only those significant articles that offered an added-value and could be used as references in a research trend. In this opportunity, the selection was developed by taking several aspects into consideration. Mainly, in order to be chosen, a paper must have enough qualitative references from other papers even if it does have many citations. Besides, we have rated the paper’s degree of importance according to our assessment of the novelty of its ideas and the future influence of this particular manuscript on others. The analysis of the evolution of research was conducted following a logical sequence of ideas in the selected papers.

Bibliographic analysis

In the first search we undertook, 285 articles were selected from 32 journals or proceedings. Papers chosen by journal and by time period are displayed in Table 1 . It can be noted from this table that the number of papers has recently increased: in the period between 2001 and 2010, a total of 129 papers related to OSH in construction were published. This amounts to 45.3% of all articles included. Likewise, in the period between 2011 and 2016, a total of 57 papers were published. Although this period is shorter, it can be observed that the amount of published papers is greater than that of the periods prior to 2001. The Journal of Construction Engineering and Management is the one with the most articles selected, followed by Safety Science and the International Journal of Project Management.

Selected articles are displayed in Table 2 according to topic, showing absolute and relative values. Risk assessment is the most popular topic, appearing in 35.4% of the papers. Accident analysis and risk prevention each get more than 20% of the share.

It is surprising not to find many papers on regulations, either from the company’s point of view (corporate policies) or from public agencies’ point of view (standards and norms). Maybe the reason is that some articles deal not just with regulations, but also with other approaches to occupational safety and health; thus, they are categorized under other steps of the cycle, mainly risk assessment or risk prevention. In our study, we observed how research has influenced the development of laws and regulations by providing new forms and tools for risk assessment and for the implementation of preventive measures at the workplace. The analyzed papers propose measures to assess results achieved and to know whether regulations are being applied and if they are meeting the objectives for which they were created.

It is not so unexpected to discover that education and training get very little attention from researchers. Pietroforte and Stefani 15 ) already found that only 1.8% of the papers published in the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management from 1983 to 2000 were related to education and professional development. Furthermore, in their analysis of trends in project management, Crawford, Pollack, and England 16 ) selected forty-seven topics relevant to the field of project management; none of them was related to education and training. Because so few articles are found for these two steps, no research trends are developed for regulations and for education and training. Safety culture and safety climate are new factors that have also few publications. According to research on occupational safety and health applied to the construction industry, three main topics obtained from our previous bibliographic analysis are described: risk assessment, risk prevention, and accident analysis (which represent 85% of the total), and this paper focuses on those subjects.

Trends in risk assessment

For the topic of risk assessment, the search started with Fine’s seminal article “Mathematical evaluation for controlling hazards” 17 ) , in which a formulation to quantify risks is proposed. It is based on three factors that define risk: probability of the accident happening, personnel exposure to the risk, and consequences of the accident (or severity). From his approach, three basic lines of research were identified: management of occupational safety and health, quantifying occupational risk through modeling, and quantifying risk through probability analysis. They are displayed in Fig. 2 .

Trends in risk assessment.

Al-Bahar and Crandall 18 ) applied traditional risk management approaches to the construction industry to obtain a useful strategic tool for managers. Mohamed 19 ) introduced the influence of management and risk systems at the workplace. Koehn and Datta 20 ) analyzed ISO Standards (9000 for quality, 14000 for environment, and 18000 for safety and health), and proposed an integrated system for construction companies. Sparer and Dennerlein 21 ) created and evaluated different approaches for establishing rewards based on a threshold score, for use in safety incentive programs. Pinto 22 ) introduced safety climate variables within the calculation of the level of risk in a Qualitative Occupational Safety Risk Assessment Model (QRAM).

On the issue of quantifying risk through modeling, Knab 23 ) put forward a mathematical model based on insurance premiums. Whereas Jannadi and Almishari 24 ) developed a computer model based on Fine’s formulation. Mitropoulos and Namboodiri 25 ) developed a technique for measuring the safety risk of construction activities according to the characteristics of the activity and independent of the workers’ capabilities, and Liu and Tsai 26 ) proposed a fuzzy risk assessment method which related hazard types with construction items and hazard causes with hazard types.

On the other hand, Kaplan and Garrick 27 ) followed Fine’s assumptions to calculate the probability factor of his formulation. Using this work as reference, Cuny and Lejeune 28 ) analyzed the severity factor. Then, to solve the problem of uncertain and insufficient statistical data Gürcanli and Müngen 29 ) used fuzzy logic. Bowers 30 ) approached the probability factor by using quantitative data (e.g., historical ratios) or qualitative data (e.g., interviews). Santoso et al. 31 ) identified, analyzed, and categorized potential risk factors in construction.

In summary, three main branches of research were identified: management of occupational safety and health in construction, risk quantification through modeling, and probability applied to risk quantification. From them, twelve active lines of research were highlighted, and a representative paper for each was pointed out.

Trends in risk prevention

Heinrich’s seminal article 32 ) is the starting point of the two other topics: risk prevention and accident analysis. He suggested the concept of risk prevention based on historical accident statistics, and focused on cost reduction due to the adoption of prevention techniques. Fifty years later, Helander 33 ) discussed several interesting issues: high accident ratios, increasing costs due to accidents, lack of research, and inexperience in implementing policies and plans; unfortunately, many of these problems still remain in today’s construction industry. From this line of thought on risk prevention, three main trends were outlined, one concerning business strategy, and the other two regarding the main phases of the project life cycle: design and construction. They are displayed in Fig. 3 .

Trends in risk prevention.

Business strategy to achieve better safety performance in construction was introduced in work by Jaselskis, Anderson, and Russell 34 ) . Their article analyzes the main factors that lead to success in occupational safety and health in the construction industry. Two branches are developed from this idea, depending on the emphasis of the implementation: laws and standards at the managerial level 35 ) and plans, guidelines and checklists at the operational level 36 ) .

Hinze and Wiegand 37 ) were the first to show the importance of safety prevention in the design phase. They state the important role of designers in occupational safety and health because the success of construction works depends on their decision-making. Gambatese et al. 38 ) deepened this idea through several interviews, revealing keys for successful implementation of designing for safety. Fonseca et al. 39 ) proposed a model of risk prevention integrating production and safety through three different levels of anticipation (analysis of design, planning/scheduling of services and implementation). One year later, Zhang et al. 40 ) applied Building Information Modeling BIM-based safety to fall hazard identification and prevention in construction safety planning.

Nevertheless, most work produced on the topic of risk prevention focuses on the construction phase. Many authors explore different approaches. Hinze 41 ) analyzed human behavior in risk prevention and Chi and Han 42 ) analyzed 9,358 accidents that occurred in the U.S. construction industry between 2002 and 2011 and incorporated systems theory into Heinrich’s domino theory to explore the interrelationships of risks. Laufer and Ledbetter 43 ) assessed the efficiency of several safety tools used in the construction workplace through surveys; according to these authors, simultaneous methods should be used to achieve better levels of safety. Burkart 44 ) called for site-specific safety plans, adapted to each workplace, and useful and reliable for every stakeholder.

Along another line, Hinze 45 ) analyzed the influence of economic incentives, concluding that low-value incentives, combined with good prevention tools, are more successful, and Imriyas 46 ) developed a workers´ compensation insurance (WCI) premium-rating model for building projects.

Summing up, our exploration detected ten lines of research within risk prevention in construction. Three of them deal with business strategy, three with the design phase, and six others with the construction phase.

Trends in accident analysis

Accident analysis (or accident investigation, as it could also be called) makes it possible to determine the what, how, and why of an accident; thus, in the future, similar accidents can be avoided based on the lessons learned. This topic also originates from Heinrich’s work (1930). He considered accident statistics as the baseline for any analysis of occupational safety and health. Many years later, Leplat 47 ) approached the principle of accident causation, discussing the relationship between accidents and the work in progress at the time of the accident. Kjellen and Larsson 48 ) proposed a conceptual model to investigate accidents across two levels: the sequence of facts about an accident, and factors affecting work at the time of an accident. From these articles, three main branches are displayed in Fig. 4 .

Trends in risk analysis.

The first branch deals with different models of workplace accident causation. DeJoy 49 ) focused on human factors. Abdelhamid and Everett 50 ) reviewed different techniques and offered a theoretical explanation for root causes of accidents. Suraji et al. 51 ) described a global model for the project cycle. Rozenfeld et al. 52 ) developed a structured method for hazard analysis and assessment for construction activities called Construction Job Safety Analysis (CJSA).

The second branch is about the statistical analysis of accidents. Kisner and Fosbroke 53 ) analyzed injuries from 1980 to 1989 in the United States. Hinze et al. 54 ) supported by Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) data from 1985 to 1995, categorized accident causes and sources of injures. Huang and Hinze 55 ) also examined OSHA data on construction worker’s accidental falls from 1990 to 2001. Cheng et al. 56 ) used data mining to establish the cause–effect relationships within occupational accidents in construction in Taiwan during the period 2000–2007. Finally, Irumba 57 ) investigated the causes of construction accidents in Kampala, Uganda using ordinary least squares regression and spatial regression modeling.

The last branch evaluated occupational accidents in terms of their cost. Leopold and Leonard 58 ) assessed several British construction firms to analyze accident costs in relation to their insurance premiums. On the other hand, Everett and Frank 59 ) showed a comparative study on the actual costs of accidents and injuries in the construction industry.

The main lines of research in accident analysis can be summarized within three topics: causal model of accidents, statistical analysis of accidents, and economic cost of accidents.

Conclusions

Our paper sought to establish current research trends in occupational safety and health in the construction industry. We described an “Occupational Safety and Health Cycle” based on traditional risk management approaches with five basic steps: regulations, education and training, risk assessment, risk prevention and accident analysis. Because of a scarcity of articles in the first two steps, no trends were proposed for regulations, education or training.

Three main branches (i.e. management of occupational safety and health in construction, risk quantification through modeling and probability applied to quantifying risk) were outlined within the topic of risk assessment, which is the topic with the highest amount of publications, and were subsequently broken up until obtaining the twelve current trends. Likewise, three main branches (business strategy, focus on the design phase and focus on the construction phase) were obtained for risk prevention. These were in turn split into the ten current trends. Finally, there were three solid trends within accident analysis: a causal model of accidents, their statistical analysis, and their economic cost.

The findings of this study show the following future subjects as trends of research and implementation in OSH in construction: rewards in safety incentivization programs; increasing the usage of information technology tools; production process automation; implementing proactive measures rather than reactive measures; integrating quality, environmental and OSH management system standards and using technological tools to train workers.

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, exploring a comprehensive knowledge map for promoting safety management research in the construction industry.

Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management

ISSN : 0969-9988

Article publication date: 29 April 2021

Issue publication date: 8 April 2022

The purpose of this paper was to map the safety management research of construction industry by scientometric analysis, which can predict important highlights and future research directions of safety management research in the construction industry. As an important issue in the construction industry, safety management issues have been researched from different perspectives. Although previous studies make knowledge contributions to the safety management research of construction industry, there are still huge obstacles to distinguish the comprehensive knowledge map of safety management research in the construction industry.

Design/methodology/approach

This study applies three scientometric analysis methods, collaboration network analysis, co-occurrence network analysis and cocitation network analysis, to the safety management research of construction industry. 5,406 articles were retrieved from the core collection database of the Web of Science. CiteSpace was used for constructing a comprehensive analysis framework to analyze and visualize the safety management research of construction industry. According to integrating the analysis results, a knowledge map for the safety management research of construction industry can be constructed.

The analysis results revealed the academic communities, key research topics and knowledge body of safety management research in the construction industry. The evolution paths of safety management research in the construction industry were divided into three development stages: “construction safety management”, “multi-objective safety management” and “comprehensive safety management”. Five research directions were predicted on the future safety management research of construction industry, including (1) comprehensive assessment indicators system; (2) intelligent safety management; (3) cross-organization collaboration of safety management; (4) multilevel safety behavior perception and (5) comparative analysis of safety climate.

Originality/value

The findings can reveal the overall status of safety management research in the construction industry and represent a high-quality knowledge body of safety management research in the construction industry that accurately reflects the comprehensive knowledge map on the safety management research of construction industry. The findings also predict important highlights and future research directions of safety management research in the construction industry, which will help researchers in the safety management research of construction industry for future collaboration and work.

• Safety management
• Construction industry
• Scientometric analysis
• Knowledge map
• Evolution trend

Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the National Social Science Fund of China (No. 18ZDA043). The work described in this paper was also supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (NO. 71671053, NO. 71841024, NO. 71771067, No. 71390522), the Social Science Planning Foundation of Liaoning Province (No. L20BGL056) and the Economic and Social Development Research Foundation of Liaoning Province (No. 20211slqnkt-014).

Data availability statement : Some or all data, models or codes that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Wang, L. and Cheng, Y. (2022), "Exploring a comprehensive knowledge map for promoting safety management research in the construction industry", Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management , Vol. 29 No. 4, pp. 1678-1714. https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-11-2020-0984

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Comprehensive review of safety studies in process industrial systems: concepts, progress, and main research topics.

1. Introduction

• Low risk level: this level is appropriate for industrial activities that have minimal risk and reasonably predictable outcomes. These procedures may use low-risk or nonhazardous substances with little effect on people, the environment, or property. Standard operating procedures and generic safety measures can satisfy safety needs at this level.
• Moderate risk level: this degree of risk is appropriate for industrial activities that could have substantial negative effects on people, the environment, and property. Hazardous or moderately risky compounds may be used in these processes. To guarantee efficient risk control at this level, stringent security measures and management systems must be put in place.
• High risk level: this level applies to industrial procedures that have a significant likelihood of endangering people, the environment, or property. These procedures frequently involve dangerous substances with a high degree of risk or intricate process flows. At this level, security must be ensured using the toughest management practices, security procedures, and tactics.
• The definition of process safety in process industrial systems has been described, discussed, and summarized. Then, the perspective of safety usually emerges from specific research views based on the above reviews.
• There are some interdependencies between safety and some other related concepts that have been discussed and compared, such as reliability, risk, operational safety, and its analysis and assessment. And all of above these can be inspired to provide peer research and scholars with some research ideas.
• The progress of methods and models has also summarized and discussed in the analysis and assessment of safety for process industrial systems, which mainly include analysis, assessment, and decision support of safety.
• Similarly, developments in recent years have laid a solid foundation for the current trends, and these are also outlined, including inherent safety, operational safety, safety barriers, safety integrity levels, total safety management, human error probability, and so on.

2. Knowledge with Respect to Safety

2.1. definitions.

• Accident: unexpected or undesirable event leading to loss, death, suffering, or damage [ 39 ].
• Harm: physical damage or injury to the wellbeing of people, both directly and indirectly, serving as an outcome of the damage to the environment or property [ 6 ].
• Hazard: possible source of damage [ 6 ] or system state that may result in a mishap in specific environmental situations [ 7 ].
• Risk: the combination of the severity of the harm and the frequency of the harm [ 6 ], or a combination of the outcomes of the failure or event and the possibility of the failure or abnormal event having an effect on the environment, users, operators, or components of the system [ 7 ].
• Process risk: the risk that the process is triggered by abnormal events. Necessary risk management is viewed as the risk reduction that is required to guarantee that the risk is decreased to a tolerable degree [ 6 ].
• Fault: abnormal situation that might lead to a loss of or decrease in the capacity of the functional unit to conduct the function that is required [ 6 ].
• Failure: termination of the capacity of the functional unit to conduct its function as required [ 6 ]. In other words, the event in which the subsystem or the system component does not demonstrate an expected environmental condition or external behavior under which it should be documented and exhibited in the specification of the requirements [ 6 ].
• Common cause failure: failure, serving as the outcome of one or more events, leading to the failures of at least two separate channels in various channel systems, resulting in system failure [ 6 ].
• Common mode failure: the failure of at least two channels, leading to the same erroneous outcome [ 6 ].
• Dangerous failure: failure with the potential to impose great threats to the safety instrumented system or lead to the nonfunction state [ 6 ].
• Dependent failure: failure, the probability of which cannot be shown through the simple product of the unconditional possibilities of the individual events that triggered it [ 6 ].
• Systematic failure: failure that is relevant with a specific cause in a deterministic way, which can only be dealt with through the adjustment of the manufacturing process, the operational procedures, the design or the documentation, or any other related factors [ 6 ].
• Safe failure: failure with no potential to expose the system to a failure or hazardous status [ 6 ].
• Safety: freedom from a risk that is unacceptable; freedom obtained from those events that can lead to loss of equipment, damage, occupational illness, or death [ 6 , 7 ].
• Safe state: status where the safety can be realized [ 6 ].
• Safety function: function to be carried out by an SIS (safety instrumented mechanism), external risk, reduction facilities technology, and safety-related system, which plans to keep the process safe when carrying out a specific hazardous event [ 6 ].
• Safety integrity: the possibility of the safety instrumented mechanism to conduct the required safety instrumented functions satisfactorily in all situations during a specific period of time [ 6 ].
• Safety integrity level (SIL): the discrete level (one out of four) for the illustration of the safety standards of the safety instrumented functions to be distributed to the safety instrumented systems [ 6 ].
• Safety life cycle: the inevitable activities engaged with during the implementation of the safety instrumented functions taking place during the period of time either at the beginning or the end of the project when all the safety instrumented functions are no longer available for use [ 6 ].
• Safety instrumented function: safety function at a particular safety integrity level, which is of great importance to realize the functional safety, which can be realized either through a safety instrumented control function or a safety instrumented protection function [ 6 ].
• Safety instrumented system: an instrumented system that is applied for the implementation of at least one safety instrumented function. It consists of a combination of the final elements, the logic solver, and sensors [ 6 ].
• Functional safety: part of the general safety relevant to the process and the BPCS, namely the basic process control system, which relies on the correct functioning of the safety instrumented system and other protection layers [ 6 ].
• Functional safety assessment: exploration, based on the evidence, that can be used to evaluate the functional safety realized by at least one protection layer [ 6 ].
• Hardware safety integrity: the safety integrity of the safety instrumented function is related to the random hardware failures of the dangerous failure mode [ 6 ].
• System safety: the application of the management and engineering principles, standards, and skills to utilize the safety processes and to decrease the risks of the constraints of operational efficiency, cost, and time during all the processes of the system [ 7 ].
• Safety requirement: the limits or the actions that have been depicted to improve or support the safety of the system [ 39 ]. Simply, any standard that can be adopted to specify a mandatory and minimum amount of safety in the minimum level of the associated metric [ 39 ].
• Safety management system: systemic management of the physical environment, machine performance, and worker performance [ 40 ], or the management activities, elements, and procedures that are targeted to enhance the safety performance of the organization [ 40 , 49 ].
• Human mistake (error): human action or inaction that produces an unintended result [ 6 ].
• Usefulness: the fact of being useful and bringing value for practitioners [ 39 ].

2.2. Perspectives

2.2.1. interdependencies between process safety and its concerns.

• Safety assessment/evaluation: generally, this serves as both an important approach for the satisfying and implementation of the policy of safety first, and is prevention oriented, and also the base for the implementation of standardized and scientific management of companies [ 51 ]. Meanwhile, it is also helpful to develop the theoretical, methodological, and empirical approaches to grasp better in foresight what is being processed in hindsight, or to shift from the research about past failures to an anticipation of future ones [ 52 ].
• Inherent safety: in general, the inherent safety means the ideal design, which only a limited amount of the hazardous materials would be leaked out or it is capable to ensure the deviations from the ideal performance of the equipment failures and operators with none severe damage on the safety, efficiency or output, or the hazardous materials can be applied under a situation with low operating conditions to avoid hazard conflagrations [ 9 ]. Guaranteeing the inherent safety would exactly guarantee the safety of the system. The system is free of the situations that can lead to loss of the equipment, the damage, occupational illness, injury or death [ 7 ].
• Operational safety assessment: as promoted by the CCPS, namely the United States Center for Chemical Process Safety, facilities are required to manage the real-time performance of the management system activities instead of just waiting for the occurrence of accidents. Such performance monitoring would allow the issues to be found early on and hence allow corrective actions to be taken as the issues occur [ 53 ]. It means that operational safety assessment can be considered as a kind of dynamic system, whose aim is to discover the potential safety risks online, and then to eliminate them in time [ 54 ].
• Safety barrier: safety barriers can be implemented to protect people, the environment, and assets from hazards or dangers. In other words, safety barriers can be considered as physical and/or nonphysical means planned to prevent, control, or mitigate undesired events or accidents [ 25 ]. Thus, safety barriers can be considered as the means, and system safety can be considered as the intent.
• Safety management system: the safety management system is commonly defined as the management procedures, elements, and activities that aim to improve the safety performance within an organization [ 40 ]. Obviously, a safety management system can be considered as a very practical concept, widely used in different industries.

2.2.2. Interdependencies between Process Safety and Its Similar Definitions

• Safety versus reliability: as shown in Figure 3 and as mentioned above, the essence of safety in process industrial systems can be considered to prevent accidents, and to reduce casualties, damage, environmental pollution, and so on. The goal of reliability is to prove the compliance and effectiveness of the process industrial system [ 55 ]. Safety can be considered as the idea that is used to measure whether a system is available or is able to be used, and reliability can be used to measure whether a system is reliable and available. Faults and failures will keep a system’s reliability at a lower level, and the safety can be kept at a lower level by the abnormal operational state that the related devices are in, viz., if the system is in an unreliable state, then the system must be in an unsafe state.
• Safety versus risk: as shown in Figure 2 , safety considers hazards or risks in a system that may harm people, equipment, or the environment due to the system faults/failures or some combination of accidental conditions, while risk just considers the combination of possibility and consequences of faults or failures [ 34 ].

2.3. Related Works

2.3.1. main organizations and regulations, 2.3.2. literature review, 2.3.3. related available literature, 3. progress of the methods and models in process safety, 3.1. the analysis methods and models, 3.1.1. failure mode and effect analysis (fmea).

• A significant quantitative and qualitative analysis approach applied for the assessment of the potential failure modes and their impact on a system;
• A systematic, inductive, and structure reasoning method involving the failure rates of every failure model to realize a quantitative probabilistic evaluation;
• Extended to assess the failure modes that might lead to an undesired system condition, for instance the system hazard;
• This would be very beneficial to use at the initial state of the system to enhance safety.
• It would be quite hard for this technique to identify the accident dependencies between human actions and equipment [ 21 ];
• It focuses on the single failure of isolation;
• It is not possible that several failures would occur, even though some hazards would arise originating from some other events and hazards;
• It is not absolutely suitable for electrical and mechanical failure modes [ 56 ].

3.1.2. Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Analysis

3.1.3. layer of protection analysis (lopa), 3.1.4. fault tree (ft) analysis, 3.1.5. event tree (et) analysis, 3.1.6. bowtie (bt) analysis.

• It can be used to provide an accident scenario with qualitative modeling, being applied to offer a clear representation of the logic correlations between the basic and intermediate events leading to the top event, and how the failure of the safety barriers can eliminate the top event to accident consequences;
• It can also be considered as quantitative modeling, with the quantitative assessment of the fault tree part, which requires the occurrence and failure possibility of the basic event.

3.1.7. Human Reliability (HRA) Analysis

3.1.8. loss functions (lf), 3.1.9. structural reliability analysis (sra), 3.2. the assessment methods and models, 3.2.1. safety automation of safety critical operations.

• It offers clarity for the enhancement of the safety of humans, regulatory compliance, identified aspects, equipment, and the environment;
• It is helpful in presenting documented evidence of the safe management of routine jobs and it updates the risk evaluation when there is operational change, which can demonstrate the new risks and identify the possible risks that might be missed by other methodologies;
• It can be applied to offer information about the identification of risk classification, aspects impact, risk ranking, risks, and significant operations;
• It helps to review the current risk category and make a comparison with the deeply addressed likelihood according to detect ability, consequence, and likelihood;
• Its reports have been given great attention due to the safety measures being taken for each of the safety critical operations [ 7 ].

3.2.2. American Petroleum Institute (API)

3.2.3. numerical descriptive inherent safety technique, 3.2.4. safety risk-based assessment methodology.

• It is capable of covering all the potential risk scenarios;
• It offers risk profiles corresponding to various processes and conditions, which makes the continuous monitoring of process safety and integrated evaluation possible.

3.2.5. Hybrid Assessment Model

• It explores the active failures of the operators, combined with the latent situations upstream of the company;
• It stimulates the accident researchers to look for the latent factors, taking the technological environment, physical atmosphere, and human unsafe behavior as examples [ 51 , 72 ];
• The combination can be employed to make up the shortcomings of each model and to be closer to a real system.

3.2.6. Metrics Design Methods

3.2.7. probabilistic graphical bayesian network method, 3.2.8. other methods, 3.3. decision support methods and models, 3.3.1. safety control hierarchical architecture, 3.3.2. total safety management, 3.3.3. situation awareness support system.

• A condition that the data collection unit considers the online situations according to the supervising systems to offer the status quo of the observable variables;
• A condition evaluation unit that applies the capacity of DBN, namely the dynamic Bayesian network, to model the mental model of the operator under abnormal conditions and a fuzzy logic mechanism to resemble the thinking of the operator when they are faced with these abnormal conditions;
• A condition recovery unit that lays the foundation for the decision-making process to decrease the risk level of the conditions;
• A human computer interface, as shown in Figure 13 .
• It is suitable for handling uncertain situations in humans with its essential characteristics;
• It can be used to improve operator situation awareness, particularly in level 2 and 3.

3.3.4. HSE Management Systems

3.3.5. risk-based management for safety methods.

• They can be applied to guarantee improvement of the risk management process according to the real-time process performance, which is revised based on the process and the failure history;
• Their use can promote the risk-informed decision-making process through continuous monitoring, evaluation, and the enhancement of the process performance.
• The consideration of the univariate major features of the system that impact the risk;
• The ignorance of the possible complex dependency among the risk factors;
• The application of the deterministic probability values that add to the uncertainty of the estimated risk.

3.3.6. Other Methods

4. some main research topics, 4.1. inherent safety, 4.2. safety integrity level.

• It concentrates on the generic analytical formulations that can make the evaluation of a SIS performance possible, especially the operational integrity and safety integrity;
• It focuses on the optimization of the SIS architecture design.
• The safety issue of the supervising system (which is related to the safety integrity of the SIS);
• Its availability in terms of production because of the false trips (related to the operational integrity of SIS) [ 94 ].

4.3. Operational Safety

4.4. safety barrier, 4.5. industrial big data, 5. conclusions and future research, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Zhang, J.; Ren, H.; Ren, H.; Chai, Y.; Liu, Z.; Liang, X. Comprehensive Review of Safety Studies in Process Industrial Systems: Concepts, Progress, and Main Research Topics. Processes 2023 , 11 , 2454. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11082454

Zhang J, Ren H, Ren H, Chai Y, Liu Z, Liang X. Comprehensive Review of Safety Studies in Process Industrial Systems: Concepts, Progress, and Main Research Topics. Processes . 2023; 11(8):2454. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11082454

Zhang, Jialu, Haojie Ren, Hao Ren, Yi Chai, Zhaodong Liu, and Xiaojun Liang. 2023. "Comprehensive Review of Safety Studies in Process Industrial Systems: Concepts, Progress, and Main Research Topics" Processes 11, no. 8: 2454. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11082454

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Original Research 21 October 2022 Drivers of Farmers’ Intention to Use the Digital Agricultural Management System: Integrating Theory of Planned Behavior and Behavioral Economics Sangluo Sun ,  4 more  and  Simei Wen 2,992 views 2 citations

Original Research 17 February 2022 The Impact of Visual and Cognitive Dual-Task Demands on Traffic Perception During Road Crossing of Older and Younger Pedestrians Rebecca Wiczorek  and  Janna Protzak 1,335 views 4 citations

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• 18 Jul 2024
• Research & Ideas

New Hires Lose Psychological Safety After Year One. How to Fix It.

New hires begin their roles eager to offer ideas. But research by Amy Edmondson shows how they become more reluctant to share over time. She explains how psychological safety erodes on the job and provides advice for strengthening it.

• 14 Jul 2022

When the Rubber Meets the Road, Most Commuters Text and Email While Driving

Laws and grim warnings have done little to deter distracted driving. Commuters routinely use their time behind the wheel to catch up on emails, says research by Raffaella Sadun, Thomaz Teodorovicz, and colleagues. What will it take to make roads safer?

• 15 Mar 2022

This Workplace Certification Made Already Safe Companies Even Safer

New research by Michael Toffel and colleagues confirms what workplace safety advocates have long claimed: Adopting OHSAS 18001 reduces worker injuries and improves a brand's image. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 17 Aug 2021

Can Autonomous Vehicles Drive with Common Sense?

Driverless vehicles could improve global health as much as the introduction of penicillin. But consumers won't trust the cars until they behave more like humans, argues Julian De Freitas. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 17 Sep 2019
• Cold Call Podcast

How a New Leader Broke Through a Culture of Accuse, Blame, and Criticize

Children’s Hospital & Clinics COO Julie Morath sets out to change the culture by instituting a policy of blameless reporting, which encourages employees to report anything that goes wrong or seems substandard, without fear of reprisal. Professor Amy Edmondson discusses getting an organization into the “High Performance Zone.” Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 11 Jun 2019
• Working Paper Summaries

Throwing the Baby Out with the Drinking Water: Unintended Consequences of Arsenic Mitigation Efforts in Bangladesh

In this study, households that were encouraged to switch water sources to avoid arsenic exposure experienced a significant rise in infant and child mortality, likely due to diarrheal disease from exposure to unsafe alternatives. Public health interventions should carefully consider access to alternatives when engaging in mass behavior change efforts.

• 31 Jan 2019

How Wegmans Became a Leader in Improving Food Safety

Ray Goldberg discusses how the CEO of the Wegmans grocery chain faced a food safety issue and then helped the industry become more proactive. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 09 May 2018

A Simple Way for Restaurant Inspectors to Improve Food Safety

Basic tweaks to the schedules of food safety inspectors could prevent millions of foodborne illnesses, according to new behavioral science research by Maria Ibáñez and Michael Toffel. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 12 Sep 2016

What Brands Can Do to Monitor Factory Conditions of Suppliers

For better or for worse, it’s fallen to multinational corporations to police the overseas factories of suppliers in their supply chains—and perhaps make them better. Michael W. Toffel examines how. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 17 Jun 2016

Companies Need to Start Marketing Security to Customers

The recent tragedies in Orlando underscore that businesses and their customers seem increasingly vulnerable to harm, so why don't companies do and say more about security? The ugly truth is safety doesn't sell, says John Quelch. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 05 Jan 2016

The Integrity of Private Third-party Compliance Monitoring

Michael Toffel and Jodi Short examine how conflict of interest and other risks lead to inaccurate monitoring of health, labor, and environmental standards.

• 21 May 2012

OSHA Inspections: Protecting Employees or Killing Jobs?

As the federal agency responsible for enforcing workplace safety, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration is often at the center of controversy. Associate Professor Michael W. Toffel and colleague David I. Levine report surprising findings about randomized government inspections. Key concepts include: In a natural field experiment, researchers found that companies subject to random OSHA inspections showed a 9.4 percent decrease in injury rates compared with uninspected firms. The researchers found no evidence of any cost to inspected companies complying with regulations. Rather, the decrease in injuries led to a 26 percent reduction in costs from medical expenses and lost wages—translating to an average of $350,000 per company. The findings strongly indicate that OSHA regulations actually save businesses money. Closed for comment; 0 Comments.

• 24 Jan 2011

Terror at the Taj

Under terrorist attack, employees of the Taj Mahal Palace and Tower bravely stayed at their posts to help guests. A look at the hotel's customer-centered culture and value system. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

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Safety Management System

An Introduction to Safety Management Systems (SMS)

Learn about safety management systems and how having one can greatly benefit your organization.

What is a Safety Management System?

Safety Management System (SMS) is a collection of structured, company-wide processes that provide effective risk-based decision-making for daily business functions. Safety Management Systems help organizations offer products or services at the highest level of safety and maintain safe operations. SMS can also serve as a formal means of meeting statutory requirements such as Title 14 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) enforced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the key processes of a safety management system are hazard identification, occurrence reporting, risk management, performance measurement, and quality assurance.

Purpose and Benefits

The main purpose of a safety management system is to provide a systematic approach to managing safety risks in operations. It also aims to improve safety by building on existing processes, demonstrating corporate due diligence , and reinforcing the overall safety culture. Effective safety management is crucial in operating and growing the business, especially in high-risk industries, such as aviation, energy, maritime , and construction, where health and safety are paramount.

Developing safety management systems can seem daunting at first, but they are essential to promoting and ensuring workplace safety. With the right technological solution, such as a digital platform , you can streamline this process.

Some benefits of having a safety management system include the following:

• Improved safety risk management processes: Using a digital solution with free checklist templates and a smart form builder, you can easily identify hazardous working conditions, assess safety risks, and enforce control measures.
• More efficient communication: Work better together and foster a culture of collaboration by promoting openness among workers, ensuring all important information is disseminated easily.
• Centralized documentation: With a digital solution that allows you to store documents in the cloud, you can easily share files among workers anytime and anywhere. A single, unified repository also helps you refer back to any audit trail you may create to encourage continuous improvement.

4 Components and 12 Elements of a Safety Management System

Safety management systems have four components in their framework. These are:

• Safety Policy and Objectives
• Safety Risk Management
• Safety Assurance
• Safety Promotion

Each SMS component contains elements that describe specific needs for the successful implementation and maintenance of a safety management system. Originated from ICAO , these 12 safety management system elements that many industries have now adopted are:

• Management Commitment
• Safety Accountability and Responsibilities
• Appointment of Key Safety Personnel
• Coordination of Emergency Response Planning
• SMS Documentation
• Hazard Identification
• Safety Risk Assessment and Mitigation
• Safety Performance Monitoring and Measurement
• Management of Change
• Continuous Improvement of the SMS
• Training and Education
• Safety Communication

The components and elements of a safety management system can be best understood together as illustrated in this image:

Safety Management System Framework: 4 Components and 12 Elements by ICAO

SMS Component #1: Safety Policy and Objectives

Employers should make safety an integral part of company values, demonstrating their commitment daily . Specifically, top management needs to set safety goals as policy while being visible and personally involved in meeting them.

Once appointed safety personnel have been identified, documentation processes should also be determined because the safety management system will be reviewed periodically to ensure it remains relevant and appropriate to the organization.

SMS Component #2: Safety Risk Management

In order to effectively control safety risks, designated staff should perform a series of interconnected processes collectively called Safety Risk Management (SRM).  Listed below are the 5 steps that go into the safety risk management component of SMS:

• System Description and Task Analysis: As a system design function, system description and task analysis are used by a cross-functional team within the organization to state the facts about the activities and workplace conditions (equipment, environment, etc.) involved in their processes.
• Hazard Identification: Hazards are any real or potential condition, including typical hazardous conditions related to human error, such as time pressure, shift turnovers, and lack of system knowledge that can cause injury, illness, or death to people and/or system, equipment, or property damages or losses.
• Risk Analysis: Analyzing risk involves considering the likelihood and severity of adverse consequences. Since a single hazard can have multiple consequences, increased exposure to hazards can also make it more likely for grave consequences to recur.
• Risk Assessment: To assist with decision-making, perform a risk assessment with a risk matrix and establish whether a safety risk is acceptable or not. If deemed acceptable, the SRM component of safety management systems is complete, and the risk moves to the next component for monitoring. Otherwise, risk controls should be put in place to mitigate or reduce the risk.
• Risk Control: While the severity of risks may be lessened to a certain degree, decreasing their probability or likelihood is what happens in most situations. Risk controls applied to working conditions can be effective instruments for risk reduction and failure prevention.

SMS Component #3: Safety Assurance

Safety Assurance (SA) is the component of a safety management system that deals with monitoring risk controls during operations. Common SA functions include internal audits , investigations , and employee reporting systems .

Upon gathering all necessary information, these should be analyzed against set objectives and compared with existing norms for patterns from multiple data points and trends over time. Oftentimes, safety risk controls fail due to a lack of leadership, resources, and instruction. In whichever case, preventive and corrective actions should be taken.

SMS Component #4: Safety Promotion

Interchangeably used with Safety Culture, Safety Promotion is defined as the activities that support safety management systems in an organization, such as training, knowledge-sharing, and communication. Management should also be able to explain why particular actions are taken to foster an environment for open reporting of safety concerns.

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Example Uses

Some use cases for safety management systems include the following:

• Hazard identification within a workplace and conducting the proper analysis for it
• General risk assessment and control
• Data gathering for informed decision-making regarding safety concerns
• Solutions to existing safety concerns

Create your own Safety Management System checklist

Build from scratch or choose from our collection of free, ready-to-download, and customizable templates.

Role of Training in Safety Management

Training plays a crucial role in the implementation and effectiveness of safety management systems. Training sessions that outline the necessary steps and obligations for safety management help ensure that employees are equipped with the knowledge and skills to identify and mitigate hazards, follow safety procedures, and respond to emergencies.

Additionally, regular training helps keep your organization compliant with different safety standards. It ensures that employees are constantly updated on important changes and concerns, as well as with different new processes and procedures.

Online training courses, in particular, are beneficial for seamlessly facilitating training for safety management systems. With these kinds of training content, you and your employees can train anytime and anywhere, all at your own pace.

Effectively Implement Safety Management Systems with SafetyCulture

Why use safetyculture.

SafetyCulture is a mobile-first operations platform adopted across industries such as manufacturing, mining, construction, retail, and hospitality. It’s designed to equip leaders and working teams with the knowledge and tools to do their best work—to the safest and highest standard. Efficiently manage and streamline health and safety processes across the organization, including incident management, safety audits and inspections, risk assessment, waste management, and more, using a comprehensive EHS software solution.

✓ Save time and reduce costs ✓ Stay on top of risks and incidents ✓ Boost productivity and efficiency ✓ Enhance communication and collaboration ✓ Discover improvement opportunities ✓ Make data-driven business decisions

FAQs about Safety Management Systems

What is the role of safety management systems in aviation.

The aviation industry requires all businesses to have their own safety management systems, as they are essential in managing and mitigating risks in the air and the transport of goods and people.

In particular, the US FAA has multiple regulations on the proper creation and implementation of them for all aviation businesses to follow.  The International Air Transport Association (IATA) also has provisions for properly creating and carrying out safety management systems.

How are safety management systems implemented in the aviation industry?

Safety management systems are implemented in different ways across different industries. While the aviation industry has the same ways of implementing safety management systems, there are some differences in how they do so.

Some considerations specific to the aviation industry that one must be aware of include:

• Regulations set by different aviation organizations
• Operational context of the organization, including the type of operations, fleet composition, and the specific challenges faced
• Legal regulations of different localities and countries

How can a safety management system improve quality in the workplace?

Implementing a safety management system the right way to fit your organizational needs can improve both your employees’ work experience and the quality of their work . By promoting safety in the workplace, you help foster a culture of improvement, enhancing management commitment and accountability. The output your organization provides will also be of a higher quality, thus improving sales and brand reputation.

How long can it take to properly implement a safety management system?

For some organizations, it can take as little as three to four months to properly create and implement a safety management system. For others , it can take 12 to 24 months and then another 18 months to see results.

Roselin Manawis

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The structure and emerging trends of construction safety management research: a bibliometric review

Affiliations.

• 1 School of Management, Harbin Institute of Technology, China.
• 2 School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, China.
• 3 School of Civil Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, China.
• PMID: 29480063
• DOI: 10.1080/10803548.2018.1444565

Recently, construction safety management (CSM) practices and systems have become important topics for stakeholders to take care of human resources. However, few studies have attempted to map the global research on CSM. A comprehensive bibliometric review was conducted in this study based on multiple methods. In total, 1172 CSM-related papers from the Web of Science Core Collection database were examined. The analyses focused on publication year, country-institute, publication source, author and research topics. The results indicated that the USA, China, Australia and the UK took leading positions in CSM research. Two branches of journals were identified, namely the branch of engineering science and that of safety science and social science. Additionally, seven themes together with 28 specific topics were detected to allow researchers to track the main structure and temporal evolution of CSM research. Finally, the main research trends and potential research directions were discussed to guide the future research.

Keywords: CiteSpace; bibliometric review; construction safety management; emerging trends.

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Advancing the state of the art in safe autonomous driving.

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Comparison of Waymo rider-only crash data to human benchmarks at 7.1 million miles

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• Retrospective Safety Impact,

Benchmarks for retrospective automated driving system crash rate analysis using police-reported crash data

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Characterising vulnerable road user evasive manoeuvring in real-world crashes: Injury risk implications

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Campolettano, E. T., Scanlon, J. M., Kusano, K. D. (2024). Representative Cyclist Collision Injury Risk Distributions for a Dense-Urban US ODD Using Naturalistic Dash Camera Data. SAE Technical Paper No. 2024-01-2645. https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2645

RAVE checklist: Recommendations for overcoming challenges in retrospective studies of Automated Driving Systems

Scanlon, J. M., Teoh, E. R., Kidd, D. G., Kusano, K. D., Bärgman, J., Chi-Johnston, G., Di Lillo, L., Favaro, F., Flannagan, C., Liers, H., Lin, B., Lindman, M., McLaughlin, S., Perez, M., & Victor, T. (2024). RAVE Checklist: Recommendations for Overcoming Challenges in Retrospective Safety Studies of Automated Driving Systems. arXiv preprint arXiv:2408.07758. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2408.07758

• Holistic Publications and Best Practices,

Modeling road user response timing in naturalistic traffic conflicts: A surprise-based framework

Engström, J., Liu, S. Y., Dinparastdjadid, A., & Simoiu, C. (2024). Modeling road user response timing in naturalistic traffic conflicts: A surprise-based framework. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 198, 107460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2024.107460

• Behavior Reference Models,

Resolving uncertainty on the fly: modeling adaptive driving behavior as active inference

Engström, J., Wei, R., McDonald, A. D., Garcia, A., O’Kelly, M., & Johnson, L. (2024). Resolving uncertainty on the fly: modeling adaptive driving behavior as active inference. Frontiers in Neurorobotics 18 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbot.2024.1341750

Framework for a conflict typology including contributing factors for use In ADS safety evaluation

Kusano, K., Scanlon, J., Brännström, M., Engström, J., Victor, T. (2023). Framework for a conflict typology including causal factors for use in ADS safety evaluation. In Proceedings of the 27th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV), Yokohama, Japan. Paper number 23-0328-O.

• Prospective Safety Impact,

Challenges for the evaluation of automated driving systems using current ADAS and active safety test track protocols

Schnelle, S., Kusano, K., Favaro, F., Sier, G., Victor, T. (2023). Challenges for the evaluation of automated driving systems using current ADAS and active safety test track protocols. In Proceedings of the 27th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV), Yokohama, Japan. Paper number 23-0329-O.

• Prospective Safety Impact

Representative Pedestrian collision injury rRisk distributions for a dense-urban US ODD using naturalistic dash camera data

Campolettano, E., Scanlon, J., Victor, T. (2023). Representative pedestrian collision injury risk distributions for a dense-urban US ODD using naturalistic dash camera data. In Proceedings of the 27th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV), Yokohama, Japan. Paper number 23-0075.

Descriptive analysis of cyclist dooring events using data from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS)

Campolettano, E. T., Scanlon, J. M., Victor, T. (2023). Descriptive Analysis of Cyclist Dooring Events Using Data from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS). In Proceedings of the International Research Council On Biomechanics of Injury (IRCOBI) Conference 2023, Cambridge, UK. Paper number IRC-23-112.

Safety performance of the waymo rider-only automated driving system at one million miles

Victor, T., Kusano, K., Gode, T., Chen, R., & Schwall, M. (2023). Safety Performance of the Waymo Rider-Only Automated Driving System at One Million Miles.

Building a credible case for safety: Waymo’s approach for the determination of absence of unreasonable Risk

Favaro, F., Fraade-Blanar, L., Schnelle, S., Victor, T., Peña, M., Engstrom, J., Scanlon, J., Kusano, K., Smith, D. (2023). Building a Credible Case for Safety: Waymo’s Approach for the Determination of Absence of Unreasonable Risk. arXiv preprint arXiv:2306.01917 . https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2306.01917

• Holistic Publications and Best Practices

Measuring surprise in the wild

Dinparastdjadid, A., Supeene, I., & Engström, J. (2023). Measuring surprise in the wild. arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.07733 . https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2305.07733

Passenger and heavy vehicle collisions with pedestrians: Assessment of injury mechanisms and risk

Schubert, A., Babisch, S., Scanlon, J. M., Campolettano, E. T., Roessler, R., Unger, T., McMurry, T. L. (2023). Passenger and heavy vehicle collisions with pedestrians: Assessment of injury mechanisms and risk. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 190 , 107139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2023.107139

ADS standardization landscape: Making sense of its status and of the associated research questions

Schnelle, S., & Favaro, F. (2023). ADS standardization landscape: Making sense of its status and of the associated research questions. arXiv preprint arXiv:2306.17682 . https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2306.17682

Interpreting safety outcomes: Waymo’s performance evaluation in the context of a broader determination of safety readiness

Favaro, F.M., Victor, T., Hohnhold, H. and Schnelle, S. (2023). Interpreting Safety Outcomes: Waymo’s Performance Evaluation in the Context of a Broader Determination of Safety Readiness. In 10th International Symposium on Transportation Data and Modelling (ISTDM2023) Ispra, 19-22 June 2023, Duboz, L. and Ciuffo, B. editor(s), Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2023. https://doi.org/10.2760/135735 .

Determination of functional scenarios for intersection collisions

Bangert, L. G., Lubash, T., Scanlon, J. M., Kusano, K. D., & Riexinger, L. E. (2023). Determination of functional scenarios for intersection collisions. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 193 , 107326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2023.107326

World model learning from demonstrations with active inference: Application to driving behavior

Wei, R., Garcia, A., McDonald, A., Markkula, G., Engstrom, J., Supeene, I., O’Kelly, M. (2022). World Model Learning from Demonstrations with Active Inference: Application to Driving Behavior. In: Buckley, C.L., et al. Active Inference. IWAI 2022. Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol 1721. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28719-0_9

An active inference model of car following: Advantages and applications

Wei, R., McDonald, A.D., Garcia, A., Markkula, G., Engstrom, J., O’Kelly, M. (2023). An active inference model of car following: Advantages and applications. arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.15201 . https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2303.15201

Kinematic characterization of micro-mobility vehicles during evasive maneuvers

Terranova, P., Liu, S.Y., Jain, S., Engstrom, J., Perez, M.A. (2023). Kinematic Characterization of Micro-Mobility Vehicles During Evasive Maneuvers. arXiv preprint arXiv:2312.14717 . https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2312.14717

Collision avoidance effectiveness of an automated driving system using a human driver behavior reference model in reconstructed fatal collisions

Scanlon, J.M., Kusano, K.D., Engström, J., Victor, T (2022). Collision avoidance effectiveness of an automated driving system using a human driver behavior reference model in reconstructed fatal collisions.

Collision avoidance testing of the Waymo automated driving system

Kusano, K., Beatty, K., Schnelle, S., Favaro, F., Crary, C., & Victor, T. 2022. Collision avoidance testing of the Waymo automated driving system. arXiv preprint arXiv:2212.08148 . https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2212.08148

Methodology for determining maximum injury potential for automated driving system evaluation

Kusano, K., & Victor, T. (2022). Methodology for determining maximum injury potential for automated driving system evaluation. Traffic Injury Prevention, 23(sup1) , S224–S227. https://doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2022.2125231

Waymo's fatigue risk management framework: prevention, monitoring, and mitigation of fatigue-induced risks while testing automated driving systems

Favaro, F., Hutchings, K., Nemec, P., Cavalcante, L., Victor, T. (2022). Waymo’s fatigue risk management framework: prevention, monitoring, and mitigation of fatigue-induced risks while testing automated driving systems. arXiv preprint arXiv:2208.12833 . https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv:2208.12833

Waymo simulated driving behavior in reconstructed fatal crashes within an autonomous vehicle operating domain

Scanlon, J.M., Kusano, K.D., Daniel, T., Alderson, C., Ogle, A., Victor, T. (2021). Waymo simulated driving behavior in reconstructed fatal crashes within an autonomous vehicle operating domain. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 163, 106454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2021.106454

An omni-directional model of injury risk in planar crashes with application for autonomous vehicles

McMurry, T. L., Cormier, J. M., Daniel, T., Scanlon, J. M., & Crandall, J. R. (2021). An omni-directional model of injury risk in planar crashes with application for autonomous vehicles. Traffic Injury Prevention, 22(sup1) , S122–S127. https://doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2021.1955108

Waymo safety report

Waymo. (2021). Waymo Safety Report.

Waymo's safety methodologies and safety readiness determinations

Webb, N., Smith, D., Ludwick, C., Victor, T., Hommes, Q., Favaro, F., Ivanov, G., Daniel, T. (2020). Waymo’s safety methodologies and safety readiness determinations. arXiv preprint arXiv:2011.00054. https://doi.org/10.48550/2011.00054

Waymo public road safety performance data

Schwall, M., Daniel, T., Victor, T., Favaro, F., Hohnhold, H. (2020). Waymo public road safety performance data. arXiv preprint arXiv:2011.00038 . https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv:2011.00038