water pollution prevent essay

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Contaminant of emerging concerns in modder river catchment of free state: implication for environmental risk and water sources protection.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study location, 2.2. collection of water samples, 2.3. reagents and materials, 2.4. sample preparation and extraction, 2.5. sample analysis, 2.6. quality control, 2.7. water quality indicators in the modder river catchment, 2.8. statistical analysis and sources apportionment, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. analysis of water quality indicators in the modder river catchment, 3.2. emerging contaminants in the modder river catchment, 3.2.1. the presence of emerging contaminants in rivers, 3.2.2. the presence of emerging contaminants in dams, 3.2.3. the presence of emerging contaminants in treated drinking water, 3.3. emerging contaminants pollution sources in the modder river catchment, 3.3.1. pollution source identification with pearson correlation analysis, identification of pollution source in rivers, identification of pollution source in dams, identification of pollution source in treated drinking water, 3.3.2. pollution source identification with hierarchical cluster analysis, identification of pollution sources in rivers, identification of pollution sources in dams, identification of pollution sources in treated drinking water, 3.4. interventions to inhibit water pollution for environmental protection and sustainability, 3.4.1. wastewater effluents discharged in nearby streams, 3.4.2. illegal dumping of domestic waste near water bodies, 3.4.3. emission from domestic sewage overflow, 3.4.4. emission from urban surface runoff, 3.4.5. emission from agricultural activities, 4. conclusions, 5. limitation and future studies, supplementary materials, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

• Isah, A. Application of Multivariate Methods for Assessment of Variations in Rivers/Streams Water Quality in Niger State, Nigeria. Am. J. Theor. Appl. Stat. 2013 , 2 , 176. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bonecker, C.C.; Diniz, L.P.; Braghin, L.d.S.M.; Mantovano, T.; da Silva, J.V.F.; Bomfim, F.d.F.; Moi, D.A.M.A.; Deosti, S.; dos Santos, G.N.T.; das Candeias, D.A.; et al. Synergistic effects of natural and anthropogenic impacts on zooplankton diversity in a subtropical floodplain: A long-term study. Oecologia Aust. 2020 , 24 , 524–537. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ma, X.; Wang, L.; Yang, H.; Li, N.; Gong, C. Spatiotemporal Analysis of Water Quality Using Multivariate Statistical Techniques and the Water Quality Identification Index for the Qinhuai River Basin, East China. Water 2020 , 12 , 2764. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, Q.; Wu, X.; Zhao, B.; Qin, J.; Peng, T. Combined multivariate statistical techniques, Water Pollution Index (WPI) and daniel trend test methods to evaluate temporal and spatial variations and trends of water quality at Shanchong River in the Northwest Basin of Lake Fuxian, China. PLoS ONE 2015 , 10 , e0118590. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yang, G.; Fan, M.; Zhang, G. Emerging contaminants in surface waters in China—A short review. Environ. Res. Lett. 2014 , 9 , 074018. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Huang, W.; Lv, W.; Yuan, Q.; Zhou, W.; Li, T.; Dong, B. Effects of Long-Term Exposure of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products on Algogenic Organic Matter Characteristics. Water 2023 , 15 , 2447. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Visca, A.; Caracciolo, A.B.; Grenni, P.; Rolando, L.; Mariani, L.; Rauseo, J.; Spataro, F.; Monostory, K.; Sperlagh, B.; Patrolecco, L. Legacy and Emerging Pollutants in an Urban River Stretch and Effects on the Bacterioplankton Community. Water 2021 , 13 , 3402. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sililo, O.T.N.; Saayman, I.C.; Fey, M.V. Groundwater Vulnerability to Pollution in Urban Catchments ; Report No. 1008/1/01; Water Research Commission: Pretoria, South Africa, 2001. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pretorius, E.; Gericke, O.J.; Slabbert, S.W.; Dent, M. Catchment hydrology management using GIS: Case study of the Modder River Basin, South Africa. WIT Trans. Ecol. Environ. 2005 , 83 , 305–314. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tsokeli, R.D. An Evaluation of the Spatial Variability of Sediment Sources along the Banks of the Modder River, Free State, South Africa. Master’s Thesis, University of Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa, 2005. [ Google Scholar ]
• Oke, S.A.; Alowo, R. Groundwater of the Modder River Catchment of South Africa: A Sustainability Prediction. Water 2021 , 13 , 936. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lin, X.; Xu, J.; Keller, A.A.; He, L.; Gu, Y.; Zheng, W.; Sun, D.; Lu, Z.; Huang, J.; Huang, X.; et al. Occurrence and risk assessment of emerging contaminants in a water reclamation and ecological reuse project. Sci. Total. Environ. 2020 , 744 , 140977. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Enyigwe, M.T.; Onwuka, O.S.; Egbueri, J.C. Geochemical distribution, statistical and health risk assessment of toxic elements in groundwater from a typical mining district in Nigeria. Environ. Forensics 2022 , 23 , 469–481. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• World Health Organisation (WHO). Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene. 2017. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/258617/9789241512893-eng.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed on 26 August 2023).
• Madikizela, L.M.; Ncube, S.; Chimuka, L. Analysis, Occurrence and Removal of Pharmaceuticals in African Water Resources: A Current Status. J. Environ. Manag. 2020 , 253 , 109741. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Vumazonke, S.; Khamanga, S.M.; Ngqwala, N.P. Detection of Pharmaceutical Residues in Surface Waters of the Eastern Cape Province. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 4067. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Madikizela, L.M.; Ncube, S. Occurrence and Ecotoxicological Risk Assessment of Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs in South African Aquatic Environment: What Is Known and the Missing Information? Chemosphere 2021 , 280 , 130688. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Mashile, G.P.; Mpupa, A.; Nomngongo, P.N. Magnetic Mesoporous Carbon/β-Cyclodextrin–Chitosan Nanocomposite for Extraction and Preconcentration of Multi-Class Emerging Contaminant Residues in Environmental Samples. Nanomaterials 2021 , 11 , 540. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ojemaye, C.Y.; Pampanin, D.M.; Sydnes, M.O.; Green, L.; Petrik, L. The burden of emerging contaminants upon an Atlantic Ocean marine protected reserve adjacent to Camps Bay, Cape Town, South Africa. Heliyon 2022 , 8 , e12625. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wilkinson, J.L.; Boxall, A.B.A.; Kolpin, D.W.; Leung, K.M.Y.; Lai, R.W.S.; Galbán-Malagón, C.; Adell, A.D.; Mondon, J.; Metian, M.; Marchant, R.A.; et al. Pharmaceutical pollution of the world’s rivers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2022 , 119 , e2113947119. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shrestha, S.; Kazama, F. Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical techniques: A case study of the Fuji river basin, Japan. Environ. Model. Softw. 2007 , 22 , 464–475. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Selvaraju, N.; Pushpavanam, S.; Anu, N. A holistic approach combining factor analysis, positive matrix factorization, and chemical mass balance applied to receptor modeling. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2013 , 185 , 10115–10129. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, X.; Zhu, L.; Pan, X.; Fang, S.; Zhang, Y.; Yang, L. Isomeric specific partitioning behaviors of perfluoroalkyl substances in water dissolved phase, suspended particulate matters and sediments in Liao River Basin and Taihu Lake, China. Water Res. 2015 , 80 , 235–244. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, J.; Li, F.; Fan, Z.; Wang, Y. Integrated Application of Multivariate Statistical Methods to Source Apportionment of Watercourses in the Liao River Basin, Northeast China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016 , 13 , 1035. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Hong, L.; Meng, X.; Bao, T.; Liu, B.; Wang, Q.; Jin, J.; Wu, K. Spatial–Temporal Distribution and Ecological Risk Assessment of Microplastics in the Shiwuli River. Water 2023 , 15 , 2330. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Molaba, G.L. Investigating the Possibility of Targeting Major Dolerite Intrusives to Supplement Municipal Water Supply in Bloemfontein: A Geophysical Approach. Master’s Thesis, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa, 2017. [ Google Scholar ]
• Woyessa, Y.; Hensley, M.; Van Rensburg, L. Catchment management in semi-arid area of central South Africa: Strategy for improving water productivity. Water SA 2006 , 32 , 648–654. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality Integrated Development Plan (MMM). Final Integrated Plan 2022/2027. 2022. Available online: http://www.mangaung.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/2-Final-IDP-2022-2027-24.05.2022-Signed.pdf (accessed on 29 July 2023).
• Odendaal, C.; Seaman, M.T.; Kemp, G.; Patterton, H.E.; Patterton, H.G. An LC-MS/MS based survey of contaminants of emerging concern in drinking water in South Africa. South Afr. J. Sci. 2015 , 111 , 6. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Mugudamani, I.; Oke, S.A.; Gumede, T.P.; Senbore, S. Herbicides in Water Sources: Communicating Potential Risks to the Population of Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality, South Africa. Toxics 2023 , 11 , 538. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Birajdar, S.N.; Vedpathak, S.G.; Chanshetti, U.B. The Effect of Seasonal Variation on Physicochemical Properties of Tubewell Water of Latur District (MS), India. IOSR J. Environ. Sci. Toxicol. Food Technol. 2017 , 11 , 58–63. [ Google Scholar ]
• SANS 241-1 ; Drinking Water, Part 1: Microbiological, Physical, Aesthetic and Chemical Determinants. SABS: Pretoria, South Africa, 2015.
• World Health Organization (WHO). Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality ; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015; Available online: https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241549950 (accessed on 2 October 2013).
• Lutovac, M.; Popova, O.V.; Macanovic, G.; Kristina, R.; Lutovac, B.; Ketin, S.; Biocanin, R. Testing the Effect of Aggressive Beverage on the Damage of Enamel Structure. Maced. J. Med.Sci. 2017 , 15 , 987–993. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Gintamo, B.; Khan, M.A.; Gulilat, H.; Shukla, R.K.; Mekonnen, Z. Determination of the Physicochemical Quality of Groundwater and its Potential Health Risk for Drinking in Oromia, Ethiopia. Environ. Health Insights 2022 , 16 , 1–11. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shoeb, M.; Sharmin, F.; Islam, N.; Nahar, L.; Islam, R.; Parvin, N. Assessment of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Water Samples Collected from the Southern Part of Bangladesh. Dhaka Univ. J. Sci. 2022 , 70 , 49–57. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Khan, M.A.; Wen, J. Evaluation of physicochemical and heavy metals characteristics in surface water under anthropogenic activities using multivariate statistical methods, Garra River, Ganges Basin, India. Environ. Eng. Res. 2021 , 26 , 200280. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• USGS (United State Geological Survey). Temperature and Water. 2015. Available online: https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/temperature-and-water#:~:text=Warm%20water%20holds%20less%20dissolved,aquatic%20life%20at%20higher%20temperatures (accessed on 2 March 2023).
• Dallas, H. Water temperature and riverine ecosystems: An overview of knowledge and approaches for assessing biotic responses, with special reference to South Africa. Water SA 2008 , 34 , 393–404. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Soylak, M.; Aydin, F.A.; Saracoglu, S.; Elci, L.; Dogan, M. Chemical analysis of drinking water samples from Yozgat, Turkey. Polish J. Environ. Stud. 2002 , 11 , 151–156. [ Google Scholar ]
• Meride, Y.; Ayenew, B. Drinking water quality assessment and its effects on residents health in Wondo genet campus, Ethiopia. Environ. Syst. Res. 2016 , 5 , 1. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gandaseca; Gandaseca, S.; Rosli, N.; Hossain, M.S.; Arianto, C.I. Assessment of oil palm plantation and tropical peat swamp forest water quality by multivariate statistical analysis. Am. J. Environ. Sci. 2014 , 10 , 391–402. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Water Quality Standards Handbook , 2nd ed.; USEPA: Washington, DC, USA, 1993. Available online: https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/20003QXV.PDF?Dockey=20003QXV.PDF (accessed on 3 July 2023).
• Worako, A.W. Physicochemical and biological water quality assessment of Lake Hawassa for multiple designated water uses. J. Urban Environ. Eng. 2015 , 9 , 146–157. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Makhadi, R.; Oke, S.A.; Ololade, O.O. The Influence of Non-Engineered Municipal Landfills on Groundwater Chemistry and Quality in Bloemfontein, South Africa. Molecules 2020 , 25 , 5599. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhang, S.; Zhang, Q.; Darisaw, S.; Ehie, O.; Wang, G. Simultaneous quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in Mississippi river water, in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. Chemosphere 2006 , 66 , 1057–1069. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tran, N.H.; Urase, T.; Ta, T.T. A Preliminary Study on the Occurrence of Pharmaceutically Active Compounds in Hospital Wastewater and Surface Water in Hanoi, Vietnam. Clean Soil Air Water 2014 , 42 , 267–275. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yan, Q.; Zhang, Y.; Kang, J.; Gan, X.; Xu, Y.P.; Guo, J.; Gao, X. A Preliminary Study on the Occurrence of Pharmaceutically Active Compounds in the River Basins and Their Removal in Two Conventional Drinking Water Treatment Plants in Chongqing, China. Clean Soil Air Water 2015 , 43 , 794–803. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Agunbiade, F.O.; Moodley, B. Occurrence and distribution pattern of acidic pharmaceuticals in surface water, wastewater, and sediment of the Msunduzi River, Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2016 , 35 , 36–46. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mhuka, V.; Dube, S.; Nindi, M.M. Occurrence of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) in wastewater and receiving waters in South Africa using LC-Orbitrap™ MS. Emerg. Contam. 2020 , 6 , 250–258. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wanda, E.M.M.; Nyoni, H.; Mamba, B.B.; Msagati, T.A.M. Occurrence of emerging micropollutants in water systems in Gauteng, Mpumalanga and North West provinces, South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017 , 14 , 79. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Archer, E.; Wolfaardt, G.M.; Van Wyk, J.H. Review: Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) as endocrine disrupting contaminants (EDCs) in South African surface waters. Water SA 2017 , 43 , 684. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Glassmeyer, S.T.; Furlong, E.T.; Kolpin, D.W.; Batt, A.L.; Benson, R.; Boone, J.S.; Conerly, O.; Donohue, M.J.; King, D.N.; Kostich, M.S.; et al. Nationwide reconnaissance of contaminants of emerging concern in source and treated drinking waters of the United States. Sci. Total. Environ. 2016 , 581–582 , 909–922. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Hossain, A.; Nakamichi, S.; Habibullah-Al-Mamun, M.; Tani, K.; Masunaga, S.; Matsuda, H. Occurrence and Ecological Risk of Pharmaceuticals in River Surface Water of Bangladesh. Environ. Res. 2018 , 165 , 258–266. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ekinci, M.; Ciftci, B.; Celik, E.C.; Köse, E.A.; Karakaya, M.A.; Ozdenkaya, Y. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study that evaluates efficacy of intravenous ibuprofen and acetaminophen for postoperative pain treatment following laparoscopic cholecystectomy surgery. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 2020 , 24 , 780–788. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nannou, C.; Ofrydopoulou, A.; Evgenidou, E.; Heath, D.; Heath, E.; Lambropoulou, D. Antiviral drugs in aquatic environment and wastewater treatment plants: A review on occurrence, fate, removal and ecotoxicity. Sci. Total. Environ. 2020 , 699 , 134322. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sorensen, J.P.R.; Lapworth, D.J.; Nkhuwa, D.C.W.; Stuart, M.E.; Gooddy, D.C.; Bell, R.A.; Chirwa, M.; Kabika, J.; Liemisa, M.; Chibesa, M.; et al. Emerging contaminants in urban groundwater sources in Africa. Water Res. 2014 , 72 , 51–63. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Correia, N.M.; Carbonari, C.A.; Velini, E.D. Detection of herbicides in water bodies of the Samambaia River sub-basin in the Federal District and eastern Goiás. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part B 2020 , 55 , 574–582. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Curchod, L.; Oltramare, C.; Junghans, M.; Stamm, C.; Dalvie, M.A.; Röösli, M.; Fuhrimann, S. Temporal variation of pesticide mixtures in rivers of three agricultural watersheds during a major drought in the Western Cape, South Africa. Water Res. 2020 , 6 , 100039. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, M.; Lv, J.; Deng, H.; Liu, Q.; Liang, S. Occurrence and Removal of Triazine Herbicides during Wastewater Treatment Processes and Their Environmental Impact on Aquatic Life. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022 , 19 , 4557. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Montagner, C.C.; Jardim, W.F. Spatial and seasonal variations of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disruptors in the Atibaia River, São Paulo State (Brazil). J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 2011 , 22 , 1452–1462. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Olarinmoye, O.; Bakare, A.; Ugwumba, O.; Hein, A. Quantification of pharmaceutical residues in wastewater impacted surface waters and sewage sludge from Lagos, Nigeria. J. Environ. Chem. Ecotoxicol. 2016 , 8 , 14–24. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pivetta, G.G.; Gastaldini, M.D.C.C. Presence of emerging contaminants in urban water bodies in southern Brazil. J. Water Health 2019 , 17 , 329–337. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Tan, R.; Liu, R.; Li, B.; Liu, X.; Li, Z. Typical Endocrine Disrupting Compounds in Rivers of Northeast China: Occurrence, Partitioning, and Risk Assessment. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2018 , 75 , 213–223. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Forghani, M.; Sadeghi, G.; Peyda, M. The presence of 17 beta-estradiol in the environment: Health effects and increasing environmental concerns. Int. J. Epidemiol. Res. 2018 , 5 , 151–158. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rimayi, C.; Odusanya, D.; Weiss, J.M.; de Boer, J.; Chimuka, L. Seasonal variation of chloro-s-triazines in the Hartbeespoort Dam catchment, South Africa. Sci. Total. Environ. 2018 , 613–614 , 472–482. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, H.-C.; Wang, P.-L.; Ding, W.-H. Using liquid chromatography–ion trap mass spectrometry to determine pharmaceutical residues in Taiwanese rivers and wastewaters. Chemosphere 2008 , 72 , 863–869. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Agunbiade, F.O.; Moodley, B. Pharmaceuticals as emerging organic contaminants in Umgeni River water system, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2014 , 186 , 7273–7291. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kanama, K.M.; Daso, A.P.; Mpenyana-Monyatsi, L.; Coetzee, M.A.A. Assessment of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and hormones in wastewater treatment plants receiving inflows from health facilities in North West Province. South Africa. J. Toxicol. 2018 , 2018 , 3751930. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fairbairn, D.J.; Karpuzcu, M.E.; Arnold, W.A.; Barber, B.L.; Kaufenberg, E.F.; Koskinen, W.C.; Novak, P.J.; Rice, P.J.; Swackhamer, D.L. Sediment–water distribution of contaminants of emerging concern in a mixed use watershed. Sci. Total. Environ. 2014 , 505 , 896–904. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ojemaye, C.Y. Identification and Quantification of Chemicals of Emerging Concern (Persistent Organic and Inorganic Pollutants) in Some Selected Marine Environments of Cape Town, South Africa. Ph.D. Thesis, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa, 2020. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pandey, P.; Caudill, J.; Lesmeister, S.; Zheng, Y.; Wang, Y.; Stillway, M.; Hoffmann, K.; Gilbert, P.; Kwong, M.; Conrad, L.; et al. Assessing Glyphosate and Fluridone Concentrations in Water Column and Sediment Leachate. Front. Environ. Sci. 2019 , 7 , 22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ogunbanwo, O.M.; Kay, P.; Boxall, A.B.; Wilkinson, J.; Sinclair, C.J.; Shabi, R.A.; Fasasi, A.E.; Lewis, G.A.; Amoda, O.A.; Brown, L.E. High Concentrations of Pharmaceuticals in a Nigerian River Catchment. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2020 , 41 , 551–558. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Machado, K.C.; Grassi, M.T.; Vidal, C.; Pescara, I.C.; Jardim, W.F.; Fernandes, A.N.; Sodré, F.F.; Almeida, F.V.; Santana, J.S.; Canela, M.C.; et al. A preliminary nationwide survey of the presence of emerging contaminants in drinking and source waters in Brazil. Sci. Total. Environ. 2016 , 572 , 138–146. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Van Zijl, M.C.; Aneck-Hahn, N.H.; Swart, P.; Hayward, S.; Genthe, B.; De Jager, C. Estrogenic activity, chemical levels and health risk assessment of municipal distribution point water from Pretoria and Cape Town, South Africa. Chemosphere 2017 , 186 , 305–313. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Almberg, K.S.; Turyk, M.E.; Jones, R.M.; Rankin, K.; Freels, S.; Stayner, L.T. Atrazine Contamination of Drinking Water and Adverse Birth Outcomes in Community Water Systems with Elevated Atrazine in Ohio, 2006–2008. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018 , 15 , 1889. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). South African Water Quality Guidelines Volume 1: Domestic Water Use , 2nd ed.; DWAF: Pretoria, South Africa, 1998. [ Google Scholar ]
• Horak, I.; Horn, S.; Pieters, R. Agrochemicals in freshwater systems and their potential as endocrine disrupting chemicals: A South African context. Environ. Pollut. 2021 , 268 , 115718. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hamilton, D.; Dieterle, R.; Felsot, A.; Harris, C.; Holland, P.; Katayama, A.; Kurihara, N.; Linders, J.; Unsworth, J.; Wong, S.S. Regulatory limits for pesticides residues in water (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure Appl. Chem. 2003 , 75 , 1123–1155. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Syafrudin, M.; Kristanti, R.A.; Yuniarto, A.; Hadibarata, T.; Rhee, J.; Al-Onazi, W.A.; Algarni, T.S.; Almarri, A.H.; Al-Mohaimeed, A.M. Pesticides in drinking water—A review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021 , 18 , 468. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Stefanakis, A.I.; Becker, J.A. A review of emerging contaminants in water: Classification, sources, and potential risks. In Impact of Water Pollution on Human Health and Environmental Sustainability ; Mckeown, A.E., Ed.; IGI Global: Hershey, PA, USA, 2016; pp. 55–80. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chen, H.-Y.; Teng, Y.-G.; Wang, J.-S.; Song, L.-T. Source Apportionment of Water Pollution in the Jinjiang River (China) Using Factor Analysis with Nonnegative Constraints and Support Vector Machines. Environ. Forensics 2012 , 13 , 175–184. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mugudamani, I.; Oke, S.A.; Gumede, T.P. Influence of Urban Informal Settlements on Trace Element Accumulation in Road Dust and Their Possible Health Implications in Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality, South Africa. Toxics 2022 , 10 , 253. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Li, C.; Wang, X.; Xiao, S.; Wang, H. The Source Apportionment of Heavy Metals in Surface Dust in the Main District Bus Stops of Tianshui City Based on the Positive Matrix Factorization Model and Geo-Statistics. Atmosphere 2023 , 14 , 591. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhao, L.; Hu, G.; Yan, Y.; Yu, R.; Cui, J.; Wang, X.; Yan, Y. Source apportionment of heavy metals in urban road dust in a continental city of eastern China: Using Pb and Sr isotopes combined with multivariate statistical analysis. Atmos. Environ. 2019 , 201 , 201–211. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rashid, A.; Ayub, M.; Ullah, Z.; Ali, A.; Khattak, S.A.; Ali, L.; Gao, X.; Li, C.; Khan, S.; El-Serehy, H.A.; et al. Geochemical Modeling Source Provenance, Public Health Exposure, and Evaluating Potentially Harmful Elements in Groundwater: Statistical and Human Health Risk Assessment (HHRA). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022 , 19 , 6472. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Yang, Z.; Zhang, M.; Hao, C.; Hou, X.; Wang, L.; Xia, R.; Yin, J.; Ma, C.; Wang, Q.; Zhang, Y. Source apportionment of total phosphorus pollution in Poyang lake basin based on source sink process modeling. Res. Environ. Sci. 2020 , 33 , 2493–2506. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hou, X.; Gao, W.; Zhang, M.; Xia, R.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, K.; Wang, X.; Yang, K.; Chen, X.; Deng, Y. Source apportionment of water pollutants in Poyang Lake Basin in China using absolute principal component score–multiple linear regression model combined with land-use parameters. Front. Environ. Sci. 2022 , 10 , 924350. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Das, A. Multivariate Statistical Approach for the Assessment of Water Quality of Mahanadi Basin, Odisha. Mater. Today Proc. 2022 , 65 , A1–A11. [ Google Scholar ]
• Atangana, M.S.B.; Ngoupayou, J.R.N.; Deliege, J.-F. Hydrogeochemistry and Mercury Contamination of Surface Water in the Lom Gold Basin (East Cameroon): Water Quality Index, Multivariate Statistical Analysis and Spatial Interpolation. Water 2023 , 15 , 2502. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rashid, A.; Khan, S.; Ayub, M.; Sardar, T.; Jehan, S.; Zahir, S.; Khan, M.S.; Muhammad, J.; Khan, R.; Ali, A.; et al. Mapping human health risk from exposure to potential toxic metal contamination in groundwater of Lower Dir, Pakistan: Application of multivariate and geographical information system. Chemosphere 2019 , 225 , 785–795. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gosset, A.; Wiest, L.; Fildier, A.; Libert, C.; Giroud, B.; Hammada, M.; Hervé, M.; Sibeud, E.; Vulliet, E.; Polomé, P.; et al. Ecotoxicological risk assessment of contaminants of emerging concern identified by “suspect screening” from urban wastewater treatment plant effluents at a territorial scale. Sci. Total Environ. 2021 , 778 , 146275. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Caban, M.; Stepnowski, P. How to decrease pharmaceuticals in the environment? A review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2021 , 19 , 3115–3138. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gozzo, S.; Moles, S.; Kińska, K.; Ormad, M.P.; Mosteo, R.; Gómez, J.; Laborda, F.; Szpunar, J. Screening for Antibiotics and Their Degradation Products in Surface and Wastewaters of the POCTEFA Territory by Solid-Phase Extraction-UPLC-Electrospray MS/MS. Water 2023 , 15 , 14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bourgin, M.; Beck, B.; Boehler, M.; Borowska, E.; Fleiner, J.; Salhi, E.; Teichler, R.; von Gunten, U.; Siegrist, H.; McArdell, C.S. Evaluation of a full-scale wastewater treatment plant upgraded with ozonation and biological post-treatments: Abatement of micropollutants, formation of transformation products and oxidation by-products. Water Res. 2018 , 129 , 486–498. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Kihila, J.M.; Wernsted, K.; Kaseva, M. Waste segregation and potential for recycling—A case study in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania. Sustain. Environ. 2021 , 7 , 1935532. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Topp, E.; Monteiro, S.C.; Beck, A.; Coehlo, B.; Boxall, A.B.; Duenk, P.W.; Kleywegt, S.; Lapen, D.R.; Payne, M.; Sabourin, L.; et al. Runoff of pharmaceuticals and personal care products following application of biosolids to an agricultural field. Sci. Total Environ. 2008 , 396 , 52–59. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Oke, S.A. Contaminant of Emerging Concerns in Modder River Catchment of Free State: Implication for Environmental Risk and Water Sources Protection. Water 2024 , 16 , 2494. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172494

Oke SA. Contaminant of Emerging Concerns in Modder River Catchment of Free State: Implication for Environmental Risk and Water Sources Protection. Water . 2024; 16(17):2494. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172494

Oke, Saheed Adeyinka. 2024. "Contaminant of Emerging Concerns in Modder River Catchment of Free State: Implication for Environmental Risk and Water Sources Protection" Water 16, no. 17: 2494. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172494

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, supplementary material.

ZIP-Document (ZIP, 167 KiB)

Further Information

Mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

• Español (Spanish)
• Français (French)
• Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian)
• Brasil (Portuguese)
• हिंदी (Hindi)

Mongabay Series: Climate Innovations

Polluting leather industry adopts sustainable practices to reduce environmental footprint

• Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh has a long-established leather industry with two major leather clusters, Jajmau and Unnao, that contribute significantly to the local economy.
• The legacy leather sector, however, is a polluting industry causing problems such as water pollution which has led to increased regulatory scrutiny and operational restrictions.
• Kanpur’s tanneries are adopting innovative sustainable practices, such as Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) systems and water recycling, to reduce their environmental footprint.

Mohammad Shakeel Ahmad, 34, who works at the King’s International Tannery based in Unnao, points to an unusually empty section of the facility where raw hides are typically stored. “This is where we store raw hides, but it is empty today and has been like this for the past 15 days. We will only get new raw hides in about a month now. We only bring them in when we have orders,” says Ahmad.

Located 35 km from the ‘ Leather City of India’ , Kanpur, in Uttar Pradesh, Unnao is a tannery cluster with around 50 active tanneries. The other major cluster, Jajmau, has about 250 operational tanneries. The tannery industry near Kanpur developed rapidly under British rule , driven by demand from the nearby cantonment area for military gear such as leather boots, along with access to water from the Ganges, abundant labour, raw materials and vast undeveloped land.

Ahmad, a third-generation tannery worker and a resident of the Nawabganj area in Unnao, explains, “There was a time when there were approximately 400 tanneries across both the Jajmau and Unnao, with around 200,000 to 250,000 labourers who depended on this industry for their livelihood. But today, the situation has deteriorated. We are running at half capacity.” The change started in 2017 after the Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board (UPPCB) imposed certain restrictions on the factories’ operation due to high pollution.

Mohammad Ahsan, Managing Director of Akmal Sons, explains, “At the end of 2017 the Central and State Pollution Control Boards asked the tanneries to cut their infrastructure by half, failing which a penalty called environment compensation of Rs. 12,500 per day would be levied. We run the factory for 15 days a month and at half capacity. For instance, if we typically processed 50 hides in a day, now we process 25 hides each day and for 15 days a month.”

The cost of treating tannery waste went up from Rs. 2 per hide to Rs. 22 per hide in 2022. The tanneries bear the cost of treating effluents that go to the Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP) from primary treatment plants (PTPs) within the tanneries. Today, the cost of processing per hide comes to around Rs. 88, as tanneries, running with half the resources and for half the number of days, are operating at 25% of their full capacity.

The restrictions on the factories’ operations and increased costs have caused significant business losses, says Mohammad Ahsan. “Of the 402 listed tanneries, only around 215, both small and large, are operational now. These too function under many restrictions that have made business nearly impossible,” he complains.

Tannery owners and workers say that as doing business becomes more difficult, business owners in the leather tanning trade, are leaving Kanpur. “Small and medium players have already moved out of the system,” says Ahsan. Instead, they are renting or buying tanneries in Kolkata. Some have formed partnerships in Vietnam, Turkey, and some European countries to produce finished buffalo leather, as orders are drying up due to operational limitations.

A complex process

The leather industry in India is regionally diverse, with Kanpur specialising in buffalo leather due to the local availability of buffalo hides. This region hosts tanneries along the banks of the Ganga river, with many facilities owned and managed by the local Muslim community. These tanneries fall within a designated “ Red Zone ” of highly polluting industries and face operational restrictions during significant religious events like the Kumbh Mela, where they are required to shut down for three months .

Processing hides and skins into leather is a complex procedure. The process includes several stages, such as curing, preservation checks and desalting, soaking, and reliming. Mohammad Izhaar, factory in-charge of Kings International, explains that immediately after slaughter, hides are removed from the carcass and thoroughly salted at the slaughterhouses to prevent bacterial growth. Once salted, 55% of the water in the hides is removed, and they are dried for three to six days before being sold to tanneries.

Production in the tannery begins with the preservation and desalting of raw hides, starting with a mechanical inspection to remove the salt used in preservation. The initial factory inspection involves testing for bacterial damage by pulling hairs from the hide. Taj Alam, Managing Director of Kings International Ltd., describes the first operational step in the beam house, where non-usable parts are trimmed, and hides are soaked to remove salt, dirt, and blood. This is done mechanically using a desalting machine, often referred to as a ‘salt shaker’, which shakes off the salt while preparing the hides for further processing.

After desalting, the hides undergo a soaking, which helps to clean the hides further and prepare them for tanning. Alam explains, “This stage marks the beginning of the pollution process, but factories in Unnao have now started to use a hair-saving machine provided by the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO).” The introduction of this machine has notably reduced pollution levels. Alam elaborates, “When hair is removed from the hides during leather processing, it significantly reduces the amount of organic material — such as proteins found in the hair — that ends up in the wastewater. Since the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) measures the amount of oxygen needed to break down organic materials in water, removing the hair means there’s less organic matter to break down. As a result, the oxygen demand in the wastewater is halved, decreasing the COD by about 50%. This makes the water easier and less costly to treat and cleaner when released back into the environment.”

Throughout these processes, the tannery industry generates significant wastewater that eventually flows into the Ganga river. A paper published in 2019 states, “Tanneries are the most responsible industry for disposing of untreated effluent in the Ganga River at Kanpur, which contains heavy metals, especially chromium. Besides chromium, tannery effluent contains other heavy metals like lead, cadmium, and copper, which are toxic in excess amounts.”

Environmental pressures spur innovation in Unnao’s cluster

Operational challenges in Unnao’s tannery cluster have catalysed efforts to transform tannery practices in response to environmental and community pressures. Taj Alam, the Managing Director of Kings International Ltd., shares insights from his company, founded in 1994 in the industrial town of Unnao. The factory thrived in the export market for over two decades, supplying leather goods to Europe and North America.

About a decade ago, environmental concerns, particularly water pollution, began to severely impact business operations, tarnishing the local leather sector’s reputation and leading to a sharp decline in exports.

In 2016, Alam and 17 other factory owners in Unnao made a critical decision to invest in Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) treatment plants. They aimed to make 80% of the water used in their processes, reusable. To further support this initiative, Alam established a laboratory within his factory, where his team rigorously tested the recycled water to ensure its purity and explored ways to optimise the plant’s operations for full capacity.

Ahmad, who has worked in these tanneries for over 14 years, explains the ZLD process: “The recycling process involves multiple stages, starting with sedimentation tanks to remove large solids and suspended particles. The water then undergoes advanced filtration processes, including sand filters and membrane filtration, to eliminate finer particulates and dissolved chemicals like chromium, salts, and tanning agents. After this, we test the water in our lab to ensure it meets the required standards for reuse. Once approved, it is reused in the next process. The ZLD system allows us to recycle and reuse about 80% of the water for reliming.”

Besides this, many tanneries in Unnao have started replacing sodium sulphide, a hazardous and corrosive chemical, with enzymes for liming. “Sodium sulphide releases toxic gases, harmful if inhaled, and can contaminate soil and water. Enzymes, on the other hand, biodegrade naturally, making them a safer alternative,” Ahmad said.

In 2016, the UNIDO, in collaboration with the Council for Leather Exports and the Kanpur Unnao Leather Cluster Development Company, organised an innovation award contest for tanneries in Kanpur implementing cleaner technologies. Winning this award marked a turning point for Alam, bringing international recognition to his sustainability initiatives and resulting in a 30% increase in exports, restoring trust in his business.

The award and UNIDO’s support had a positive impact on local small and medium enterprises (SMEs), ensuring their sustainable integration into both domestic and international supply chains, locals say.

While Unnao’s tanneries increasingly adopt the ZLD system to address river contamination, a different scenario unfolds in Jajmau, the bigger cluster of tanneries.

The case of Jajmau

The Jajmau tanneries are one of the oldest industries in Kanpur, situated near the Ganges. The local leather industry is a major export sector, with the export value reaching Rs. 4,500 crore in the fiscal year 2012-13. However, allegations of pollution have plagued the industry.

According to a research report in the International Journal of Science and Research , there are four major drains in the Jajmau area of Kanpur. These drains collect all the water from around the tannery cluster in Jajmau and throughout Kanpur. Few interceptor stations are located on the peripheries of the slums. These stations serve as powerhouses for various treatment plants, filtering out solid waste such as excreta, animal waste, and sludge. The treatment only partially filters these effluents, which then flow to the CETP located 20 km away.

Kuldeep Singh, in charge of the Jajmau treatment facility, says, “Our facility receives sewage water from various locations, which we then treat. It has a capacity of 173 million litres per day (MLD). Additionally, for tanneries, we have a 36 MLD facility on our premises that treats tannery effluent. After treatment, the water is discharged into the Ganga River through an irrigation channel.”

Tannery workers express concerns.” Jajmau is equipped with four pumping stations designed for tannery equipment. However, sewage lines do not cover the entire area. The conventional channels direct both domestic and industrial effluents to these pumping stations,” explains Babu Siddiqui, president of the Small Tanner Association. He further notes that these stations send the effluents to the CETP. “The population increase in the area has exacerbated the situation, with approximately 200,000 residents contributing to the effluent load. Today, domestic effluent, recorded at 9 MLD, matches that of the tanneries.”

Siddiqui adds, “At all four pumping stations, the effluent from tanneries is recorded at 9 MLD, while an additional 9 MLD comes from domestic sources, totalling 18 MLD treated at the CETP. The plant was originally designed to handle 11 to 12 MLD but is now processing up to 18 MLD, indicating that an excess of approximately 6 MLD is being handled by the system.” This strain on the system could potentially lead to overflows or insufficient treatment, allowing untreated or partially treated effluents to be released into the environment.

Need for coordinated efforts and infrastructure upgrades

Amitrajeet A. Batabyal, Interim Head of the Department of Sustainability at the Rochester Institute of Technology and author of Tanneries in Kanpur and Pollution in the Ganges , published in Regional Science Policy & Practice , notes that the primary issue with water pollution in the Ganges is its nature as a complex case of non-point source pollution. This means the pollution does not originate from just two or three isolated spots; rather, the river is polluted at thousands of different points along its entire length and breadth. The second challenge involves the coordination among multiple states, including U.P., Bihar, and West Bengal, which complicates efforts to address the issue. Effective interstate cooperation is essential.

He emphasises that in areas like Jajmau, where the leather industry is concentrated, the river is used as a free resource, leading to its excessive exploitation. “Having said that, although it is officially recognised that the chemicals used in leather processing are extremely harmful, the resulting wastewater, mixed with these chemical effluents, is supposed to be adequately treated in septic tanks and other types of tanks before being discharged into the Ganges. However, this rarely occurs due to various reasons, including corruption and the state government’s inability to fund the necessary treatment infrastructure,” says Batabyal.

Satish Sinha, Associate Director of Toxics Link, suggests that the CETP in the Jajmau area needs to be upgraded to treat the maximum amount of effluents. Regular monthly checkups of the CETP plant are crucial. Instead of assigning the responsibility of monitoring treatment plants to the Jal Nigam of UP, cooperative societies could be formed to manage the sewage treatment process.

He also suggests that a chrome recovery plant should be established since most of the tanneries in the Jajmau area are chrome tanneries. This would allow the solutions used to dye the leather to be reused and treated, thereby reducing the harmful effects on the populace.

Banner image: Labourers at work in a leather factory within Unnao’s tannery cluster. Image by Zoya Hussain for Mongabay.

Special series

Wetland champions.

• [Commentary] Wetland champions: Promise from the grassroots
• The story of Jakkur lake sets an example for inclusive rejuvenation projects
• Welcome to Tsomgo lake: Please don’t litter
• Managing waste to save the wetlands of Himachal Pradesh

Environment And Health

• Hopscotch to heat watch: How climate change is impacting summer play
• What’s killing the buzz? A look into urban fumigation
• Air pollution deaths spotlight need for health-based air quality standards
• As cities become megacities, their lanes are losing green cover

Almost Famous Species

• Baby snakes with toxic traits
• Misinformation about Russell’s viper stokes incidents of snake killing in Assam
• [Book review] A know-it-all book on the cat with black ears
• Himalayan pikas wait for weather cues to make winter plans

• A blooming tale of transformation
• [Video] Flowers of worship sow seeds of sustainability
• Rising above the waters with musk melon
• Saving India’s wild ‘unicorns’ 

India's Iconic Landscapes

• Changing patterns in precipitation and temperature affect Kashmir’s ecosystem
• Long-term monitoring of Himalayan glaciers essential to assess their health
• [Book review] Chronicle of an ‘ecocide’ foretold
• [Explainer] How does habitat fragmentation impact India’s biodiversity hotspots?

Beyond Protected Areas

• Indus river dolphins in troubled waters
• Mugger crocodiles may be physiologically stressed in disturbed habitats

Conserving Agro-biodiversity

• [Commentary] Challenges in scaling natural farming with bio-input resource centres
• [Commentary] Green Credit Rules: Death by trees?
• High temperatures lead to decline in coconut production, spiked prices
• Kashmiri willow steps up to the crease and swings for recognition

Just Transitions

• India’s hard-to-abate sectors are not walking the talk on their renewable energy goals, report finds
• Ruling on mining taxation empowers states, worries industry
• Coal mining degraded 35% of native land cover in India’s central coal belt
• Slow progress hinders Bihar’s solar street light initiative

• Open access
• Published: 02 September 2024

Air pollution: a latent key driving force of dementia

• Mahdiyeh Mohammadzadeh 1 , 2 ,
• Amir Hossein Khoshakhlagh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2265-5054 3 &
• Jordan Grafman 4  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  2370 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

2 Altmetric

Metrics details

Many researchers have studied the role of air pollutants on cognitive function, changes in brain structure, and occurrence of dementia. Due to the wide range of studies and often contradictory results, the present systematic review was conducted to try and clarify the relationship between air pollutants and dementia. To identify studies for this review, a systematic search was conducted in Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases (without historical restrictions) until May 22, 2023. The PECO statement was created to clarify the research question, and articles that did not meet the criteria of this statement were excluded. In this review, animal studies, laboratory studies, books, review articles, conference papers and letters to the editors were avoided. Also, studies focused on the effect of air pollutants on cellular and biochemical changes (without investigating dementia) were also excluded. A quality assessment was done according to the type of design of each article, using the checklist developed by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI). Finally, selected studies were reviewed and discussed in terms of Alzheimer's dementia and non-Alzheimer's dementia. We identified 14,924 articles through a systematic search in databases, and after comprehensive reviews, 53 articles were found to be eligible for inclusion in the current systematic review. The results showed that chronic exposure to higher levels of air pollutants was associated with adverse effects on cognitive abilities and the presence of dementia. Studies strongly supported the negative effects of PM 2.5 and then NO 2 on the brain and the development of neurodegenerative disorders in old age. Because the onset of brain structural changes due to dementia begins decades before the onset of disease symptoms, and that exposure to air pollution is considered a modifiable risk factor, taking preventive measures to reduce air pollution and introducing behavioral interventions to reduce people's exposure to pollutants is advisable.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Technological development and the rapid expansion of mechanization during the last few decades have led to an increase in life expectancy in various societies, especially in developed countries [ 1 ]. An increase in the life expectancy can lead to the growth of neurological disorders [ 2 ]. According to statistics published worldwide, neurological disorders, including Parkinson's (PD), cognitive dysfunction, Alzheimer's (AD) and dementia, are a leading cause of disability and death [ 3 , 4 ]. Cognitive function also diminishes with age [ 5 ] and therefore, elderly people are disproportionately affected by cognitive disorders and, finally, dementia [ 6 , 7 ] which imposes a significant burden on health care systems. According to statistics published by the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 55 million people worldwide suffered from dementia in 2019, which is estimated to more than double in 2050 [ 8 ]. Dementia is the cause of 2.4 million deaths and 28.8 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in 2016 and is known as the third cause of neurological DALYs [ 3 , 9 ].

Various factors are involved in dementia, including anthropometric parameters (for example, body mass index), the APOE Ɛ4 allele [ 10 ], lack of weight [ 11 ], inactivity [ 12 ], non-Mediterranean diet [ 13 ], and the lack of specific micronutrients and macronutrients [ 14 ]. In addition, many epidemiological studies have shown that exposure to air pollution can also contribute to neuropathology through oxidative stress, hyperactivation of microglia, disruption of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and neuroinflammation [ 15 , 16 ] and cause adverse effects on the brain, accelerate cognitive aging and even increase the occurrence of AD and other forms of dementia [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. The 2020 Lancet Commission on dementia prevention, intervention and care, considered air pollution as a new modifiable risk factor for dementia, accounting for about 2% of cases worldwide [ 20 ]. Studies conducted in the United Kingdom showed that an increase of 1 µg/m 3 PM 2.5 (particles with a diameter of 2.5 µm or less) increases the risk of dementia by 6% and the risk of AD by 10% [ 21 ]. Mortamais et al. (2021) found that an increase of 5µg/m 3 in PM 2.5 level, increases 20% the risk for all-cause dementia, 20% for AD and 33% for Vascular Dementia (VaD) in elderly people over 70 years [ 22 ]. However, the adverse effects of air pollution on cognitive function are not limited to old age. Recent epidemiological studies support the hypothesis that public exposure to air pollutants can cause structural and functional changes in children's brains [ 23 , 24 ] and by causing negative effects on neuropsychological development, make them susceptible to neurological disorders in middle and old age [ 25 , 26 ].

Therefore, prevention of exposure to air pollution is a potentially correctable risk factor in the occurrence of cognitive decline and dementia in the elderly. The present systematic review was conducted to critically examine the published scientific literature related to the impact of exposure to air pollution on dementia. Specifically, the objectives were: (1) to evaluate the type and concentration of air pollutants including PM 10 (particles with a diameter of 10 µm or less), PM 2.5 , NO 2 , O 3 , black carbon (BC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX), formaldehyde (FA) in geographic areas and (2) to assess the risk of dementia in adults with chronic respiratory exposure to the mentioned pollutants.

This systematic review was guided by the PRISMA statement (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analyses) and fully complied with the protocol registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO, CRD42023413916) .

PECO statement

In this study, the PECO (population, exposure, comparator, and outcome) [ 27 ] statement was used to develop the research question, search terms, and inclusion and exclusion criteria of the systematic review. Table 1 shows the PECO statement for understanding the adverse effects of respiratory exposure to pollutants PM 10 , PM 2.5 , NO 2 , O 3 , BC, PAHs, BTEX, and FA on dementia.

Search strategy and selection of studies

According to our knowledge, this is the first systematic review that investigated the effect of respiratory exposure to pollutants i.e. PM 10 , PM 2.5 , NO 2 , O 3 , BC, PAHs, BTEX, and FA on dementia. To obtain all published studies in this field, a systematic search was conducted in Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases, without a date limit until May 22, 2023. The keywords used in this study include the following (the details of the search strategy used for the systematic search in the databases are shown in Appendix A1):

Exposure to pollutants: “air pollution”, “PM 10 ”, “PM 2.5 ”, “nitrogen dioxide”, “ozone”, “black carbon”, “diesel”, “diesel exhaust”, “PAH*”, “BTEX”, “toluene”, “ethylbenzene”, “xylene”, “benzene”, “formaldehyde”, “formal”, “formalin”, “methanol”, “methylene oxide”

Outcomes of exposure: “Alzheimer's disease”, “Neuromarker”, “Neuroinflammation”, “Dementia”, “Vascular dementia”, “Frontotemporal dementia”, “Frontotemporal lobar degeneration”, “Lewy body disease”, “Lewy body dementia”

The mentioned keywords were extracted by (M.M and A.H.Kh) and systematically searched by (A.H.Kh) in Title/Abstract and Mesh (if any). After merging the studies in EndNote X20 software, all duplicates were removed and the data were independently screened and extracted by two researchers (M.M and A.H.Kh). More contradictions and ambiguities were resolved with the intervention of the third author (J.G). In addition, to obtain additional studies that meet the inclusion criteria, additional to the hand searching, the reference list of selected studies was also systematically searched in parallel.

Criteria of entering and extracting studies

In this review, we excluded studies focused on the effects of exposure to air pollutants on neurological and biochemical changes (without examining dementia) and studies that investigated exposure to air pollutants as a dependent variable. Animal studies, laboratory studies, books, review articles, conference papers, and letters to the editors were also excluded. In this systematic review, only original peer-reviewed articles in English were reviewed.

Finally, the following information was extracted from the selected articles:

Authors, the year of publication, study design, country, the number of sample people, the age range of people, gender, the type of pollutant, the mean concentration of pollutant, diagnosis tool, and the type of dementia.

Quality control

The quality of the selected studies was checked by two researchers (M.M and A.H.Kh) using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklist for cohort studies, case–control studies and analytical cross-sectional studies, independently. This checklist evaluates the risk of bias in studies by asking 2 questions from each of the sample areas including selection criteria, exposure assessment, confounding factors and results and appropriate statistical analysis. The defined answers for each question can be one of the options (yes, no, unclear, or not applicable). According to the total selection percentage of each of the 4 mentioned answers, the quality of articles is determined in the following 3 levels:

High-quality level and low risk of bias (Q1) (Yes ≥ 50–75%).

Moderate quality level and unclear risk of bias (Q2) (unclear ≥ 50–75%).

Low-quality and high risk of bias (Q3) (No ≥ 50–75%) [ 28 ].

All the articles that were of adequate quality were included in the study.

Result synthesis

Due to heterogeneity in study design, exposure (occupational/environmental) and the age of subjects, quantitative synthesis of studies in the form of meta-analysis was not possible. Therefore, the results obtained from the selected studies, which included the type of dementia, the age of the subjects, gender, the type of air pollutants, mean concentration, the instrument for detecting pollutants, and the diagnosis of dementia, and the outcome of exposure (Appendix A2), were narratively combined. This synthesis was done in two steps. The first stage included the initial synthesis using the general grouping of studies based on Alzheimer's and non-Alzheimer's dementia; therefore, the results of articles were carefully studied, and considered which of the types of Alzheimer's dementia (AD) (Appendix A2) and non-Alzheimer's dementia (VaD, FTD and PD) (Appendix A3) have been investigated. In the second step, the relationship between the type and concentration of each pollutant in dementia was investigated.

Figure  1 shows the process of conducting the present systematic review by the members of the research team, which includes six general steps:

Visualization of the systematic review guiding process comprising eight distinct stages

Topic selection, systematic search, screening and data extraction, quality control, resolving contradictions and ambiguities, and synthesis of results.

Results and Discussion

Selection process and characteristics of articles.

In this review, 14,924 articles were obtained through a systematic search in databases, of which 4532 studies were retrieved from PubMed, 5878 from Scopus, and 4514 from Web of Science. After entering the articles into EndNote X20 software, 6546 duplicates were removed and 8378 studies were screened for title and abstract. At this stage, 8289 articles were excluded and the entry and exit criteria and quality assessment were done for 88 full texts. Finally, after conducting additional reviews, 36 studies were excluded for the following reasons:

Nine studies were review articles, two studies only investigated brain volume, in twelve articles the type of air pollutant was not specified, five studies investigated the effect of other pollutants on dementia, five studies were excluded due to the high risk of bias and access to three full texts was not possible.

In addition, hand searching and systematic search of the selected articles' reference lists were also conducted to identify additional studies eligible for inclusion, which led to the identification of two studies through reference checking. Therefore, the total number of studies included in this systematic review increased to 53 articles (Fig.  2 ).

PRISMA flow diagram of the literature search

The studies in this systematic review included 6 case–control [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ], 7 cross-sectional [ 19 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ], and 40 cohort studies [ 1 , 2 , 18 , 21 , 22 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 ]. Specifically, selected studies have been conducted in 17 countries around the world:

19 in the United States of America, 7 in Sweden, 7 in Taiwan, 4 in Canada, 3 in France, 2 in Australia, 2 in Germany, 2 in Hong Kong, 2 in Mexico, 2 in the United Kingdom, 1 in each country of Netherlands, Spain, China, Denmark, England, Italy, and the Republic of Korea.

In total, 173,698,774 subjects were contained in the studies examined in this systematic review. The characteristics of the reviewed studies are shown in Table  2 .

Diagnostic methods in the types of dementia

When we examined the 53 selected studies, 39 diagnostic tools and methods for AD and other types of dementia had been used (Appendix A2 and A3); of these, 21 diagnostic tools were used for Alzheimer's dementia and 28 methods for non-Alzheimer's dementia. According to the investigations carried out in studies related to Alzheimer's dementia, the methods of medical records ( N  = 11) and Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE) ( N  = 8) were the most prevalent. Five studies also used medical imaging (such as MRI and CT scan) to investigate the changes made in brain structures, which indicate the onset of Alzheimer's disease. In addition, the most common diagnostic tools for non-Alzheimer's dementia were included medical reports ( N  = 4), MMSE ( N  = 10), Medical imaging ( N  = 4), Clinical Dementia Rating Sum of Box (CDR-SB) ( N  = 4), and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) ( N  = 3).

MMSE and MoCA are among the most important reliable screening tools that are widely used for clinical and research purposes [ 76 , 77 ]. These tools have received a lot of attention due to the need for little training, ease of implementation, and the ability to differentiate dementia patients from healthy people [ 78 , 79 , 80 ]. MMSE is also widely used to describe a wide range of cognitive functions, including attention, memory, verbal ability, and visual-spatial cognitive function [ 81 ], and its total score is related to disease progression [ 82 ]. However, it has been found that the MMSE may be less reliable than the MoCA in the diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) because this instrument had lower sensitivity among multiple study settings [ 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 ]. In addition, the MoCA can show differences in the cognitive profile of people diagnosed with MMSE in the normal range, which makes the MoCA a powerful, concise, and useful tool [ 77 , 88 , 89 ].

Although the use of questionnaire methods is a standard requirement for dementia researchers, the importance of medical imaging methods in diagnosing dementia types with high certainty should not be neglected to investigate the changes made in the brain structure and the speed of disease progression. Among the most important diagnostic imaging tools for dementia are PET imaging with 2-deoxy-positron emission tomography (PiB-PET), 2 [18F] fluoro-D-glucose tracer (FDG-PET) and Structural and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) [ 90 ]. The first PET technique used to diagnose neurodegenerative disorders was 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) metabolic imaging, which is a measure of neuronal or synaptic integrity [ 91 , 92 ]. More recent advances using PET includes the detection of specific neural ligands, such as specific ligands for fibrillar Aβ [ 93 ], paired-helical filament tau [ 94 , 95 ], and synaptic vesicle protein 2A [ 96 ]. The PET technique, however, is only available in specialized centers due to its high cost.

In our systematic review, the main neuroimaging technique used was MRI. This tool can measure brain atrophy, especially in the mesial-temporal structures, and detect it even before appearing the first clinical symptoms [ 97 , 98 ]. This method is included in both the diagnostic criteria presented by Dubois [ 99 ] and NIA-AA [ 100 ] and has been used as a reliable diagnostic tool by many researchers [ 101 , 102 , 103 ]. The sensitivity of this method as an AD marker has been reported to be more than 85% [ 97 ], which is more than PiB-PET (70%) [ 104 ] and FDG-PET (80%) [ 105 , 106 ].

Atrophy in the medial temporal lobe, especially the hippocampus, and a decrease in the thickness of the cerebral cortex in vulnerable areas of AD are among the first signs detectable by MRI in the early stages of the disease [ 107 , 108 , 109 ]. This tool can show hippocampal volume reduction 2 to 3 years before the onset of dementia in asymptomatic carriers of APP mutations [ 110 ] and in elderly people up to 6 years before that [ 103 , 107 ]. In addition, entorhinal cortex volume reduction, which progresses up to four years before cognitive decline, can be detected by MRI up to 90% [ 107 ].

Alzheimer’s dementia

The characteristics and results extracted from the articles related to Alzheimer's dementia are shown in Appendix A2. Thirty-one studies investigated the effect of pollutants i.e. PM 10 , PM 2.5 , NO 2 , O 3 , BC, PAHs, BTEX, and FA on the occurrence of Alzheimer's dementia. These studies were published from 1995–2023, and most were since 2018, indicating the novelty of the subject under discussion. More than 80% of the studies investigated the incidence of Alzheimer's in people over 60 years old, but some studies included younger people, comprising Haisu Zhang (2023) [ 40 ], Lilian Calderón-Garcidueñas (2022) [ 38 , 39 ], Marta Crous-Bou (2020) [ 1 ], Anna Oudin (2019 and 2016) [ 44 , 53 ], and Ruo-Ling Li (2019) [ 51 ].

The results showed that chronic exposure to air pollutants, especially particulate matter (PMs), increases the number of hospitalizations due to the exacerbation of neurocognitive disorders caused by Alzheimer's dementia or related diseases. This finding is compatible with previous studies on the role of exposure to air pollutants on the development of this neurological disorder [ 18 , 74 , 75 ]. Results from human and animal studies have shown that air pollution is associated with atherosclerosis, increased blood inflammatory biomarkers, and oxidative stress, which may accelerate hospitalization for several neurological diseases [ 111 , 112 ]. In the United Kingdom, the results of a population-based cohort study showed that the risk of AD was associated with exposure to PM 2.5 (adjusted hazard ratio—HR 1.10, 95% CI 1.02–1.18) and NO 2 (1.23, 1.07–1.43) increases significantly so that an increase of 1 µg/m 3 PM 2.5 is associated with a 10% increase in the risk of AD. Exposure to O 3 reduced this risk [ 21 ]. Also Cerza et al. (2019) in a cohort study in Italy concluded that a positive association between exposure to O 3 and NO x and dementia hospitalizations, (O 3 : HR = 1.06; 95% CI: 1.04–1.09 per 10 μg/m 3 ; NO x : HR = 1.01; 95% CI: 1.00–1.02 per 20 μg/m 3 ) [ 52 ]. This study showed that exposure to NO x , NO 2 , PM 2.5 , and PM 10 , except for O 3 , has a significant negative relationship with AD [ 52 ].

He et al. (2022) also demonstrated in a population-based cohort study in China that exposure to PM 2.5 , PM 10 , and CO pollutants was significantly associated with an increased risk of AD, but there is no significant relationship between exposure to NO and SO 2 with the occurrence of this disorder. This study also showed an inverse relationship between O 3 exposure and AD [ 69 ]. Meanwhile, Jung et al. (2015) concluded that for an increase of 9.63 ppb in O 3 concentration, the risk of AD increases 1.06 times in the elderly ≥ 65 years (adjusted HR 1.06, 1.00–1.12) [ 43 ]. The difference between the results of these studies can be caused by different characteristics in the study population, study design, sample size, setting, and different measurements of exposure to air pollutants.

In addition, the researchers found evidence of the adverse effect of exposure to air pollutants on episodic memory. Several animal studies showed that exposure to inhaled PM 2.5 can impair neural systems that underlie episodic memory processes [ 113 , 114 , 115 ]. So far, limited longitudinal epidemiological studies have been conducted about PM 2.5 and episodic memory in humans [ 116 , 117 , 118 ]. The results of a prospective study on 998 elderly women aged 73 to 87 years old in the US showed that chronic exposure to PM 2.5 in residential environments was associated with a rapid decline in episodic memory, especially in measures of immediate recall and learning of new material [ 68 ]. A decrease in verbal episodic memory (such as the ability to remember details, with context, from daily and distant experiences) is prominent in AD and can be detected in the preclinical stage [ 119 , 120 ]. For example, impaired episodic memory is one of the main criteria for the classic diagnosis of AD by Dubois et al. (2007), which appears early in the course of the disease [ 99 ]. Studies have proven that the rapid decline of this memory is somewhat associated with an increase in the Alzheimer's disease pattern similarity (AD-PS) score [ 68 ]. AD-PS is a brain MRI-based structural biomarker that reflects high-dimensional gray matter atrophies in brain regions vulnerable to AD neuropathology [ 68 ]. In addition to exposure to environmental factors, natural aging can also lead to a decrease in episodic memory, which is related to the decrease in the volume of the hippocampus and other structures of the medial temporal lobe [ 121 ]. The medial temporal lobe and its structural components, especially the hippocampus, play an important role in encoding (learning, recalling) and retrieving (recalling) the details of events that make up episodic memories [ 121 ].

Zhao et al. (2019) showed in a human imaging study that atrophy in hippocampal subfields can impose a wide range of effects on measures of episodic memory (immediate recalls, delayed-recalls, and recognition) [ 122 ]. Although so far the relative roles of hippocampal subfields (e.g. cornu ammonis (CA, CA2-3), CA4-denate gyrus, presubiculum, subiculum) have not been determined in the processes related to encoding and retrieval, animal studies have proven the adverse effects of PMs on the morphology and functional changes in hippocampal subfields. Also, we can mention the decrease in apical dendritic spine density and dendritic branches in the CA1 and CA3 regions [ 123 ], decrease in synaptic function in CA1 neurons [ 114 , 124 ], decrease in basic protein in white matter, and increase in atrophy of neurites in the CA1 region [ 125 ]. Based on the studies, encoding is done by CA2, CA3, and dentate gyrus, while CA1 and subiculum are involved in retrieval [ 126 ]. According to the results obtained by Younan et al. (2020), it seems that the significant reduction of episodic memory processes (immediate recall/new learning) caused by exposure to PM 2.5 is more due to the adverse effects of this pollutant on hippocampal subfields associated with encoding, such as CA2, CA3, and dentate gyrus [ 68 ]. These neurotoxicological results indicate that some hippocampal subfields may be more sensitive to the adverse effects of particulate matter than other subfields.

So far, many studies have proven the existence of an inverse relationship between exposure to air pollutants and white matter volume, gray matter volume, and cerebral cortex thickness in brain areas affected by AD [ 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 ]. Wilker et al. (2015) showed in a study that with increasing PM 2.5 concentration, brain volume decreases by 0.32% [ 131 ], which was consistent with the results obtained by Chen et al. (2015) regarding the reduction of white matter volume and the volume of the whole brain due to exposure to high concentrations of this pollutant [ 128 ]. The results of the study by Crous-Bou et al. (2020) showed that chronic exposure to air pollutants, especially NO 2 and PM 10 , is associated with a decrease in the thickness of the cerebral cortex in brain areas affected by AD [ 1 ], which is consistent with the results of study done by Casanova et al. (2016) [ 127 ]. In a voxel-based morphometry study, they examined the local brain structure related to PMs in elderly women and concluded that exposure to PM 2.5 has an inverse relationship with the reduction of the frontal cortex [ 127 ]. Furthermore, Cho et al. (2023) showed that a 10 µg/m 3 increase in (β = -1.13; 95% CI, − 1.73 to − 0.53) PM 10 and a 10 ppb increase in (β = -1.09; 95% CI, − 1.40 to − 0.78) NO 2 are significantly associated with decreasing MoCA score. Also, these two pollutants were significantly associated with an increase in AD-like cortical atrophy scores and a decrease in the thickness of the cerebral cortex [ 129 ].

PET ligand studies indicate that gray matter atrophy of the brain can be caused by tau neuropathological processes, which can lead to cognitive decline in patients [ 132 , 133 , 134 ]. Several plausible biological mechanisms explain the rapid development or onset of neurological diseases caused by exposure to air pollution. After inhalation, air pollutants can pass through the BBB and enter the brain through the olfactory bulb or systemic circulation [ 135 ] causing oxidative stress and systemic inflammatory responses, disruption of the blood–brain barrier, deposition of peptides beta-amyloid (Aβ) and activation of microglia and as a result may exacerbate the disease progression of AD [ 136 , 137 ]. In addition, it has been reported that NO 2 is associated with inflammatory responses and markers such as increased serum concentration of systemic interleukin IL-6 [ 138 ]. Recent studies have shown that exposure to air pollutants can be effective in causing neurological and cognitive disorders by contributing to AD pathologies such as brain Aβ and tau burden [ 139 , 140 ]. Researchers use the levels of Aβ, total tau (t-tau) and phospho-tau (p-tau) in CSF as specific biomarkers for the clinical diagnosis of probable AD [ 99 ]. Some studies have proven that CSF Aβ, as the first marker of AD, shows abnormal levels several years before the appearance of impaired memory [ 141 , 142 ]. Diagnosis of early AD in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) can be done by detecting low levels of Aβ and high levels of p-tau and t-tau in CSF [ 143 ].

Reports show that living in areas with high air pollution can lead to the accumulation of Aβ in neurons and astrocytes [ 144 ]. Also, the results obtained from the study of Fu et al. (2022) indicate that the increase in the concentration of each unit of ln-transformed Ʃ-OH PAHs in the urine of coke oven workers was associated with an increase of 9.416 units of P-Tau231 in plasma and a decrease of 0.281 in visuospatial/executive function [ 145 ]. Tau is a microtubule-associated protein that contributes to the stability of axonal microtubules in the brain [ 146 ]. The presence of hyperphosphorylated tau leads to the formation of neurofibrillary tangles, which is considered a pathological characteristic of AD [ 147 ]. Some researchers have reported changes in the concentration of phosphorylated tau as a possible sign of the progression of some neurological diseases [ 148 , 149 ]. This is consistent with the results of Nie et al.'s (2013) study, which showed that benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) leads to tau 231 hyperphosphorylation [ 150 ].

Non-Alzheimer’s dementia

Among the 53 selected articles, 41 studies investigated the effect of air pollutants on the incidence of non-Alzheimer's dementia (Appendix A3), which were published during the years 2014–2023. Except for the studies of Anna Oudin (2016) [ 44 ], Anna Oudin (2018) [ 49 ], Iain M Carey (2018) [ 21 ], Anna Oudin (2019) [ 53 ], Han-Wei Zhang (2019) [ 54 ], Zorana J. Andersen (2022) [ 67 ], Lilian Calderón-Garcidueñas (2022) [ 38 , 39 ], and Haisu Zhang (2023) [ 40 ], the rest of the articles included people over the age of 60 years old.

Non-Alzheimer's dementia accounts for almost half of dementia cases [ 151 ]. The most common non-Alzheimer's neurological disorders include vascular dementia (VaD) [ 152 , 153 ], Parkinson's disease (PD) [ 154 ], Fronto-Temporal Dementia (FTD) [ 155 ] and Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) [ 92 ], which are characterized by the accumulation of natural proteins in the CNS, as proteinopathies [ 156 ].

Vascular Dementia

The present study showed that exposure to air pollutants may have a direct effect on the incidence and progression of VaD. In a longitudinal study, Oudin et al. (2016) concluded that the probability of VaD diagnosis, with HR = 1.43, was higher among citizens with the highest exposure to traffic-related air pollution than those with low exposure [ 44 ]. These results were consistent with the study conducted by Cerza et al. (2019) [ 52 ]. In a longitudinal study on elderly men and women in Italy, they reported that chronic exposure to NO x , NO 2 , PM 10 and PM 2.5 has a positive relationship with VaD. In addition, a direct relationship between exposure to O 3 and NO x with dementia hospitalization was also observed (O 3 : HR = 1.06 per 10 μg/m 3 ; NO x : HR = 1.01; per 20 μg/m 3 ) [ 52 ].

According to the studies, chronic exposure to air pollutants can cause vascular damage caused by large vessel atherosclerosis and small vessel arteriosclerosis and cause cortical and subcortical infarcts, sub-infarct ischemic lesions, and large and small cerebral hemorrhages [ 153 , 157 ]. Researchers identify these factors as responsible for the initiation of VaD [ 153 ]. Moreover, dysfunction and degeneration of the neurovascular unit, which consists of a network of pericytes, myocytes, astrocytes, neurons, oligodendrocytes, endothelial cells and cerebral microvessels, aggravate the pathogenesis of VaD by disrupting the BBB [ 158 ]; which require hospital care to treat and prevent further side effects.

Also, the results obtained from a case–control study in Taiwan indicate that exposure to high levels of NO 2 significantly increases the risk of developing VaD [ 31 ]. According to the studies, some researchers showed that for an increase of 5 μg/m 3 NO 2 , the risk of VaD increases by 1.62 [ 74 ]. However, some studies have reached contradictory results. A cohort study conducted in England estimated the prevalence of VaD among men and women aged 50–79 years old at 29%, but found little evidence of the effect of air pollution on this neurological disorder [ 21 ]. Differences in results could be due to differences in instruments used, study design, and sample population characteristics.

VaD is a pathological condition in the elderly characterized by progressive cognitive dysfunction and is the second most common form of dementia, after AD [ 159 ]. This disorder is manifested by the loss of rationality, judgment skills, and especially cognitive functions and memory, and patients usually survive only 5–7 years after its onset [ 160 ]. Multifactorial etiopathology, diverse clinical manifestations, and numerous clinical subgroups are among the characteristics of VaD [ 152 ]. Chronic reduction in cerebral blood flow is one of the main characteristics of this neurological disorder [ 161 ], which results in the departure of brain blood vessels from regulation. This causes functional damage to capillaries, arteries and venules and damage to myelinated axons, and by creating a lesion in the white matter, it starts the pathophysiological process of VaD [ 162 ]. Small vessel disease (leukoaraiosis and lacunar infarcts), microinfarcts, microhemorrhages, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, and mixed vascular lesions are among the most important debilitating lesions of VaD [ 163 , 164 ]. In addition, chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) has been reported as the main cause of this type of dementia [ 163 , 165 ]. The results obtained from the studies indicate that CCH is associated with both neurodegeneration and dementia [ 166 , 167 ]. Studies have shown that exposure to PMs can increase CCH-induced white matter neurotoxicity by enhancing pathophysiology [ 168 , 169 ]. In a recent epidemiological study, Chen et al. (2015) showed that exposure to PM 2.5 was associated with a decrease in regional white matter volume in the corpus callosum and frontal/temporal lobes of elderly women [ 128 ], which is consistent with the results of the study by Erickson et al. (2020) was matched [ 170 ]. In addition, experimental data obtained from animal studies showed that exposure to air pollutants, especially PMs, causes changes in myelin in the CA1 area of the hippocampus in rodents [ 171 ], which can increase the risk of developing neurological disorders and types of dementia.

Dementia due to Parkinson’s disease

The results of the studies retrieved in this systematic review showed that dementia due to PD, a dementia that begins 1 year or more after well-established Parkinson's disease [ 92 ], can be considered as one of the adverse effects of exposure to air pollutants, especially PMs. Shi et al. (2020) in a national cohort study in the USA showed that for an annual increase of 5 μg/m 3 PM 2.5 , the probability of the first hospital admission due to PD and other related dementias will increase by 1.13 times for the American Medicare population (HR = 1.13) [ 75 ]. In this regard, Yuchi et al. (2020) also obtained similar results [ 32 ]. In a population-based cohort study in Canada, they proved that exposure to air pollutants increases the risk of PD (HR for PMs = 1.09, HR for BC = 1.03, HR for NO 2  = 1.12), but no relationship was observed on the occurrence of AD [ 32 ]. These results were consistent with those obtained from the studies of Rhew et al. (2021) [ 33 ], Yitshak-Sade et al. (2021) [ 61 ] and Calderón-Garcidueñas et al. [ 39 ].

The studies have demonstrated that over 80% of individuals with Parkinson's disease develop dementia [ 172 ]. Generally, the point prevalence of dementia in patients with Parkinson's has been determined to be approximately 25%, which has a higher prevalence in men than in women [ 173 ]. Researchers have proven that the risk of dementia increased as the duration of the disease increased, so that this probability reached 50% 10 years after the diagnosis of Parkinson's [ 91 ]. Research indicates that dementia occurs in patients who survive for more than 10 years [ 93 ].

PD, containing Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites, is one of the common brain disorders associated with aging and is characterized by the accumulation of α-synuclein in intracellular inclusions [ 154 ]. The main pathological characteristic of PD is the progressive loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, which causes Parkinsonism in PD patients [ 174 ]. Parkinsonism is a clinical syndrome characterized by rest tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia and gait dysfunction with postural instability [ 174 ]. Neurological disorders such as progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), corticobasal syndrome (CBS), or FTD may overlap in their symptoms with PD [ 156 ]. Reports show that a significant number of people with PD suffer from cognitive impairment and PD dementia during their disease [ 172 , 175 ]. In some cases, co-existing pathology of TDP-43 can also be detected in PD patients [ 176 ]. TDP-43 is a protein biomarker whose accumulation can diagnose and classify neurological disorders [ 177 ]. The available evidence indicates that exposure to air pollutants plays a role in the accumulation of this protein [ 178 ]. Neuropathological examination of 44 children (average age 12.89 ± 4.9 years old) and 159 young adults (average age 29.2 ± 6.8 years old) living in Mexico City showed that exposure to PM 2.5 and O 3 pollutants can cause AD and PD in 23% of people. Furthermore, it causes TDP-43 pathology in 18.7% of cases [ 179 , 180 ], which is in line with the results of the present systematic review.

Fronto-Temporal Dementia

FTD is a group of neurodegenerative disorders and although clinically and pathologically heterogeneous, they mainly affect the frontal and/or temporal lobes of the brain [ 156 , 181 ]. This type of dementia is usually characterized by predominant frontal or temporal atrophy, and atrophy in the fronto-polar region is considered a special symptom of FTD [ 182 ]. The main clinical manifestations of FTD include two types of behavioral variant (bvFTD) and primary progressive aphasia (PPA). BvFTD mainly leads to personality changes and behavioral problems; While PPA causes gradual deterioration in speech/language and has a lower prevalence than bvFTD [ 183 ]. Primary Parkinsonism is observed in more than 20% of patients with FTD, mostly in bvFTD patients, and then non-fluent variant primary progressive aphasia occurs [ 184 ]. Each of the mentioned stages can have an effective role in reducing people's lives and increasing the economic burden for health systems by creating FTD.

In the current review, only two studies investigated FTD. Parra et al. (2022) concluded in a national cohort in the UK that there was a strong association between exposure to PM 2.5 , NO 2 , and NO x with the incidence of AD and VaD but not with FTD [ 73 ]. Meanwhile, Calderón-Garcidueñas et al. (2022) obtained completely contradictory results in the study of neurological disorders caused by exposure to PM 2.5 in young adults living in the metropolis of Mexico City [ 39 ]. They showed that chronic exposure to PM 2.5 higher than the values recommended by US-EPA causes a significant reduction of gray matter in higher-order cortical areas, which is usually associated with AD, PD and FTD in educated Mexicans [ 39 ]. The discrepancy in the results of these two studies can be explained by the difference in the number of cases, the age range of the cases, and the country under study.

Strengths and limitations of the study

Although several review studies related to exposure to air pollutants and the incidence of dementia have been published in recent years [ 135 , 185 , 186 , 187 ], the present systematic review has several notable strengths that distinguish our study from other review studies. First, this study is the most up-to-date systematic review published related to the role of chronic exposure to air pollutants on dementia (Alzheimer's/Non-Alzheimer's).

Second, unlike other studies, we did not impose any restrictions on publication time [ 135 ], study design [ 185 , 186 , 187 ], and geographic scope [ 185 ] in the systematic search, which allowed us to find more studies and more comprehensive results. In addition, we tried to perform a systematic search in the largest and the most reliable databases to ensure the inclusion of all eligible studies. This resulted in the extraction of 53 related studies that met the inclusion criteria for the present review. However, our investigations showed that none of the recent review articles discussed the current number of studies [ 135 , 185 , 186 , 187 ].

Third, due to the inclusion of an acceptable number of articles in the present systematic review, the results obtained from examining a substantial population of subjects, 173,698,774 people, were presented, which indicates the comprehensiveness and generalizability of the results of the present study.

Fourth, our study included types of dementia, such as Alzheimer's and non-Alzheimer's, and related dementias. This will help researchers to understand the impact of air pollution on each type of dementia and the action mechanism of pollutants in creating structural changes in the brain.

Fifth, in this study, in addition to criterion pollutants, other common and dangerous air pollutants, including FA, BTEX, and PAHs, were also investigated; these pollutants were not investigated in any of the published reviews.

However, the lack of access to the full texts of some studies and the examination of a limited number of pollutants were among the inevitable limitations of this systematic review.

Gaps and Recommendations

An in-depth review of published studies indicates the existence of some gaps in this important health field, including the lack of sufficient studies related to the role of air pollutants on FTD. As mentioned earlier, we could find only two studies related to the effect of exposure to PM 2.5 , PM 10 , NO 2 , and NO x on FTD [ 39 , 73 ], which makes it impossible to compare the results with each other. Therefore, it is recommended that more researchers investigate the impact of exposure to different pollutants in diverse populations on FTD, to cover this important gap.

Moreover, the presence of various confounding factors can also be effective in achieving contradictory results in studies. Researchers believe that factors such as aging, early retirement, smoking, body mass index (BMI), alcohol consumption, and physical inactivity are among the confounding factors that can accelerate the process of dementia [ 66 ]. Also, studies have proven that co-morbidities, such as cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular disease, diabetes and mental health, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), chronic exposure to noise, insufficient sleep, and unhealthy diet can also play an effective role in occurring or developing dementia at an older age [ 188 ]. Research has identified several potential socioeconomic factors that can influence the relationship between air pollution exposure and neurological outcomes at the individual and regional levels. Based on this, living in deprived neighborhoods and on the outskirts of cities increases the possibility of exposure to high levels of air pollution [ 189 ]. Studies have also shown that lower levels of education, and poor access to socioeconomic benefits, such as health care, are associated with an increased risk of dementia in the future [ 190 , 191 ]. Therefore, it is necessary to consider strategies to control the impact of confounding factors to achieve more accurate results.

Also, due to the limited number of studies related to occupational exposure to pollutants in dementia, it is recommended to conduct more research to investigate occupational exposure in workers of different occupations and compare and analyze their results.

Since it has been proven that prenatal exposure is effective in the occurrence of some diseases in the future; therefore, it is recommended that cohort studies be designed and implemented to investigate the role of prenatal exposure to air pollutants and dementia at older ages.

The results of this systematic review showed that chronic exposure to air pollutants, especially PM 2.5 and NO 2 , could have a potential role in the development and progression of AD and non-Alzheimer's dementia in old age. The review of selected studies indicates that the relationship between exposure to PM 2.5 and then NO 2 and O 3 and suffering from dementia has been the focus of researchers in the last 5 years. No study was found that investigated the effect of FA on dementia and met the inclusion criteria for this study. In addition, BTEX and PAHs have been neglected by researchers, which is surprising due to the widespread presence of these pollutants in the environment and industries. Therefore, conducting more studies on the impact of other air pollutants, including FA, BTEX and PAHs, on the incidence of dementia and cognitive disorders is highly recommended. We believe that the identification and prevention of modifiable risk factors, such as exposure to toxic air in conjunction with behavioral interventions, can help prevent or delay the progression of neurodegenerative disorders and significantly reduce the burden of those disorders on society.

Availability of data and materials

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Code availability

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Alzheimer's dementia

Blood-brain barrier

Black carbon

Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and Xylenes

Chronic cerebral hypoperfusion

Dementia with Lewy Bodies

Disability-adjusted life years

Formaldehyde

Parkinson Disease

Particulate Matter

Particles with a diameter of 10 µm or less

Particles with a diameter of 2.5 µm or less

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

The Montreal Cognitive Assessment

World Health Organization

Crous-Bou M, Gascon M, Gispert JD, Cirach M, Sánchez-Benavides G, Falcon C, et al. Impact of urban environmental exposures on cognitive performance and brain structure of healthy individuals at risk for Alzheimer’s dementia. Environ Int. 2020;138:105546.

Article   PubMed   CAS   Google Scholar  

Shi L, Wu X, Danesh Yazdi M, Braun D, Abu Awad Y, Wei Y, et al. Long-term effects of PM2·5 on neurological disorders in the American Medicare population: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet Planet Health. 2020;4(12):e557–65.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Feigin VL, Nichols E, Alam T, Bannick MS, Beghi E, Blake N, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of neurological disorders, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(5):459–80.

Article   Google Scholar  

Maragakis NJ, Rothstein JD. Mechanisms of Disease: astrocytes in neurodegenerative disease. Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2006;2(12):679–89.

Lipnicki DM, Crawford JD, Dutta R, Thalamuthu A, Kochan NA, Andrews G, et al. Age-related cognitive decline and associations with sex, education and apolipoprotein E genotype across ethnocultural groups and geographic regions: a collaborative cohort study. PLoS Med. 2017;14(3):e1002261.

Gao Q, Zang E, Bi J, Dubrow R, Lowe SR, Chen H, et al. Long-term ozone exposure and cognitive impairment among Chinese older adults: A cohort study. Environ Int. 2022;160:107072.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   CAS   Google Scholar  

Jia L, Quan M, Fu Y, Zhao T, Li Y, Wei C, et al. Dementia in China: epidemiology, clinical management, and research advances. Lancet Neurol. 2020;19(1):81–92.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

WHO. Global status report on the public health response to dementia 2021 [Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240033245 .

Nichols E, Szoeke CE, Vollset SE, Abbasi N, Abd-Allah F, Abdela J, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(1):88–106.

Gachupin F, Romero MD, Ortega WJ, Jojola R, Hendrie H, Torres EP, et al. Cognition, Depressive Symptoms and Vascular Factors among Southwest Tribal Elders. Ethn Dis. 2016;26(2):235–44.

Park KM, Sung JM, Kim WJ, An SK, Namkoong K, Lee E, et al. Population-based dementia prediction model using Korean public health examination data: A cohort study. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(2):e0211957.

Ran J, Zhang Y, Han L, Sun S, Zhao S, Shen C, et al. The joint association of physical activity and fine particulate matter exposure with incident dementia in elderly Hong Kong residents. Environ Int. 2021;156.

Aridi Y S, Walker J L, Wright ORL. The Association between the Mediterranean Dietary Pattern and Cognitive Health: A Systematic Review. Nutrients [Internet]. 2017;9(7):674.

Solfrizzi V, Custodero C, Lozupone M, Imbimbo BP, Valiani V, Agosti P, et al. Relationships of Dietary Patterns, Foods, and Micro- and Macronutrients with Alzheimer’s Disease and Late-Life Cognitive Disorders: A Systematic Review. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2017;59:815–49.

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Block ML, Calderón-Garcidueñas L. Air pollution: mechanisms of neuroinflammation and CNS disease. Trends Neurosci. 2009;32(9):506–16.

Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Azzarelli B, Acuna H, Garcia R, Gambling TM, Osnaya N, et al. Air pollution and brain damage. Toxicol Pathol. 2002;30(3):373–89.

Jeremy W. Air pollution and brain health: an emerging issue. Lancet. 2017;390:1345–422.

Google Scholar  

Mork D, Braun D, Zanobetti A. Time-lagged relationships between a decade of air pollution exposure and first hospitalization with Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias. Environ Int. 2023;171.

Li Z, Christensen GM, Lah JJ, Marcus M, Russell AG, Ebelt S, et al. Neighborhood characteristics as confounders and effect modifiers for the association between air pollution exposure and subjective cognitive functioning. Environ Res. 2022;212.

Livingston G, Huntley J, Sommerlad A, Ames D, Ballard C, Banerjee S, et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. Lancet. 2020;396(10248):413–46.

Carey IM, Anderson HR, Atkinson RW, Beevers SD, Cook DG, Strachan DP, et al. Are noise and air pollution related to the incidence of dementia? A cohort study in London, England. BMJ Open. 2018;8(9).

Mortamais M, Gutierrez L-A, de Hoogh K, Chen J, Vienneau D, Carrière I, et al. Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and risk of dementia: Results of the prospective Three-City Study. Environ Int. 2021;148.

Guxens M, Lubczyńska MJ, Muetzel RL, Dalmau-Bueno A, Jaddoe VWV, Hoek G, et al. Air Pollution Exposure During Fetal Life, Brain Morphology, and Cognitive Function in School-Age Children. Biol Psychiatry. 2018;84(4):295–303.

Pujol J, Martínez-Vilavella G, Macià D, Fenoll R, Alvarez-Pedrerol M, Rivas I, et al. Traffic pollution exposure is associated with altered brain connectivity in school children. Neuroimage. 2016;129:175–84.

Forns J, Dadvand P, Foraster M, Alvarez-Pedrerol M, Rivas I, López-Vicente M, et al. Traffic-Related Air Pollution, Noise at School, and Behavioral Problems in Barcelona Schoolchildren: A Cross-Sectional Study. Environ Health Perspect. 2016;124(4):529–35.

Suades-González E, Gascon M, Guxens M, Sunyer J. Air Pollution and Neuropsychological Development: A Review of the Latest Evidence. Endocrinology. 2015;156(10):3473–82.

Rethlefsen ML, Kirtley S, Waffenschmidt S, Ayala AP, Moher D, Page MJ, et al. PRISMA-S: an extension to the PRISMA Statement for Reporting Literature Searches in Systematic Reviews. Syst Rev. 2021;10(1):39.

Santos WMd, Secoli SR, Püschel VAdA. The Joanna Briggs Institute approach for systematic reviews. Revista latino-americana de enfermagem. 2018;26:3074.

Kukull WA, Larson EB, Bowen JD, McCormick WC, Teri L, Pfanschmidt ML, et al. Solvent Exposure as a Risk Factor for Alzheimer’s Disease: A Case-Control Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1995;141(11):1059–71.

Wu Y-C, Lin Y-C, Yu H-L, Chen J-H, Chen T-F, Sun Y, et al. Association between air pollutants and dementia risk in the elderly. Alzheimer’s Dement. Diagn Assess Dis Monit. 2015;1(2):220–8.

Li C-Y, Li C-H, Martini S, Hou W-H. Association between air pollution and risk of vascular dementia: A multipollutant analysis in Taiwan. Environ Int. 2019;133: 105233.

Yuchi W, Sbihi H, Davies H, Tamburic L, Brauer M. Road proximity, air pollution, noise, green space and neurologic disease incidence: a population-based cohort study. Environ Health. 2020;19(1):8.

Rhew SH, Kravchenko J, Lyerly HK. Exposure to low-dose ambient fine particulate matter PM2.5 and Alzheimer’s disease, non-Alzheimer’s dementia, and Parkinson’s disease in North Carolina. PLOS ONE. 2021;16(7):e0253253.

Lin FC, Chen CY, Lin CW, Wu MT, Chen HY, Huang P. Air Pollution Is Associated with Cognitive Deterioration of Alzheimer’s Disease. Gerontology. 2021;68(1):53–61.

Tan J, Li N, Wang X, Chen G, Yan L, Wang L, et al. Associations of particulate matter with dementia and mild cognitive impairment in China: A multicenter cross-sectional study. The Innovation. 2021;2(3).

Petkus AJ, Younan D, Wang X, Beavers DP, Espeland MA, Gatz M, et al. Associations Between Air Pollution Exposure and Empirically Derived Profiles of Cognitive Performance in Older Women. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2021;84:1691–707.

Semmens EO, Leary CS, Fitzpatrick AL, Ilango SD, Park C, Adam CE, et al. Air pollution and dementia in older adults in the Ginkgo Evaluation of Memory Study. Alzheimers Dement. 2023;19(2):549–59.

Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Chávez-Franco DA, Luévano-Castro SC, Macías-Escobedo E, Hernández-Castillo A, Carlos-Hernández E, et al. Metals, Nanoparticles, Particulate Matter, and Cognitive Decline. Front neurol. 2022;12:794071.

Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Hernández-Luna J, Mukherjee P S, Styner M, Chávez-Franco D A, Luévano-Castro S C, et al. Hemispheric Cortical, Cerebellar and Caudate Atrophy Associated to Cognitive Impairment in Metropolitan Mexico City Young Adults Exposed to Fine Particulate Matter Air Pollution. Toxics [Internet]. 2022;10(4):156.

Zhang H, Shi L, Ebelt S T, D’Souza R R, Schwartz J D, Scovronick N, et al. Short-term associations between ambient air pollution and emergency department visits for Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias. Environmental Epidemiology. 2022;7(1):e237.

Ranft U, Schikowski T, Sugiri D, Krutmann J, Krämer U. Long-term exposure to traffic-related particulate matter impairs cognitive function in the elderly. Environ Res. 2009;109(8):1004–11.

Chang K-H, Chang M-Y, Muo C-H, Wu T-N, Chen C-Y, Kao C-H. Increased Risk of Dementia in Patients Exposed to Nitrogen Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide: A Population-Based Retrospective Cohort Study. PLoS ONE. 2014;9(8): e103078.

Jung C-R, Lin Y-T, Hwang B-F. Ozone, Particulate Matter, and Newly Diagnosed Alzheimer’s Disease: A Population-Based Cohort Study in Taiwan. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2015;44:573–84.

Oudin A, Forsberg B, Adolfsson Annelie N, Lind N, Modig L, Nordin M, et al. Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Dementia Incidence in Northern Sweden: A Longitudinal Study. Environ Health Perspect. 2016;124(3):306–12.

Chen H, Kwong JC, Copes R, Hystad P, van Donkelaar A, Tu K, et al. Exposure to ambient air pollution and the incidence of dementia: A population-based cohort study. Environ Int. 2017;108:271–7.

Culqui DR, Linares C, Ortiz C, Carmona R, Díaz J. Association between environmental factors and emergency hospital admissions due to Alzheimer’s disease in Madrid. Sci Total Environ. 2017;592:451–7.

Chen J-C, Wang X, Serre M. Particulate Air Pollutants, Brain Structure, and Neurocognitive Disorders in Older Women. Res Rep Health Eff Inst. 2017;2017(193):1–65.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Andersson J, Oudin A, Sundström A, Forsberg B, Adolfsson R, Nordin M. Road traffic noise, air pollution, and risk of dementia – results from the Betula project. Environ Res. 2018;166:334–9.

Oudin A, Segersson D, Adolfsson R, Forsberg B. Association between air pollution from residential wood burning and dementia incidence in a longitudinal study in Northern Sweden. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(6):e0198283.

Lee H, Kang JM, Myung W, Choi J, Lee C, Na DL, et al. Exposure to ambient fine particles and neuropsychiatric symptoms in cognitive disorder: A repeated measure analysis from the CREDOS (Clinical Research Center for Dementia of South Korea) study. Sci Total Environ. 2019;668:411–8.

Li R-L, Ho Y-C, Luo C-W, Lee S-S, Kuan Y-H. Influence of PM2.5 Exposure Level on the Association between Alzheimer’s Disease and Allergic Rhinitis: A National Population-Based Cohort Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health [Internet]. 2019;16(18):3357.

Cerza F, Renzi M, Gariazzo C, Davoli M, Michelozzi P, Forastiere F, et al. Long-term exposure to air pollution and hospitalization for dementia in the Rome longitudinal study. Environ Health. 2019;18(1):72.

Oudin A, Andersson J, Sundström A, Nordin Adolfsson A, Oudin Åström D, Adolfsson R, et al. Traffic-related air pollution as a risk factor for dementia: no clear modifying effects of APOE ɛ4 in the Betula cohort. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2019;71(3):733–40.

Zhang H-W, Kok VC, Chuang S-C, Tseng C-H, Lin C-T, Li T-C, et al. Long-Term Exposure to Ambient Hydrocarbons Increases Dementia Risk in People Aged 50 Years and above in Taiwan. Curr Alzheimer Res. 2019;16(14):1276–89.

Smargiassi A, Sidi EAL, Robert L-E, Plante C, Haddad M, Gamache P, et al. Exposure to ambient air pollutants and the onset of dementia in Québec. Canada Environ Res. 2020;190:109870.

Ilango SD, Chen H, Hystad P, van Donkelaar A, Kwong JC, Tu K, et al. The role of cardiovascular disease in the relationship between air pollution and incident dementia: a population-based cohort study. Int J Epidemiol. 2020;49(1):36–44.

Paul KC, Haan M, Yu Y, Inoue K, Mayeda ER, Dang K, et al. Traffic-related air pollution and incident dementia: direct and indirect pathways through metabolic dysfunction. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2020;76(4):1477–91.

Ran J, Schooling CM, Han L, Sun S, Zhao S, Zhang X, et al. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and dementia incidence: A cohort study in Hong Kong. Environ Pollut. 2021;271:116303.

Shaffer Rachel M, Blanco Magali N, Li G, Adar Sara D, Carone M, Szpiro Adam A, et al. Fine Particulate Matter and Dementia Incidence in the Adult Changes in Thought Study. Environ Health Perspect. 2021;129(8):087001.

Diana Y, Xinhui W, Ramon C, Ryan B, Sarah AG, Santiago S, et al. PM_2.5 Associated With Gray Matter Atrophy Reflecting Increased Alzheimer Risk in Older Women. Neurology. 2021;96(8):e1190.

Yitshak-Sade M, Nethery R, Schwartz J D, Mealli F, Dominici F, Di Q, et al. PM2.5 and hospital admissions among Medicare enrollees with chronic debilitating brain disorders. Sci Total Environ. 2021;755:142524.

Shaffer RM, Li G, Adar SD, Dirk Keene C, Latimer CS, Crane PK, et al. Fine Particulate Matter and Markers of Alzheimer’s Disease Neuropathology at Autopsy in a Community-Based Cohort. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2021;79:1761–73.

Sullivan KJ, Ran X, Wu F, Chang C-CH, Sharma R, Jacobsen E, et al. Ambient fine particulate matter exposure and incident mild cognitive impairment and dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2021;69(8):2185–94.

Kriit HK, Forsberg B, Åström DO, Oudin A. Annual dementia incidence and monetary burden attributable to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure in Sweden. Environmental Health. 2021;20(1):65.

Shi L, Steenland K, Li H, Liu P, Zhang Y, Lyles RH, et al. A national cohort study (2000–2018) of long-term air pollution exposure and incident dementia in older adults in the United States. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):6754.

Wu J, Grande G, Stafoggia M, Ljungman P, Laukka EJ, Eneroth K, et al. Air pollution as a risk factor for Cognitive Impairment no Dementia (CIND) and its progression to dementia: A longitudinal study. Environ Int. 2022;160: 107067.

Andersen ZJ, Zhang J, Jørgensen JT, Samoli E, Liu S, Chen J, et al. Long-term exposure to air pollution and mortality from dementia, psychiatric disorders, and suicide in a large pooled European cohort: ELAPSE study. Environ Int. 2022;170:107581.

Younan D, Wang X, Gruenewald T, Gatz M, Serre ML, Vizuete W, et al. Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Alzheimer’s Disease Risk: Role of Exposure to Ambient Fine Particles. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A. 2022;77(5):977–85.

He F, Tang J, Zhang T, Lin J, Li F, Gu X, et al. Impact of air pollution exposure on the risk of Alzheimer’s disease in China: A community-based cohort study. Environ Res. 2022;205:112318.

Wood D, Evangelopoulos D, Beevers S, Kitwiroon N, Katsouyanni K. Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and the Incidence of Dementia in the Elderly of England: The ELSA Cohort. Int J Environ Res Public Health [Internet]. 2022;19(23):15889.

Chen C, Whitsel EA, Espeland MA, Snetselaar L, Hayden KM, Lamichhane AP, et al. B vitamin intakes modify the association between particulate air pollutants and incidence of all-cause dementia: Findings from the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study. Alzheimers Dement. 2022;18(11):2188–98.

Letellier N, Gutierrez L-A, Duchesne J, Chen C, Ilango S, Helmer C, et al. Air quality improvement and incident dementia: Effects of observed and hypothetical reductions in air pollutant using parametric g-computation. Alzheimers Dement. 2022;18(12):2509–17.

Parra KL, Alexander GE, Raichlen DA, Klimentidis YC, Furlong MA. Exposure to air pollution and risk of incident dementia in the UK Biobank. Environ Res. 2022;209: 112895.

Trevenen ML, Heyworth J, Almeida OP, Yeap BB, Hankey GJ, Golledge J, et al. Ambient air pollution and risk of incident dementia in older men living in a region with relatively low concentrations of pollutants: The Health in Men Study. Environ Res. 2022;215.

Shi L, Zhu Q, Wang Y, Hao H, Zhang H, Schwartz J, et al. Incident dementia and long-term exposure to constituents of fine particle air pollution: A national cohort study in the United States. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2023;120(1).

Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. “Mini-mental state”: a practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res. 1975;12(3):189–98.

Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Bédirian V, Charbonneau S, Whitehead V, Collin I, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A Brief Screening Tool For Mild Cognitive Impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005;53(4):695–9.

Damian AM, Jacobson SA, Hentz JG, Belden CM, Shill HA, Sabbagh MN, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment and the Mini-Mental State Examination as Screening Instruments for Cognitive Impairment: Item Analyses and Threshold Scores. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2011;31(2):126–31.

Freitas S, Simões MR, Alves L, Santana I. Montreal cognitive assessment: validation study for mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2013;27(1):37–43.

Fasnacht JS, Wueest AS, Berres M, Thomann AE, Krumm S, Gutbrod K, et al. Conversion between the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and the Mini-Mental Status Examination. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2023;71(3):869–79.

Khachiyants N, Kim k. Mini-mental status examination mapping to the corresponding brain areas in dementia. Appl technol innov. 2012;12(3):60–3.

Tombaugh TN, McIntyre NJ. The Mini-Mental State Examination: A Comprehensive Review. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1992;40(9):922–35.

Ciesielska N, Sokołowski R, Mazur E, Podhorecka M, Polak-Szabela A, Kędziora-Kornatowska K. Is the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) test better suited than the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) detection among people aged over 60? Meta-analysis Psychiatr Pol. 2016;50(5):1039–52.

Dong Y, Lee WY, Basri NA, Collinson SL, Merchant RA, Venketasubramanian N, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment is superior to the Mini-Mental State Examination in detecting patients at higher risk of dementia. Int Psychogeriatr. 2012;24(11):1749–55.

Larner AJ. Screening utility of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): in place of – or as well as – the MMSE? Int Psychogeriatr. 2012;24(3):391–6.

Breton A, Casey D, Arnaoutoglou NA. Cognitive tests for the detection of mild cognitive impairment (MCI), the prodromal stage of dementia: Meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy studies. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2019;34(2):233–42.

Pinto TC, Machado L, Bulgacov TM, Rodrigues-Júnior AL, Costa ML, Ximenes RC, et al. Is the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) screening superior to the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) in the detection of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) in the elderly? Int Psychogeriatr. 2019;31(4):491–504.

Pendlebury ST, Markwick A, de Jager CA, Zamboni G, Wilcock GK, Rothwell PM. Differences in Cognitive Profile between TIA, Stroke and Elderly Memory Research Subjects: A Comparison of the MMSE and MoCA. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2012;34(1):48–54.

Siqueira GSA, Hagemann PdMS, Coelho DdS, Santos FHD, Bertolucci PHF. Can MoCA and MMSE Be Interchangeable Cognitive Screening Tools? A Systematic Review. Gerontol. 2019;59(6):e743–63.

Lloret A, Esteve D, Lloret M-A, Cervera-Ferri A, Lopez B, Nepomuceno M, et al. When Does Alzheimer′s Disease Really Start? The Role of Biomarkers. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(22):5536.

Williams-Gray CH, Mason SL, Evans JR, Foltynie T, Brayne C, Robbins TW, et al. The CamPaIGN study of Parkinson’s disease: 10-year outlook in an incident population-based cohort. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2013;84(11):1258–64.

Walker Z, Possin KL, Boeve BF, Aarsland D. Lewy body dementias. Lancet. 2015;386(10004):1683–97.

Svenningsson P, Westman E, Ballard C, Aarsland D. Cognitive impairment in patients with Parkinson’s disease: diagnosis, biomarkers, and treatment. Lancet Neurol. 2012;11(8):697–707.

Pedersen KF, Larsen JP, Tysnes O-B, Alves G. Prognosis of Mild Cognitive Impairment in Early Parkinson Disease: The Norwegian ParkWest Study. JAMA Neurol. 2013;70(5):580–6.

Williams-Gray CH, Evans JR, Goris A, Foltynie T, Ban M, Robbins TW, et al. The distinct cognitive syndromes of Parkinson’s disease: 5 year follow-up of the CamPaIGN cohort. Brain. 2009;132(11):2958–69.

Aarsland D, Kvaløy JT, Andersen K, Larsen JP, Tang MX, Lolk A, et al. The effect of age of onset of PD on risk of dementia. J Neurol. 2007;254(1):38–45.

Ballard C, Gauthier S, Corbett A, Brayne C, Aarsland D, Jones E. Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet. 2011;377(9770):1019–31.

Bobinski M, de Leon MJ, Wegiel J, DeSanti S, Convit A, Saint Louis LA, et al. The histological validation of post mortem magnetic resonance imaging-determined hippocampal volume in Alzheimer’s disease. Neuroscience. 1999;95(3):721–5.

Dubois B, Feldman HH, Jacova C, DeKosky ST, Barberger-Gateau P, Cummings J, et al. Research criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease: revising the NINCDS–ADRDA criteria. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6(8):734–46.

Jack CR, Knopman DS, Jagust WJ, Shaw LM, Aisen PS, Weiner MW, et al. Hypothetical model of dynamic biomarkers of the Alzheimer’s pathological cascade. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(1):119–28.

Scheltens P, Blennow K, Breteler MMB, de Strooper B, Frisoni GB, Salloway S, et al. Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet. 2016;388(10043):505–17.

Frisoni GB, Fox NC, Jack CR, Scheltens P, Thompson PM. The clinical use of structural MRI in Alzheimer disease. Nat Rev Neurol. 2010;6(2):67–77.

Fiandaca MS, Mapstone ME, Cheema AK, Federoff HJ. The critical need for defining preclinical biomarkers in Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2014;10(3S):S196–212.

Val JL, Bradley JK, Clifford R, Jack Jr, Matthew S, Stephen W, Maria S, et al. Comparison of 18 F-FDG and PiB PET in Cognitive Impairment. J Nucl Med. 2009;50(6):878.

Toledo JB, Xie SX, Trojanowski JQ, Shaw LM. Longitudinal change in CSF Tau and Aβ biomarkers for up to 48 months in ADNI. Acta Neuropathol. 2013;126(5):659–70.

Ewers M, Brendel M, Rizk-Jackson A, Rominger A, Bartenstein P, Schuff N, et al. Reduced FDG-PET brain metabolism and executive function predict clinical progression in elderly healthy subjects. Neuroimage Clin. 2014;4:45–52.

Martin SB, Smith CD, Collins HR, Schmitt FA, Gold BT. Evidence that volume of anterior medial temporal lobe is reduced in seniors destined for mild cognitive impairment. Neurobiol Aging. 2010;31(7):1099–106.

Dickerson BC, Stoub TR, Shah RC, Sperling RA, Killiany RJ, Albert MS, et al. Alzheimer-signature MRI biomarker predicts AD dementia in cognitively normal adults. Neurology. 2011;76(16):1395.

Bradford CD, David AW. MRI cortical thickness biomarker predicts AD-like CSF and cognitive decline in normal adults. Neurology. 2012;78(2):84.

Fox NC, Crum WR, Scahill RI, Stevens JM, Janssen JC, Rossor MN. Imaging of onset and progression of Alzheimer’s disease with voxel-compression mapping of serial magnetic resonance images. Lancet. 2001;358(9277):201–5.

Jayaraj RL, Rodriguez EA, Wang Y, Block ML. Outdoor Ambient Air Pollution and Neurodegenerative Diseases: the Neuroinflammation Hypothesis. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2017;4(2):166–79.

Araujo JA, Barajas B, Kleinman M, Wang X, Bennett BJ, Gong KW, et al. Ambient Particulate Pollutants in the Ultrafine Range Promote Early Atherosclerosis and Systemic Oxidative Stress. Circ Res. 2008;102(5):589–96.

Cheng L, Lau WKW, Fung TKH, Lau BWM, Chau BKH, Liang Y, et al. PM 2.5  Exposure Suppresses Dendritic Maturation in Subgranular Zone in Aged Rats. Neurotox Res. 2017;32(1):50–7.

Ku T, Li B, Gao R, Zhang Y, Yan W, Ji X, et al. NF-κB-regulated microRNA-574-5p underlies synaptic and cognitive impairment in response to atmospheric PM 2.5  aspiration. Part Fibre Toxicol. 2017;14(1):34.

Liu X, Qian X, Xing J, Wang J, Sun Y, Wang Qg, et al. Particulate Matter Triggers Depressive-Like Response Associated With Modulation of Inflammatory Cytokine Homeostasis and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Signaling Pathway in Mice. Toxicol Sci. 2018;164(1):278–88.

Weuve J, Puett RC, Schwartz J, Yanosky JD, Laden F, Grodstein F. Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution and Cognitive Decline in Older Women. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172(3):219–27.

Tonne C, Elbaz A, Beevers S, Singh-Manoux A. Traffic-related air pollution in relation to cognitive function in older adults. Epidemiology. 2014;25(5):674–81.

Wurth R, Kioumourtzoglou MA, Tucker KL, Griffith J, Manjourides J, Suh H. Fine Particle Sources and Cognitive Function in An Older Puerto Rican Cohort in Greater Boston. Environ Epidemiol. 2018;2(3): e022.

Gallagher M, Koh MT. Episodic memory on the path to Alzheimer’s disease. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2011;21(6):929–34.

Aisen PS, Cummings J, Jack CR, Morris JC, Sperling R, Frölich L, et al. On the path to 2025: understanding the Alzheimer’s disease continuum. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2017;9(1):60.

Dickerson BC, Eichenbaum H. The Episodic Memory System: Neurocircuitry and Disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;35(1):86–104.

Zhao W, W, Wang X, X, Yin C, He M, Li S, Han Y. Trajectories of the Hippocampal Subfields Atrophy in the Alzheimer’s Disease: A Structural Imaging Study. Front Neuroinform. 2019;13:13.

Fonken LK, Xu X, Weil ZM, Chen G, Sun Q, Rajagopalan S, et al. Air pollution impairs cognition, provokes depressive-like behaviors and alters hippocampal cytokine expression and morphology. Mol Psychiatry. 2011;16(10):987–95.

Davis DA, Akopian G, Walsh JP, Sioutas C, Morgan TE, Finch CE. Urban air pollutants reduce synaptic function of CA1 neurons via an NMDA/NȮ pathway in vitro. J Neurochem. 2013;127(4):509–19.

Woodward NC, Pakbin P, Saffari A, Shirmohammadi F, Haghani A, Sioutas C, et al. Traffic-related air pollution impact on mouse brain accelerates myelin and neuritic aging changes with specificity for CA1 neurons. Neurobiol Aging. 2017;53:48–58.

Zammit AR, Ezzati A, Zimmerman ME, Lipton RB, Lipton ML, Katz MJ. Roles of hippocampal subfields in verbal and visual episodic memory. Behav Brain Res. 2017;317:157–62.

Casanova R, Wang X, Reyes J, Akita Y, Serre ML, Vizuete W, et al. A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study Reveals Local Brain Structural Alterations Associated with Ambient Fine Particles in Older Women. Front Hum Neurosci. 2016;10:495.

Chen J-C, Wang X, Wellenius GA, Serre ML, Driscoll I, Casanova R, et al. Ambient air pollution and neurotoxicity on brain structure: Evidence from women’s health initiative memory study. Ann Neurol. 2015;78(3):466–76.

Cho J, Noh Y, Kim SY, Sohn J, Noh J, Kim W, et al. Long-term ambient air pollution exposures and brain imaging markers in Korean adults: the Environmental Pollution-Induced Neurological EFfects (EPINEF) study. Environ Health Perspect. 2020;128(11).

Power MC, Lamichhane AP, Liao D, Xu X, Jack CR, Gottesman RF, et al. The association of long-term exposure to particulate matter air pollution with brain MRI findings: the ARIC study. Environ Health Perspect. 2018;126(2): 027009.

Wilker EH, Preis SR, Beiser AS, Wolf PA, Au R, Kloog I, et al. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter, residential proximity to major roads and measures of brain structure. Stroke. 2015;46(5):1161–6.

Bejanin A, Schonhaut DR, La Joie R, Kramer JH, Baker SL, Sosa N, et al. Tau pathology and neurodegeneration contribute to cognitive impairment in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain. 2017;140(12):3286–300.

Jagust W. Imaging the evolution and pathophysiology of Alzheimer disease. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2018;19(11):687–700.

Harrison TM, La Joie R, Maass A, Baker SL, Swinnerton K, Fenton L, et al. Longitudinal tau accumulation and atrophy in aging and alzheimer disease. Ann Neurol. 2019;85(2):229–40.

Power MC, Adar SD, Yanosky JD, Weuve J. Exposure to air pollution as a potential contributor to cognitive function, cognitive decline, brain imaging, and dementia: A systematic review of epidemiologic research. Neurotoxicology. 2016;56:235–53.

Schwartz M, Deczkowska A. Neurological Disease as a Failure of Brain-Immune Crosstalk: The Multiple Faces of Neuroinflammation. Trends Immunol. 2016;37(10):668–79.

Zhu X, Raina AK, Lee H-g, Casadesus G, Smith MA, Perry G. Oxidative stress signalling in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain Res. 2004;1000(1–2):32–9.

Gruzieva O, Merid SK, Gref A, Gajulapuri A, Lemonnier N, Ballereau S, et al. Exposure to traffic-related air pollution and serum inflammatory cytokines in children. Environ Health Perspect. 2017;125(6).

Alemany S, Crous-Bou M, Vilor-Tejedor N, Milà-Alomà M, Suárez-Calvet M, Salvadó G, et al. Associations between air pollution and biomarkers of Alzheimer’s disease in cognitively unimpaired individuals. Environ Int. 2021;157.

Ma Y-H, Chen H-S, Liu C, Feng Q-S, Feng L, Zhang Y-R, et al. Association of Long-term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution With Cognitive Decline and Alzheimer’s Disease-Related Amyloidosis. Biol Psychiatry. 2023;93(9):780–9.

Jack CR, Holtzman DM. Biomarker modeling of Alzheimer’s disease. Neuron. 2013;80(6):1347–58.

Dubois B, Hampel H, Feldman HH, Scheltens P, Aisen P, Andrieu S, et al. Preclinical Alzheimer’s disease: Definition, natural history, and diagnostic criteria. Alzheimers Dement. 2016;12(3):292–323.

Buchhave P, Minthon L, Zetterberg H, Wallin ÅK, Blennow K, Hansson O. Cerebrospinal Fluid Levels ofβ-Amyloid 1–42, but Not of Tau, Are Fully Changed Already 5 to 10 Years Before the Onset of Alzheimer Dementia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;69(1):98–106.

Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Solt AC, Henríquez-Roldán C, Torres-Jardón R, Nuse B, Herritt L, et al. Long-term air pollution exposure is associated with neuroinflammation, an altered innate immune response, disruption of the blood-brain barrier, ultrafine particulate deposition, and accumulation of amyloid β-42 and α-synuclein in children and young adults. Toxicol Pathol. 2008;36(2):289–310.

Fu M, Wang H, Bai Q, Du J, Niu Q, Nie J. Urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites, plasma p-tau231 and mild cognitive impairment in coke oven workers. Chemosphere. 2022;307.

Cleveland DW, Hwo S-Y, Kirschner MW. Physical and chemical properties of purified tau factor and the role of tau in microtubule assembly. J Mol Biol. 1977;116(2):227–47.

Medeiros R, Baglietto-Vargas D, LaFerla FM. The Role of Tau in Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2011;17(5):514–24.

Suárez-Calvet M, Karikari TK, Ashton NJ, Lantero Rodriguez J, Milà-Alomà M, Gispert JD, et al. Novel tau biomarkers phosphorylated at T181, T217 or T231 rise in the initial stages of the preclinical Alzheimer’s continuum when only subtle changes in Aβ pathology are detected. EMBO Mol Med. 2020;12(12).

Baek MS, Lee MJ, Kim H-K, Lyoo CH. Temporal trajectory of biofluid markers in Parkinson’s disease. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):14820.

Nie J, Duan L, Yan Z, Niu Q. Tau Hyperphosphorylation is Associated with Spatial Learning and Memory After Exposure to Benzo[a]pyrene in SD Rats. Neurotox Res. 2013;24(4):461–71.

Isaksen JL, Ghouse J, Skov MW, Olesen MS, Holst AG, Pietersen A, et al. Associations between primary care electrocardiography and non-Alzheimer dementia. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovasc Dis. 2022;31(9).

Kuang H, Zhou ZF, Zhu YG, Wan ZK, Yang MW, Hong FF, et al. Pharmacological Treatment of Vascular Dementia: A Molecular Mechanism Perspective. Aging Dis. 2021;12(1):308–26.

O’Brien JT, Thomas A. Vascular dementia. Lancet. 2015;386(10004):1698–706.

Aarsland D, Creese B, Politis M, Chaudhuri KR, ffytche DH, Weintraub D, et al. Cognitive decline in Parkinson disease. Nat Rev Neurol. 2AD;13(4):217–31.

Bang J, Spina S, Miller BL. Frontotemporal dementia. Lancet. 2015;386(10004):1672–82.

Ashton NJ, Hye A, Rajkumar AP, Leuzy A, Snowden S, Suárez-Calvet M, et al. An update on blood-based biomarkers for non-Alzheimer neurodegenerative disorders. Nat Rev Neurol. 2020;16(5):265–84.

Künzli N, Jerrett M, Mack Wendy J, Beckerman B, LaBree L, Gilliland F, et al. Ambient Air Pollution and Atherosclerosis in Los Angeles. Environ Health Perspect. 2005;113(2):201–6.

Sweeney MD, Ayyadurai S, Zlokovic BV. Pericytes of the neurovascular unit: key functions and signaling pathways. Nat Neurosci. 2016;19(6):771–83.

Pandey T, Abubacker S. Cerebral Autosomal Dominant Arteriopathy with Subcortical Infarcts and Leukoencephalopathy: An Imaging Mimic of Multiple Sclerosis. Med Princ Pract. 2006;15(5):391–5.

Romay MC, Toro C, Iruela-Arispe ML. Emerging molecular mechanisms of vascular dementia. Curr Opin Hematol. 2019;26(3):199–206.

Wardlaw JM, Smith C, Dichgans M. Small vessel disease: mechanisms and clinical implications. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(7):684–96.

Kalaria RN. Neuropathological diagnosis of vascular cognitive impairment and vascular dementia with implications for Alzheimer’s disease. Acta Neuropathol. 2016;131(5):659–85.

Iadecola C. The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia. Neuron. 2013;80(4):844–66.

Kalaria RN. The pathology and pathophysiology of vascular dementia. Neuropharmacology. 2018;134:226–39.

Du S-Q, Wang X-R, Xiao L-Y, Tu J-F, Zhu W, He T, et al. Molecular Mechanisms of Vascular Dementia: What Can Be Learned from Animal Models of Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion? Mol Neurobiol. 2017;54(5):3670–82.

Wolters FJ, Zonneveld HI, Hofman A, Van Der Lugt A, Koudstaal PJ, Vernooij MW, et al. Cerebral perfusion and the risk of dementia: a population-based study. Circulation. 2017;136(8):719–28.

Benedictus MR, Binnewijzend MAA, Kuijer JPA, Steenwijk MD, Versteeg A, Vrenken H, et al. Brain volume and white matter hyperintensities as determinants of cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Aging. 2014;35(12):2665–70.

Babadjouni R, Patel A, Liu Q, Shkirkova K, Lamorie-Foote K, Connor M, et al. Nanoparticulate matter exposure results in neuroinflammatory changes in the corpus callosum. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(11).

Liu Q, Radwanski R, Babadjouni R, Patel A, Hodis DM, Baumbacher P, et al. Experimental chronic cerebral hypoperfusion results in decreased pericyte coverage and increased blood–brain barrier permeability in the corpus callosum. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2019;39(2):240–50.

Erickson LD, L D, Gale S D, Anderson J E, Brown B L, Hedges D W. Association between Exposure to Air Pollution and Total Gray Matter and Total White Matter Volumes in Adults: A Cross-Sectional Study. Brain Sci [Internet]. 2020;10(3):164.

Woodward NC, Levine MC, Haghani A, Shirmohammadi F, Saffari A, Sioutas C, et al. Toll-like receptor 4 in glial inflammatory responses to air pollution in vitro and in vivo. J Neuroinflammation. 2017;14(1):84.

Emre M, Aarsland D, Brown R, Burn DJ, Duyckaerts C, Mizuno Y, et al. Clinical diagnostic criteria for dementia associated with Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2007;22(12):1689–707.

Aarsland D, Zaccai J, Brayne C. A systematic review of prevalence studies of dementia in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2005;20(10):1255–63.

Postuma RB, Berg D, Stern M, Poewe W, Olanow CW, Oertel W, et al. MDS clinical diagnostic criteria for Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2015;30(12):1591–601.

Goetz CG, Emre M, Dubois B. Parkinson’s disease dementia: Definitions, guidelines, and research perspectives in diagnosis. Ann Neurol. 2008;64(S2):S81–92.

Elobeid A, Libard S, Leino M, Popova SN, Alafuzoff I. Altered Proteins in the Aging Brain. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2016;75(4):316–25.

Kovacs G G. Molecular Pathological Classification of Neurodegenerative Diseases: Turning towards Precision Medicine. Int J Mol Sci [Internet]. 2016;17(2):189.

Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Ayala A. Air Pollution, Ultrafine Particles, and Your Brain: Are Combustion Nanoparticle Emissions and Engineered Nanoparticles Causing Preventable Fatal Neurodegenerative Diseases and Common Neuropsychiatric Outcomes? Environ Sci Technol. 2022;56(11):6847–56.

Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Gónzalez-Maciel A, Reynoso-Robles R, Delgado-Chávez R, Mukherjee PS, Kulesza RJ, et al. Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Gónzalez-Maciel A, Reynoso-Robles R, Delgado-Chávez R, Mukherjee PS, Kulesza RJ, et al. Hallmarks of Alzheimer disease are evolving relentlessly in Metropolitan Mexico City infants, children and young adults. APOE4 carriers have higher suicide risk and higher odds of reaching NFT stage V at ≤ 40 years of age. Environ Res. 2018;164:475–87. Environ Res. 2018;164:475–87.

Calderón-Garcidueñas L, González-Maciel A, Reynoso-Robles R, Hammond J, Kulesza R, Lachmann I, et al. Quadruple abnormal protein aggregates in brainstem pathology and exogenous metal-rich magnetic nanoparticles (and engineered Ti-rich nanorods). The substantia nigrae is a very early target in young urbanites and the gastrointestinal tract a key brainstem portal. Environ Res. 2020;191:110139.

Fiondella L, Mattioli I, Salemme S, Carbone C, Vinceti G, Tondelli M, et al. The brain correlates of behavioral disturbances in frontotemporal dementia. Alzheimers Dement. 2021;17(S6).

Rosen HJ, Gorno-Tempini ML, Goldman WP, Perry RJ, Schuff N, Weiner M, et al. Patterns of brain atrophy in frontotemporal dementia and semantic dementia. Neurology. 2002;58(2):198.

Woollacott IOC, Rohrer JD. The clinical spectrum of sporadic and familial forms of frontotemporal dementia. J Neurochem. 2016;138(S1):6–31.

Ber IL, Guedj E, Gabelle A, Verpillat P, Volteau M, Thomas-Anterion C, et al. Demographic, neurological and behavioural characteristics and brain perfusion SPECT in frontal variant of frontotemporal dementia. Brain. 2006;129(11):3051–65.

Tang J, Chen A, He F, Shipley M, Nevill A, Coe H, et al. Association of air pollution with dementia: a systematic review with meta-analysis including new cohort data from China. Environ Res. 2023;223.

Abolhasani E, Hachinski V, Ghazaleh N, Azarpazhooh MR, Mokhber N, Martin J. Air Pollution and Incidence of Dementia. Neurology. 2023;100(2):e242–54.

Peters R, Ee N, Peters J, Booth A, Mudway I, Anstey KJ. Air pollution and dementia: a systematic review. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2019;70(s1):S145–63.

Delgado-Saborit JM, Guercio V, Gowers AM, Shaddick G, Fox NC, Love S. A critical review of the epidemiological evidence of effects of air pollution on dementia, cognitive function and cognitive decline in adult population. Sci Total Environ. 2021;757.

Xu X, Ha SU, Basnet R. Basnet R. A Review of Epidemiological Research on Adverse Neurological Effects of Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution. Front Public Health. 2016;4:157.

Stern Y. Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet Neurol. 2012;11(11):1006–12.

Xu H, Dupre ME, Gu D, Wu B. The impact of residential status on cognitive decline among older adults in China: Results from a longitudinal study. BMC Geriatr. 2017;17(1):107.

Download references

Acknowledgements

No funding was secured for this study.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Health in Emergencies and Disasters, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Mahdiyeh Mohammadzadeh

Climate Change and Health Research Center (CCHRC), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Department of Occupational Health Engineering, School of Health, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran

Amir Hossein Khoshakhlagh

Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Neurology, Cognitive Neurology and Alzheimer’s Center, Department of Psychiatry, Feinberg School of Medicine & Department of Psychology, Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA

Jordan Grafman

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

M.M and A.H. Kh conceptualized the study and were involved in screening and data extraction. All authors were involved in the interpretation of the findings. M.M wrote the first draft. All authors were involved in the scientific processes leading up to the writing of the manuscript and contributed to the interpretation of the findings and the critical evaluation of the final version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Amir Hossein Khoshakhlagh .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate, consent for publication, competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Additional file 1: appendix a1. supplementary material online: search queries., additional file 2: appendix a2. air pollution and alzheimer’s dementia., additional file 3: appendix a3. air pollution and non-alzheimer’s dementia., rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Mohammadzadeh, M., Khoshakhlagh, A.H. & Grafman, J. Air pollution: a latent key driving force of dementia. BMC Public Health 24 , 2370 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19918-4

Download citation

Received : 05 June 2024

Accepted : 28 August 2024

Published : 02 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19918-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Vascular dementia
• Non-Alzheimer dementia
• Air pollution

BMC Public Health

ISSN: 1471-2458

• General enquiries: [email protected]

Talk to our experts

1800-120-456-456

• Water Pollution Essay

Water Pollution and How it Harms the Environment

Global pollution is a problem. Pollution can spread to remote areas where no one lives, despite the fact that urban areas are typically more polluted than the countryside. Air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution are the three main categories of pollution. Some contaminated water has a terrible smell, a muddy appearance, and floating trash. Some contaminated water appears clean, but it contains dangerous substances that you can't see or smell.

Together, developed and developing nations must fight to conserve the environment for present and future generations. Today, we dig deep into the subject of Water Pollution. This article can be an introduction to water pollution for kids as we will read many things such as the causes of water pollution further in the article.

What is Water Pollution?

Water contamination occurs when pollutants pollute water sources and make the water unfit for use in drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other activities. Chemicals, garbage, bacteria, and parasites are examples of pollutants. Water is eventually damaged by all types of pollution. Lakes and oceans become contaminated by air pollution. Land contamination may contaminate an underground stream, a river, and ultimately the ocean. As a result, trash thrown on an empty lot can eventually contaminate a water source.

(Image will be uploaded soon)

Water Pollution

The water cycle, called  the hydrological cycle, involves the following steps:

Evaporation- Because of the sun's heat, the water bodies such as oceans, lakes, seas etc., get heated up, and water evaporates in the air, forming water vapours.

Transpiration- Like evaporation, the plants and trees also lose water from them which goes to the atmosphere. This process is called transpiration.

Condensation- As the water evaporates, it starts to become cool because of the cold atmosphere in the air and because of this cooling down of water leads to the formation of clouds.

Precipitation- Because of the high movements of the wings, the clouds start to collide and then fall back to the earth’s surface in the form of rain. Sometimes they also fall back in the form of snow, hail, sleet etc., depending upon the temperature.

Runoff or Infiltration- After precipitation, the water either flows to the water bodies called runoff or is absorbed into the soil, called infiltration.

Causes of Water Pollution

There are many reasons for water pollution. Some of the reasons are directly affected by water pollution and some indirectly. Many factories and industries are dumping contaminated water, chemicals, and heavy metals into major waterways as a result of direct water pollution. 

One more reason for water pollution is the use of modern techniques in farms. Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge. It causes farms to discharge large quantities of agrochemicals, organic matter, and saline drainage into water bodies. It indirectly affects water pollution.

Pollutants can be of various types such as organic, inorganic, radioactive etc. Water pollutants are discharged either from one point from pipes, channels etc., which are called point sources or from various other sources. They can be agricultural areas, industries etc., called dispersed sources. 

Some of the major forms of water pollutants are as follows:

Sewage- Domestic sewage from homes contains various forms of pathogens that threaten the human body. Sewage treatment reduces the risk of pathogens, but this risk is not eliminated. 

Domestic sewage majorly contains nitrates and phosphates, and excess of these substances allows the algae to grow on the surface of water bodies. Due to this, the clean water bodies become nutrient-rich water body and then slowly, the oxygen level of water bodies reduces. This is called eutrophication or cultural eutrophication (if this step rapidly takes place by the activities of humans). This leads to the early death of water bodies.

Toxins- The industrial or factory wastes that are not disposed of properly and contain chemicals such as mercury and lead are disposed of in the water bodies making the bodies toxic, radioactive, explosive and cancerous.

Sediments- Sediments are the result of soil erosion that is formed in the water bodies. These sediments imbalances the water bodies ecologically. They also interfere in the reproductive cycle of various aquatic animals living in the water.

Thermal pollution- Water bodies get polluted because of heat, and excess heat reduces the oxygen level of the water bodies. Some of the species of fish cannot live in such water bodies with very low oxygen levels. The disposal of cold waters from the power plants leads to increased thermal pollution in the water bodies.

Petroleum oil pollution- The runoff of oil into the water bodies, either accidentally as happened in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico, or intentionally, leads to an increase in water pollution.

As water is an important element of human health, polluted water directly affects the human body. Water pollution causes various diseases like typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, cancer, etc. Water pollution damages the plants and aquatic animals present in the river by reducing the oxygen content from the water. Polluted water washes the essential nutrients which plants need out of the soil and also leaves large amounts of aluminium in the soil, which can be harmful to plants. 

Wastewater and sewage are a by-product of daily life and thus produced by each household through various activities like using soap, toilets, and detergents. Such sewage contains chemicals and bacteria which are harmful to human life and environmental health. Water pollution also leads to an imbalance in our ecosystem. Lastly, it also affects the food chain as the toxins in the water bodies are consumed by aquatic animals like fish, crabs etc., and then humans consume those animals forming turmoil. 

Sometimes our tradition also becomes a cause for water pollution. Some people throw the statues of deities, flowers, pots, and ashes in rivers.

There are various standards to define water quality standards. Water meant for swimming may not be clean enough for drinking, or water meant for bathing may not be good for cooking. Therefore, there are different water standards for defined:

Stream standards- Standards that define streams, lakes, oceans or seas based on their maximum use.

Effluent standards- Define the specific standards for the level of contaminants or effluents allowed during the final discharge of those into the water bodies.

Drinking water standards- Define the level of contamination allowed in water that will be supplied for drinking or cooking in the domestic areas.

Different countries regulate their water quality standards through different acts and amendments.

While many of the solutions for water pollution need to be applied on a broader macro-level for that individual, companies, and communities can have a significant and responsible impact on the water quality. Companies, factories have to dispose of leftover chemicals and containers properly as per the product instructions. Farmers also have to reduce the use of nitrates and phosphates from fertilizers, pesticides, and contamination of groundwater. 

The Swachh Bharat Mission of the government had led to reduced groundwater contamination. Under the Namami Ganga program, the government has initiated several major projects to clean Ganga. Along with all these steps, conservation of water is the very basic and important step towards water conservation and should be followed globally, treatment of sewage before their disposal in the water bodies and using environment-friendly products that do not form toxins when dissolved in water. These are some small steps that have to be taken into consideration by every human being.

As we all know, “Water is life’s matter and matrix, mother and medium. There is no life without water.” We have to save water. We must keep the water clean. If everyone will follow their responsibility against water to protect it from getting polluted then it will be easy to get clean and healthy drinking water. Clean water is a must for us and our kids' present, future, and healthy environment. 

We cannot just live with contaminated waters filled with toxins and no oxygen. We cannot see our wildlife being destroyed and therefore, immediate steps have to be taken by groups of people to first clean the already contaminated water bodies and then keep a check on all the surrounding water bodies. Small steps by every individual can make a huge difference in controlling water pollution.

Water Pollution Prevention

Conserve Water 

Our first priority should be to conserve water. Water wasting could be a big problem for the entire world, but we are just now becoming aware of it.

Sewage Treatment 

Cleaning up waste materials before disposing of them in waterways reduces pollution on a large scale. By lowering its dangerous elements, this wastewater will be used in other sectors or in agriculture.

Usage of Eco-Friendly Materials

We will reduce the amount of pollution produced by choosing soluble products that do not alter to become pollutants.

Water contamination is the discharge of pollutants into the water body, where they dissolve, are suspended, are deposited on the bottom, and collect to the point where they hinder the aquatic ecosystem's ability to function. Water contamination is brought on by toxic compounds that easily dissolve and combine with it and come from factories, municipalities, and farms.

Healthy ecosystems depend on a complex network of organisms, including animals, plants, bacteria, and fungi, all of which interact with one another either directly or indirectly. In this article, we read about water pollution, its causes and prevention. With this, we have come to the end of our article, in case of any other doubts, feel free to ask in the comments.

FAQs on Water Pollution Essay

1. What are the effects of water pollution?

Water pollution has a great impact on human health. Water pollution kills. It's been recorded that in 2015 nearly 1.8 million people died because of water pollution. People with low income are exposed to contaminated water coming out from the industries. Presence of disease causing pathogens in drinking water are the major cause of illness which includes cholera, giardia, and typhoid. Water pollution not only affects human health but also our environment by causing algal bloom in a lake or marine environment. Water pollution also causes eutrophication which suffocates plants and animals and thus causes dead zones. Chemicals and heavy metals from industrial and municipal wastewater contaminate waterways and harm aquatic life.

2. What are the causes of Water pollution?

Water being a universal solvent is vulnerable to pollution as it dissolves more substances than any other liquid on earth. Therefore, water is easily polluted. Toxic substances from farms, towns, and factories readily dissolve into water and mix with it, resulting in water pollution. Agricultural pollution is one of the major causes of contamination in rivers and streams. The use of excessive fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste from farms and livestock operations lets the rain wash the nutrients and pathogens—such as bacteria and viruses—into our waterways. The other major cause of water pollution is used water,  termed as wastewater which comes from our sinks, showers, toilets and from commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities. It's been reported that the world's 80% wastewater flows back into the environment without being treated or reused. Oil spills and radioactive waste also cause water pollution to a great extent.

3. How to prevent water pollution?

It is important to keep our water bodies clean so we can take the following preventive measures to prevent from water pollution:

Chemicals like bleach, paint, paint thinner, ammonia, and many chemicals are becoming a serious problem. Dumping toxic chemicals down the drain or flushing them down the toilet can cause water pollution. Thus, proper disposal is important. Also, household chemicals need to be recycled.

Avoid buying products that contain persistent and dangerous chemicals. Buying non-toxic cleaners and biodegradable cleaners and pesticides cut down on water pollution.

Prevent from pouring fats or greasy substances down the drain as it might clog the drain resulting in the dumping of waste into yards or basement which can contaminate the local water bodies.

4. What is the role of medical institutions in polluting the water?

Pharmaceutical pollution affects aquatic life and thus there is a need to take preventive measures. Consumers are responsible for winding up pharmaceutical and personal care products in lakes, rivers, and streams. There's a lot of unused and expired medication that can potentially get into the water if not disposed of properly.

5. What are the major kinds of pollution?

The three main types of pollution are air pollution, water pollution or soil pollution. Some artificial pollution is also there, such as noise pollution. Factors leading to such pollution include:

Air Pollution: Industrial emissions, fires, traffic and transportation, burning of chemical waste, etc.

Water Pollution: No proper sewage disposal, pesticides in farms leaking into water bodies, industrial waste dumped into water bodies, etc.

Soil Pollution:  Oil spills, acid rains, irresponsible disposal of trash, chemical waste, etc.

Noise Pollution: Honking of horns, construction activities, loud parties, etc.

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center
• Introduction & Top Questions

Domestic sewage

Solid waste, toxic waste, thermal pollution, petroleum (oil) pollution, effects of water pollution on groundwater and oceans, water quality standards.

How does water pollution affect aquatic wildlife?

Is red tide caused by water pollution.

water pollution

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• National Geographic - What Is Water Pollution?
• Frontiers - Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health and Disease Heterogeneity: A Review
• Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health - Water Pollution
• Environmental Pollution Centers - What Is Water Pollution?
• National Resources Defense Council - Water Pollution: Everything You Need to Know
• Chemistry LibreTexts - Water Pollution
• water pollution - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

What is water pollution?

Water pollution is the release of substances into bodies of water that makes water unsafe for human use and disrupts aquatic ecosystems. Water pollution can be caused by a plethora of different contaminants, including toxic waste , petroleum , and disease-causing microorganisms .

What human activities cause water pollution?

Human activities that generate domestic sewage and toxic waste cause water pollution by contaminating water with disease-causing microorganisms and poisonous substances. Oil spills are another source of water pollution that have devastating impacts on surrounding ecosystems.

Sewage can promote algae growth, which can eventually result in eutrophic “dead zones” where aquatic life cannot survive because of a lack of oxygen. Microplastics are often found in marine wildlife and can become concentrated in humans who consume seafood because of biomagnification . Oil spills, such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010, strand and kill many different marine species.

While some studies point to human activity as a catalyst for red tide, scientists are unsure about its cause. Red tide is a common term for harmful algal blooms that often poison or kill wildlife and humans who consume contaminated seafood. Red tides can severely impact ecosystems and local economies.

Recent News

water pollution , the release of substances into subsurface groundwater or into lakes , streams, rivers , estuaries , and oceans to the point that the substances interfere with beneficial use of the water or with the natural functioning of ecosystems . In addition to the release of substances, such as chemicals , trash, or microorganisms, water pollution may include the release of energy , in the form of radioactivity or heat , into bodies of water.

Types and sources of water pollutants

Water bodies can be polluted by a wide variety of substances, including pathogenic microorganisms, putrescible organic waste, fertilizers and plant nutrients , toxic chemicals, sediments, heat , petroleum (oil), and radioactive substances . Several types of water pollutants are considered below. (For a discussion of the handling of sewage and other forms of waste produced by human activities, see waste disposal and solid-waste management .)

Water pollutants come from either point sources or dispersed sources. A point source is a pipe or channel, such as those used for discharge from an industrial facility or a city sewerage system . A dispersed (or nonpoint) source is a very broad unconfined area from which a variety of pollutants enter the water body, such as the runoff from an agricultural area. Point sources of water pollution are easier to control than dispersed sources, because the contaminated water has been collected and conveyed to one single point where it can be treated. Pollution from dispersed sources is difficult to control, and, despite much progress in the building of modern sewage-treatment plants, dispersed sources continue to cause a large fraction of water pollution problems.

Domestic sewage is the primary source of pathogens ( disease -causing microorganisms) and putrescible organic substances. Because pathogens are excreted in feces , all sewage from cities and towns is likely to contain pathogens of some type, potentially presenting a direct threat to public health . Putrescible organic matter presents a different sort of threat to water quality. As organics are decomposed naturally in the sewage by bacteria and other microorganisms, the dissolved oxygen content of the water is depleted. This endangers the quality of lakes and streams, where high levels of oxygen are required for fish and other aquatic organisms to survive. In addition, domestic sewage commonly contains active pharmaceutical ingredients, which can harm aquatic organisms and may facilitate antibiotic resistance . Sewage-treatment processes reduce the levels of pathogens and organics in wastewater, but they do not eliminate them completely ( see also wastewater treatment ).

Domestic sewage is also a major source of plant nutrients , mainly nitrates and phosphates . Excess nitrates and phosphates in water promote the growth of algae , sometimes causing unusually dense and rapid growths known as algal blooms . When the algae die, oxygen dissolved in the water declines because microorganisms use oxygen to digest algae during the process of decomposition ( see also biochemical oxygen demand ). Anaerobic organisms (organisms that do not require oxygen to live) then metabolize the organic wastes, releasing gases such as methane and hydrogen sulfide , which are harmful to the aerobic (oxygen-requiring) forms of life. The process by which a lake changes from a clean, clear condition—with a relatively low concentration of dissolved nutrients and a balanced aquatic community —to a nutrient-rich, algae-filled state and thence to an oxygen-deficient, waste-filled condition is called eutrophication . Eutrophication is a naturally occurring, slow, and inevitable process. However, when it is accelerated by human activity and water pollution (a phenomenon called cultural eutrophication ), it can lead to the premature aging and death of a body of water.

The improper disposal of solid waste is a major source of water pollution. Solid waste includes garbage, rubbish, electronic waste , trash, and construction and demolition waste, all of which are generated by individual, residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial activities. The problem is especially acute in developing countries that may lack infrastructure to properly dispose of solid waste or that may have inadequate resources or regulation to limit improper disposal. In some places solid waste is intentionally dumped into bodies of water. Land pollution can also become water pollution if the trash or other debris is carried by animals, wind, or rainfall to bodies of water. Significant amounts of solid waste pollution in inland bodies of water can also eventually make their way to the ocean. Solid waste pollution is unsightly and damaging to the health of aquatic ecosystems and can harm wildlife directly. Many solid wastes, such as plastics and electronic waste, break down and leach harmful chemicals into the water, making them a source of toxic or hazardous waste.

Of growing concern for aquatic environments is plastic pollution . Since the ocean is downstream from nearly every terrestrial location, it is the receiving body for much of the plastic waste generated on land. Several million tons of debris end up in the world’s oceans every year, and much of it is improperly discarded plastic litter. Plastic pollution can be broken down by waves and ultraviolet radiation into smaller pieces known as microplastics , which are less than 5 mm (0.2 inch) in length and are not biodegradable. Primary microplastics, such as microbeads in personal care products and plastic fibers in synthetic textiles (e.g., nylon ), also enter the environment directly, through any of various channels—for example, from wastewater treatment systems , from household laundry, or from unintentional spills during manufacturing or transport. Alarmingly, a number of studies of both freshwater and marine locations have found microplastics in every aquatic organism tested. These tiny plastics are suspected of working their way up the marine food chains , from zooplankton and small fish to large marine predators, and have been found in seafood. Microplastics have also been detected in drinking water. Their health effects are unknown.

Waste is considered toxic if it is poisonous , radioactive , explosive , carcinogenic (causing cancer ), mutagenic (causing damage to chromosomes ), teratogenic (causing birth defects), or bioaccumulative (that is, increasing in concentration at the higher ends of food chains). Sources of toxic chemicals include improperly disposed wastewater from industrial plants and chemical process facilities ( lead , mercury , chromium ) as well as surface runoff containing pesticides used on agricultural areas and suburban lawns ( chlordane , dieldrin , heptachlor). (For a more-detailed treatment of toxic chemicals, see poison and toxic waste .)

Sediment (e.g., silt ) resulting from soil erosion or construction activity can be carried into water bodies by surface runoff . Suspended sediment interferes with the penetration of sunlight and upsets the ecological balance of a body of water. Also, it can disrupt the reproductive cycles of fish and other forms of life , and when it settles out of suspension it can smother bottom-dwelling organisms.

Heat is considered to be a water pollutant because it decreases the capacity of water to hold dissolved oxygen in solution, and it increases the rate of metabolism of fish. Valuable species of game fish (e.g., trout ) cannot survive in water with very low levels of dissolved oxygen . A major source of heat is the practice of discharging cooling water from power plants into rivers; the discharged water may be as much as 15 °C (27 °F) warmer than the naturally occurring water. The rise in water temperatures because of global warming can also be considered a form of thermal pollution.

Petroleum ( oil ) pollution occurs when oil from roads and parking lots is carried in surface runoff into water bodies. Accidental oil spills are also a source of oil pollution—as in the devastating spills from the tanker Exxon Valdez (which released more than 260,000 barrels in Alaska’s Prince William Sound in 1989) and from the Deepwater Horizon oil rig (which released more than 4 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico in 2010). Oil slicks eventually move toward shore, harming aquatic life and damaging recreation areas.

Groundwater —water contained in underground geologic formations called aquifers —is a source of drinking water for many people. For example, about half the people in the United States depend on groundwater for their domestic water supply . Although groundwater may appear crystal clear (due to the natural filtration that occurs as it flows slowly through layers of soil ), it may still be polluted by dissolved chemicals and by bacteria and viruses . Sources of chemical contaminants include poorly designed or poorly maintained subsurface sewage-disposal systems (e.g., septic tanks ), industrial wastes disposed of in improperly lined or unlined landfills or lagoons , leachates from unlined municipal refuse landfills, mining and petroleum production, and leaking underground storage tanks below gasoline service stations. In coastal areas, increasing withdrawal of groundwater (due to urbanization and industrialization) can cause saltwater intrusion: as the water table drops, seawater is drawn into wells.

Although estuaries and oceans contain vast volumes of water, their natural capacity to absorb pollutants is limited. Contamination from sewage outfall pipes, from dumping of sludge or other wastes, and from oil spills can harm marine life, especially microscopic phytoplankton that serve as food for larger aquatic organisms. Sometimes, unsightly and dangerous waste materials can be washed back to shore, littering beaches with hazardous debris. In oceans alone, annual pollution from all types of plastics was estimated to be between 4.8 million and 12.7 million tonnes (between 5.3 million and 14 million tons) in the early 21st century, and floating plastic waste had accumulated in Earth’s five subtropical gyres, which cover 40 percent of the world’s oceans.

Another ocean pollution problem is the seasonal formation of “ dead zones” (i.e., hypoxic areas, where dissolved oxygen levels drop so low that most higher forms of aquatic life vanish) in certain coastal areas. The cause is nutrient enrichment from dispersed agricultural runoff and concomitant algal blooms. Dead zones occur worldwide; one of the largest of these (sometimes as large as 22,730 square km [8,776 square miles]) forms annually in the Gulf of Mexico , beginning at the Mississippi River delta.

Although pure water is rarely found in nature (because of the strong tendency of water to dissolve other substances), the characterization of water quality (i.e., clean or polluted) is a function of the intended use of the water. For example, water that is clean enough for swimming and fishing may not be clean enough for drinking and cooking. Water quality standards (limits on the amount of impurities allowed in water intended for a particular use) provide a legal framework for the prevention of water pollution of all types.

There are several types of water quality standards. Stream standards are those that classify streams, rivers , and lakes on the basis of their maximum beneficial use; they set allowable levels of specific substances or qualities (e.g., dissolved oxygen , turbidity, pH) allowed in those bodies of water, based on their given classification. Effluent (water outflow) standards set specific limits on the levels of contaminants (e.g., biochemical oxygen demand , suspended solids, nitrogen ) allowed in the final discharges from wastewater-treatment plants. Drinking-water standards include limits on the levels of specific contaminants allowed in potable water delivered to homes for domestic use. In the United States , the Clean Water Act and its amendments regulate water quality and set minimum standards for waste discharges for each industry as well as regulations for specific problems such as toxic chemicals and oil spills . In the European Union , water quality is governed by the Water Framework Directive, the Drinking Water Directive, and other laws . ( See also wastewater treatment .)

Essay on Water Pollution for Children and Students

Table of Contents

Essay on Water Pollution: Water pollution is a topic of great environmental concern in today’s context. Water is a rare resource, much essential for life on earth. It is not only water that is essential but it also must be clean and safe to use. Polluted and contaminated water is good for nothing and is also hazardous to use or consume. The main causes of water are human-induced and include activities like industrialization, agricultural activities, improper waste disposal, etc.

Fill Out the Form for Expert Academic Guidance!

Please indicate your interest Live Classes Books Test Series Self Learning

Verify OTP Code (required)

I agree to the terms and conditions and privacy policy .

Fill complete details

Target Exam ---

Short and Long Essay on Water Pollution

We have provided below short and long essays on water pollution in English for your knowledge and information. After going through the essays, you will know what water pollution is and what are its main causes; how to stop water pollution; water pollution prevention etc. These essays will be helpful in your school/college assignments of essay writing, speech giving or paragraph writing, etc.

Water Pollution Essay 100 Words – Sample 1

Water Pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies and underground resources of water by any of the several human activities or natural causes. Human activities like, urbanization, industrialization, deforestation, waste disposal, landfills are primarily responsible for water pollution.

Some of the natural causes responsible for water pollution are volcanoes and debris from floods. Another natural cause of water pollution is algae bloom. The term “algae” is used to refer to a large and diverse group of photosynthetic organisms. Algae bloom means an increase in the population of algae in a water body, consequently resulting in its discoloration and contamination.

Water Pollution Essay 150 Words – Sample 2

The term “Water Pollution” is used when a water body like a river, lake, ocean, etc is polluted due to human activity or a natural cause. Today, water pollution has become a major environmental concern and needs to be responsibly dealt with.

Fresh water is very scarce on the planet and pollution is making it even scarcer. Every year we lose millions of liters of freshwater to industrial and other types of pollution. Pollutants consist of visible small and big pieces of garbage as well as invisible, harmful and toxic chemicals.

The visible impurities can be easily removed from a water body by manual cleaning or filtration, but the chemical pollutants are more hazardous and difficult to remove. Chemicals get mixed into water and change its properties, making it harmful to use and life-threatening.

It is only through sincere individual and collective efforts, that we can overcome the problem of water pollution and prevent a severe water crisis in future.

Water Pollution Essay 200 Words – Sample 3

Water Pollution is a matter of environmental concern as well as life and health of all living species. For a population of 7.8 billion growing at a rate of 82 million every year we have very little freshwater.

Only 2.5% of all the water available on earth is freshwater that we use for our daily needs. But, human’s desire to expand boundaries and explore commercial avenues have put stress on our freshwater resources, making them polluted as never before.

Many industries are set up near water bodies and use freshwater to carry industrial waste to the nearby water bodies. This industrial waste is toxic in nature and poses a health hazard to the flora and fauna. People in the settlements in the vicinity of polluted water bodies are observed to be suffering from serious skin, respiratory and sometimes even life-threatening other ailments.

Other the main cause of water pollution is urban waste and sewage. Every household produces tons of waste annually, consisting of plastic, wood, chemicals, and other compounds. In the absence of a proper waste disposal mechanism, this waste reaches our water bodies like rivers, lakes, streams and pollutes them. Water pollution must be prevented if we want the earth to be green, healthy and filled with life.

Water Pollution Essay 250 Words – Sample 4

Water is an essential resource for life on earth. Without water, or to be more specific, without clean and safe water, life on earth would be unimaginable. You may think that we still have plenty of water with it constituting 97.5% of the total volume of earth. But, there is a catch – that 97.5% is salt water that is found mainly in oceans; the water we do not use for our daily needs.

The remaining percentage, that is, only 2.5% is freshwater what we use. Moreover, only 0.3% of that 2.5% is the water found on the surface of the earth. To be more specific, the total volume of water on earth is 1,386,000,000 Km 3 , out of which only 10,633,450 Km 3 is freshwater. Leaving very less freshwater for a population of 7.8 billion as on December 2019 and every year 82 million people are being added to that figure. On the other hand, the volume of freshwater used by the world population took centuries to be produced and thus it can’t be afforded to be polluted at any cost.

If the pollution of water continues as it is today, within a couple of decades we could face an acute water crisis. Then we might be left with no option but only to regret what we have done. There is still time and things can be normalized if we take action today. Whether it is an individual action or a collective one, an action to conserve water and prevent its pollution is the need of the day.

Water Pollution Essay 300 Words – Sample 5

Introduction

Water Pollution occurs when external pollutants enter the otherwise clean and safe natural water resources. Due to the growing human intervention and expansion of urban settlements, water pollution has become a painful reality today.

Water Pollution Sources

The sources of water pollution are many and almost all of them are generated due to human activities. Industries emit millions of gallons of toxic smoke and material waste which is left directly into the air, water bodies and natural resources. Most of such waste from the industries are left directly into the water bodies without any kind of treatment. Most of the industrial waste is toxic in nature and in turn, increases the toxicity of the water it reaches.

Also, the domestic waste that is generated every day in the millions of households around the world contains waste plastic materials, chemicals, oils, metals, etc. Most of the households lack a proper waste disposal mechanism and mostly the waste is directly dumped into the environment.

How to Stop Water Pollution

Water pollution could be prevented considerably by making people aware of its causes and its effects on life and the planet. People must take part in cleaning campaigns wherein a group or community takes up the task of cleaning the water bodies every weekend or at least once in a month.

Moreover, strict laws need to be formed and strictly implemented with the objective of eliminating water pollution. Strict monitoring could prevent people and organizations from polluting and will improve accountability as well.

Water pollution today has become a topic of hot debate and concern for environmentalists and scientists. It threatens the future of all the living species on the planet earth. Water is an essential commodity to live added by the fact that only 2% of the water on earth is fresh water that we use. We can’t afford to pollute it further and must take steps for the reversal of the damage that we have already done.

Water Pollution Essay 350 Words – Sample 6

Water Pollution refers to the introduction of pollutants into our water bodies. These pollutants are primarily generated by human-induced activities and pose a threat to our natural water resources.

Water Pollution Prevention

There are several things one could do to prevent water pollution. Some of them are simple enough to be taken by an individual while some require collective efforts. However, the efforts need to be repeatedly done in order to preserve our natural water resources. Some of the implementable ways to prevent water pollution are given below-

Keep your drain free of Contaminants and Chemicals.

An average household generates all kinds of waste including chemicals, disposed medicines, and other hazardous compounds. We must take care while disposing of our household waste and ensure that any such waste didn’t reach the sewage system.

Prevent use of Polythene

Polythene bags are widely used today in every household. They are light, could carry heavyweight, and easy to store. But polythene bags constitute a major threat to water resources. The polythene that we dispose of our houses, finds its way into the water bodies. Being non-biodegradable, it just lays there, polluting water and making it toxic.

Conserve Water

Always try to conserve water while doing your daily activities, whether it’s cooking, shaving, bathing, gardening or cleaning, etc. Water conservation can also be achieved by repairing all the faulty taps in your house and locality as well.

Reuse and Recycle

Much of the waste that we generate in houses could be reused and recycled if only we make a little effort for it. Wastes like automobile oil are disposed into the drain and easily reach into rivers and streams. This is really hazardous to the purity of water and also to the life of organisms that live in water. On the other hand, automobile oil can be reused for several other lubrication purposes.

Water pollution today has become a cause of great concern for human health as well as the environment. Water is an essential commodity without which life can’t be imagined. It is the duty of all to take steps for keeping water pollution-free and also to conserve it, for a healthy future of the planet.

Water Pollution Essay 400 Words – Sample 7

Water Pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies like rivers, lakes, ponds and oceans. It is caused when the pollutants generated by human activities like industrialization, urban waste, littering, etc., enter our water bodies and pollute them.

Types of Water Pollution

As water comes from many sources, there are many types of water pollution. The most common types of water pollution are described below.

• Agricultural/Nutrients Pollution

Some of the waste water and agricultural waste contain high nutrients levels. These nutrient-rich contaminants cause algae growth, making the water unfit for drinking and other purposes. Algae use the oxygen content in water making oxygen scarce for other organisms, resulting in their death.

• Sewage and Waste Water

Sewage and waste water from urban settlements is rich in various soluble and non-soluble impurities like mercury, plastic, rotten food, debris, chemicals etc. When these pollutants reach water bodies, some of them float over the surface while some sink at the bottom. The soluble impurities change the composition of water as well. This is a dangerous situation for all the living organisms in the water body.

• Oxygen Depletion

Any water body contains several microorganisms including aerobic and anaerobic organisms. When the biodegradable waste reaches into the water bodies and decays, it encourages the growth of more microorganisms, consequently using more oxygen, in turn, depleting the oxygen level.

• Pollution of Ground Water

Use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers pollute the groundwater resources. The chemicals get mixed with soil and are soaked into the ground with rain, reaching the underground water reserve. This contaminated water reaches our wells and other sources of water, making its consumption harmful.

Prevention of Water Pollution

Water Pollution can be prevented by taking these simple steps –

• Don’t pour down fat or oil in your kitchen sink.
• Avoid improper disposing of harmful chemicals and other contaminants.
• Never let unused or expired medicines reach the house drainage system.
• Segregate the waste as solid, liquid, degradable and non-degradable and ensure its proper disposal.
• Avoid using pesticides and chemical fertilizers as much as you can.

Water pollution is a growing environmental concern which depletes one of our very essential natural resources. It is only through great determination and political will that we can succeed in saving water from getting contaminated.

Water Pollution Essay 500 Words – Sample 8

Water Pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies, primarily due to human activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, ponds, oceans and underground water resources. Water Pollution occurs when waste from industrial and other sources enter into the water bodies, resulting in the contamination of water, moreover, it is also harmful to aquatic life as well as to humans.

Causes of Water Pollution

Water is an essential natural resource and very useful for life on earth. Causes of water pollution are many and always include human activities. The various causes of water pollution are given below-

• Urban Sewage: The sewage from urban settlements is usually treated with chemicals and then released into the water bodies after mixing with fresh water. Most of the time, the sewage is not treated and is left into the water bodies. It contains harmful, bacteria and pathogens, which is extremely harmful to aquatic life and to humans as well.
• Industrial Waste: Large amount of toxic waste is produced by the industries. Industrial waste includes pollutants such as mercury, lead, sulfur, asbestos, and nitrates. These chemicals are not only harmful to flora and fauna but also render the water unfit to use. Due to the absence of a proper waste management system, many industries still dump harmful waste in natural water resources.
• Garbage Dumping: Common household garbage contains plastic, food, wood, paper, rubber, aluminum, etc. This garbage is directly dumped into oceans and rivers or else reaches them indirectly and takes a couple of years to centuries to degrade. In both cases, it pollutes the water bodies and threatens marine life as well as the life of flora and fauna over the adjoining lands.
• Oil Spills: Oil is non-soluble in water and being lighter in density, floats over it. Though the oil spills have been considerably reduced in the past decades, the incidents of oil spills still happen. For instance, in 2018, there were 137 oil spills in the United States alone. Out of 137 spills, 65 were reported as the maximum potential spills, releasing gallons of oil into the water.
• Landfills Leakage: Landfills are the huge piles of garbage usually found on the outskirts of a city or urban settlement. The garbage from the landfills leaks into the water bodies with rain or reaches with the wind, resulting in their contamination. They contain a large amount of several contaminants harmful for aquatic life.

Effects of Water Pollution

The most immediate effect of water pollution is on the organisms that live in water. Moreover, it is also harmful to the surrounding plants, animals and humans those use or consume water in some form or the other.

Chemical pollutants are most harmful in this regard as they are difficult to separate physically and alter the properties of water. They get mixed with the water alter its chemical properties, making it harmful to consume or use.

Use of contaminated water causes several serious diseases in humans like – diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, dysentery, etc and could be life-threatening.

Water Pollution today has become a serious issue that concerns the health of the planet and its inhabitants. Water is a very useful resource, much needed for drinking and other essential activities by humans and animals alike. If the already scarce freshwater is made contaminated then the chances of life on the planet are considerably reduced. To save life on earth we must first save the water by keeping our water bodies clean.

Frequently Asked Questions on Water Pollution

What are the objectives of water pollution.

Water pollution is not the objective but the result of contaminants entering water bodies, harming aquatic life and ecosystems.

How do we detect water pollution?

Water pollution can be detected through various tests and measurements of water quality, including chemical analysis and biological monitoring.

What is the effects of water pollution?

The effects of water pollution include harm to aquatic life, ecosystem disruption, health risks for humans, and damage to the environment.

Why do we stop water pollution?

We aim to stop water pollution to protect aquatic ecosystems, ensure safe drinking water, and safeguard public health.

How can we protect water?

We can protect water by reducing pollutant discharge, conserving water resources, and adopting eco-friendly practices.

What is the main source of pollution?

The main sources of water pollution are industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, sewage, and improper waste disposal.

How to prevent water pollution?

Preventing water pollution involves regulating pollution sources, promoting eco-friendly practices, and raising awareness about water conservation.

What's the cause of water pollution?

The causes of water pollution include chemical pollutants, sewage, oil spills, and excessive nutrient runoff from agriculture and urban areas.

Related content

Get access to free Mock Test and Master Class

Register to Get Free Mock Test and Study Material

Offer Ends in 5:00

Select your Course

Please select class.

• Engineering
• Write For Us
• Privacy Policy

Essay on Water Pollution

Here we have shared the Essay on Water Pollution in detail so you can use it in your exam or assignment of 150, 250, 400, 500, or 1000 words.

You can use this Essay on Water Pollution in any assignment or project whether you are in school (class 10th or 12th), college, or preparing for answer writing in competitive exams. 

Topics covered in this article.

Essay on Water Pollution in 150-250 words

Essay on water pollution in 300-400 words, essay on water pollution in 500-1000 words.

Water pollution is a pressing environmental issue that poses a significant threat to ecosystems and human health. It occurs when harmful substances, such as chemicals, industrial waste, or sewage, contaminate water bodies, including rivers, lakes, oceans, and groundwater sources.

Water pollution has devastating consequences on aquatic life. Toxic pollutants can disrupt the balance of ecosystems, leading to the decline of fish and other marine species. Additionally, contaminated water can spread diseases to animals and humans who depend on these water sources for drinking, irrigation, and recreation.

Industrial activities, improper waste disposal, agricultural runoff, and urbanization contribute to water pollution. Efforts to reduce water pollution include stricter regulations on waste disposal, the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices, and the development of advanced wastewater treatment technologies.

Awareness and individual responsibility are crucial in combating water pollution. Simple actions like properly disposing of waste, conserving water, and avoiding the use of harmful chemicals can make a significant difference. Education and advocacy are essential to raising public awareness about the importance of protecting water resources and implementing sustainable practices.

In conclusion, water pollution is a grave environmental issue that threatens aquatic ecosystems and human well-being. It is a global challenge that requires collective action and responsible behavior. By implementing effective regulations, adopting sustainable practices, and promoting awareness, we can safeguard our water resources and ensure a healthier and more sustainable future for all.

Title: Water Pollution – A Growing Threat to Ecosystems and Human Well-being

Introduction :

Water pollution is a grave environmental issue that arises from the contamination of water bodies by harmful substances. It poses a significant threat to aquatic ecosystems and human health. This essay explores the causes and consequences of water pollution, as well as the measures required to address and prevent it.

Causes of Water Pollution

Water pollution can be attributed to various human activities and natural factors. Industrial discharge, improper waste disposal, agricultural runoff, oil spills, sewage, and chemical pollutants are among the leading causes. Rapid urbanization, population growth, and inadequate infrastructure for waste management contribute to the problem. Additionally, natural phenomena like sedimentation and erosion can exacerbate water pollution.

Consequences of Water Pollution

Water pollution has far-reaching ecological and human health implications. Contaminated water disrupts aquatic ecosystems, leading to the decline of fish and other marine species. It affects biodiversity, disrupts food chains, and damages habitats. Moreover, polluted water sources pose significant health risks to humans. Consuming or coming into contact with contaminated water can lead to waterborne diseases, gastrointestinal issues, skin problems, and even long-term health impacts.

Prevention and Remediation

Addressing water pollution requires a multi-faceted approach. Stricter regulations and enforcement regarding industrial discharge and waste management are essential. Promoting sustainable agricultural practices, such as reducing the use of chemical fertilizers and implementing proper irrigation techniques, can minimize agricultural runoff. Developing and implementing advanced wastewater treatment technologies is crucial to ensure that domestic and industrial effluents are properly treated before being discharged into water bodies.

Individual and Collective Responsibility:

Preventing water pollution is a shared responsibility. Individuals can contribute by practicing responsible waste disposal, conserving water, and avoiding the use of harmful chemicals. Public awareness campaigns and education programs play a vital role in promoting responsible behavior and fostering a culture of environmental stewardship.

Conclusion :

Water pollution is a critical environmental issue that jeopardizes the health of ecosystems and humans. It demands collective action and responsible behavior. By addressing the root causes of water pollution, implementing effective regulations, and promoting individual and collective responsibility, we can safeguard water resources and ensure a sustainable future for generations to come.

Title: Water Pollution – A Looming Crisis Threatening Ecosystems and Human Well-being

Water pollution is a pressing environmental issue that poses a significant threat to ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health. It occurs when harmful substances contaminate water bodies, making them unfit for their intended uses. This essay delves into the causes, consequences, and potential solutions to water pollution, emphasizing the urgent need for collective action to address this global crisis.

Water pollution arises from various sources, both human-induced and natural. Human activities play a significant role in polluting water bodies. Industrial discharge, untreated sewage, agricultural runoff, oil spills, mining activities, and improper waste disposal are among the leading causes. Industrial wastewater often contains heavy metals, toxic chemicals, and organic pollutants, which can have devastating effects on aquatic ecosystems and human health. Agricultural runoff, laden with pesticides, fertilizers, and animal waste, contaminates water bodies and contributes to eutrophication, depleting oxygen levels and harming aquatic life.

The consequences of water pollution are far-reaching and encompass ecological, economic, and health impacts. Aquatic ecosystems bear the brunt of pollution, with devastating consequences for biodiversity and food chains. Pollutants disrupt aquatic habitats, decrease water quality, and lead to the decline of fish and other marine species. This ecological imbalance has ripple effects throughout the ecosystem, affecting the entire food web.

Water pollution also has severe implications for human health. Contaminated water sources pose significant risks, as they can transmit waterborne diseases, including cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and hepatitis. Communities that rely on polluted water for drinking, cooking, and bathing are particularly vulnerable. Prolonged exposure to polluted water can lead to various health issues, such as gastrointestinal problems, skin irritations, respiratory illnesses, and even long-term health effects like cancer.

Furthermore, water pollution has economic ramifications. Polluted water bodies reduce the availability of clean water for agriculture, industry, and domestic use. This leads to increased costs for water treatment, agricultural productivity losses, and economic disruptions in sectors that rely heavily on water resources, such as fisheries and tourism.

Solutions and Mitigation Strategies

Addressing water pollution requires comprehensive strategies and collaborative efforts. Governments, industries, communities, and individuals all have a role to play in mitigating pollution and safeguarding water resources.

a. Regulatory Measures

B. wastewater treatment, c. sustainable agriculture, d. waste management, e. education and awareness.

Effective regulations and enforcement mechanisms are essential to control and prevent water pollution. Governments should establish stringent standards for industrial effluents and enforce penalties for non-compliance. Laws should be enacted to ensure proper waste disposal and treatment practices. Additionally, zoning regulations can help prevent pollution by restricting industrial activities near sensitive water bodies.

Investing in advanced wastewater treatment infrastructure is crucial. Industries should implement appropriate treatment technologies to remove pollutants from their effluents before discharge. Municipalities must prioritize the treatment of domestic sewage to prevent contamination of water bodies. Developing countries, in particular, need support and resources to build and upgrade their wastewater treatment facilities.

Adopting sustainable agricultural practices can significantly reduce pollution from agricultural activities. Encouraging the use of organic farming methods, integrated pest management, and precision irrigation can minimize the reliance on harmful pesticides and fertilizers. Proper manure management and implementing buffer zones along water bodies can also mitigate nutrient runoff and protect water quality.

Improper waste disposal is a major contributor to water pollution. Implementing comprehensive waste management systems that include recycling, proper landfill management, and promotion of waste reduction strategies is crucial. Communities should have access to adequate waste collection services, and educational campaigns can raise awareness about the importance of responsible waste disposal.

Public education and awareness programs play a vital role in addressing water pollution. Promoting water conservation practices, encouraging responsible behavior, and highlighting the link between water pollution and human health can empower individuals to take action. Educational campaigns should target schools, communities, and industries to foster a culture of environmental stewardship.

Water pollution is a critical global issue that poses severe threats to ecosystems, biodiversity, and human well-being. It demands collective action and sustainable practices to safeguard water resources. Through stringent regulations, advanced wastewater treatment, sustainable agriculture, proper waste management, and education, we can mitigate water pollution and preserve this vital resource for future generations. By recognizing the urgency of this crisis and working collaboratively, we can ensure a healthier, cleaner, and more sustainable water future.

Related Articles More From Author

What is pharmacognosy, essay on community service, essay on plagiarism.

45,000+ students realised their study abroad dream with us. Take the first step today

Meet top uk universities from the comfort of your home, here’s your new year gift, one app for all your, study abroad needs, start your journey, track your progress, grow with the community and so much more.

Verification Code

An OTP has been sent to your registered mobile no. Please verify

Thanks for your comment !

Our team will review it before it's shown to our readers.

• School Education /

Essay on Water Pollution: Samples in 200, 500 Words

• Updated on  
• Mar 23, 2024

Essay on Water Pollution: Water pollution occurs when human activities introduce toxic substances into freshwater ecosystems such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater, leading to the degradation of water quality. The combination of harmful chemicals with water has a negative impact on these ecosystems. 

Various human actions, particularly those affecting land, water, and underwater surfaces, contribute to this pollution, disrupting the natural supply of clean water and posing a significant danger to all forms of life, including humans.

Table of Contents

• 1 What is Water Pollution?
• 2.1 Contaminants 
• 2.2 Solution 
• 3.1 Reasons for Water Pollution
• 3.2 Methods of Water Pollution Management
• 3.3 Real-Life Encounter

Also Read: Types of Water Pollution

What is Water Pollution?

When many pollutants such as garbage, chemicals, bacteria, household waste, industrial waste, etc get mixed in the water resources and make the water unfit for cooking, drinking, cleaning, etc. it is known as water pollution. Water pollution damages the quality of water. lakes, water streams, rivers, etc may become polluted and eventually they will pollute the oceans. All this will directly or indirectly affect the lives of us humans and the animals deteriorating our health.

Essay on Water Pollution in 200 Words

Water is plentiful on Earth, present both above and beneath its surface. A variety of water bodies, such as rivers, ponds, seas, and oceans, can be found on the planet’s surface. Despite Earth’s ability to naturally replenish its water, we are gradually depleting and mishandling this abundant resource. 

Although water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface and land constitutes the remaining 29%, the rapid expansion of water pollution is impacting both marine life and humans. 

Contaminants 

Water pollution stems significantly from city sewage and industrial waste discharge. Indirect sources of water pollution include contaminants that reach water supplies via soil, groundwater systems, and precipitation. 

Chemical pollutants pose a greater challenge in terms of removal compared to visible impurities, which can be filtered out through physical cleaning. The addition of chemicals alters water’s properties, rendering it unsafe and potentially lethal for consumption.

Solution 

Prioritizing water infrastructure enhancement is vital for sustainable water management, with a focus on water efficiency and conservation. 

Furthermore, rainwater harvesting and reuse serve as effective strategies to curb water pollution. Reclaimed wastewater and collected rainwater alleviate stress on groundwater and other natural water sources. 

Groundwater recharge, which transfers water from surface sources to groundwater, is a well-known approach to mitigate water scarcity. These measures collectively contribute to safeguarding the planet’s water resources for present and future generations.

Here is a list of Major Landforms of the Earth !

Essay on Water Pollution in 500 Words

The term “water pollution” is employed when human or natural factors lead to contamination of bodies of water, such as rivers, lakes, and oceans. Responsible management is now imperative to address this significant environmental concern. The primary sources of water contamination are human-related activities like urbanization, industrialization, deforestation, improper waste disposal, and the establishment of landfills.

Reasons for Water Pollution

The availability of freshwater on our planet is limited, and pollution only increases this scarcity. Every year, a substantial amount of fresh water is lost due to industrial and various other types of pollution. Pollutants encompass visible waste items of varying sizes as well as intangible, hazardous, and lethal compounds.

Numerous factories are situated in proximity to water bodies, utilizing freshwater to transport their waste. This industrial waste carries inherent toxicity, jeopardizing the well-being of both plant and animal life. Individuals living close to polluted water sources frequently suffer from skin problems, respiratory ailments, and occasionally even life-threatening health conditions.

Water contamination is also intensified by urban waste and sewage, adding to the problem. Each household generates considerable waste annually, including plastic, chemicals, wood, and other materials. Inadequate waste disposal methods result in this refusal to infiltrate aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes, and streams, leading to pollution.

Methods of Water Pollution Management

Raising awareness about the causes and consequences of water pollution is crucial in significantly reducing its prevalence. Encouraging community or organizational clean-up initiatives on a weekly or monthly basis plays a pivotal role. 

To eradicate water contamination completely, stringent legislation needs to be formulated and diligently enforced. Rigorous oversight would promote accountability, potentially deterring individuals and groups from polluting. Each individual should recognize the impact of their daily actions and take steps to contribute to a better world for generations to come.

Real-Life Encounter

My affection for my town has always been heightened by its abundant lakes, rivers, and forests. During one of my walks alongside the river that flowed through my village, I was struck by the unusual hues swirling within the water. The once-familiar crystal-clear blue had been replaced by a murky brown shade, accompanied by a potent, unpleasant odour. Intrigued, I decided to investigate further, descending to the riverbank for a closer look at the source of the peculiar colours and smells. Upon closer inspection, I observed peculiar foam bubbles floating on the water’s surface.

Suddenly, a commotion behind me caught my attention, and I turned to witness a group of people hastening toward the river. Their frantic shouts and vigorous gestures conveyed their panic, prompting me to realize that a grave situation was unfolding. As the group reached the river, they were confronted with the distressing sight of numerous lifeless fish floating on the water’s surface. 

Following a comprehensive investigation, it was revealed that a local factory had been releasing toxic chemicals into the river, resulting in extensive pollution and the devastation of the ecosystem. This investigation left me stunned and disheartened, acknowledging the significant effort required to restore the river to its own form.

Related Reads:-     

A. Water pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, oceans, and groundwater, due to the introduction of harmful substances. These substances can include chemicals, industrial waste, sewage, and pollutants that adversely affect the quality of water, making it unsafe for human consumption and harmful to aquatic life.

A. The primary sources of water pollution include city sewage and industrial waste discharge. Chemical contaminants from factories and agricultural runoff, as well as oil spills and plastic waste, contribute significantly to water pollution. Runoff from paved surfaces and improper waste disposal also play a role in introducing pollutants into water bodies.

A. Water pollution has far-reaching consequences. It poses a threat to aquatic ecosystems by harming marine life, disrupting food chains, and damaging habitats. Additionally, contaminated water can lead to the spread of waterborne diseases among humans. Toxic chemicals in polluted water can cause serious health issues, affecting the skin, and respiratory systems, and even leading to long-term illnesses. 

This brings us to the end of our blog on Essay on Water Pollution. Hope you find this information useful. For more information on such informative topics for your school, visit our  essay writing  and follow  Leverage Edu

Aditi Gupta

A bachelors in Journalism and Mass Communication graduate, I am an enthusiastic writer. I love to write about impactful content which can help others. I love to binge watch and listen to music during my free time.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Contact no. *

Connect With Us

45,000+ students realised their study abroad dream with us. take the first step today..

Resend OTP in

Need help with?

Study abroad.

UK, Canada, US & More

IELTS, GRE, GMAT & More

Scholarship, Loans & Forex

Country Preference

New Zealand

Which English test are you planning to take?

Which academic test are you planning to take.

Not Sure yet

When are you planning to take the exam?

Already booked my exam slot

Within 2 Months

Want to learn about the test

Which Degree do you wish to pursue?

When do you want to start studying abroad.

January 2024

September 2024

What is your budget to study abroad?

How would you describe this article ?

Please rate this article

We would like to hear more.

Have something on your mind?

Make your study abroad dream a reality in January 2022 with

India's Biggest Virtual University Fair

Essex Direct Admission Day

Why attend .

Don't Miss Out

• Random article
• Teaching guide
• Privacy & cookies

Water pollution: an introduction

by Chris Woodford . Last updated: October 1, 2023.

O ver two thirds of Earth's surface is covered by water ; less than a third is taken up by land. As Earth's population continues to grow, people are putting ever-increasing pressure on the planet's water resources. In a sense, our oceans, rivers , and other inland waters are being "squeezed" by human activities—not so they take up less room, but so their quality is reduced. Poorer water quality means water pollution .

We know that pollution is a human problem because it is a relatively recent development in the planet's history: before the 19th century Industrial Revolution, people lived more in harmony with their immediate environment. As industrialization has spread around the globe, so the problem of pollution has spread with it. When Earth's population was much smaller, no one believed pollution would ever present a serious problem. It was once popularly believed that the oceans were far too big to pollute. Today, with around 7 billion people on the planet, it has become apparent that there are limits. Pollution is one of the signs that humans have exceeded those limits.

Photo: Stormwater pollution entering a river from a drain. Photo by Peter C Van Metre courtesy of US Geological Survey .

What is water pollution?

Water pollution can be defined in many ways. Usually, it means one or more substances have built up in water to such an extent that they cause problems for animals or people. Oceans, lakes, rivers, and other inland waters can naturally clean up a certain amount of pollution by dispersing it harmlessly. If you poured a cup of black ink into a river, the ink would quickly disappear into the river's much larger volume of clean water. The ink would still be there in the river, but in such a low concentration that you would not be able to see it. At such low levels, the chemicals in the ink probably would not present any real problem. However, if you poured gallons of ink into a river every few seconds through a pipe, the river would quickly turn black. The chemicals in the ink could very quickly have an effect on the quality of the water. This, in turn, could affect the health of all the plants, animals, and humans whose lives depend on the river.

Photo: Pollution means adding substances to the environment that don't belong there—like the air pollution from this smokestack. Pollution is not always as obvious as this, however.

Thus, water pollution is all about quantities : how much of a polluting substance is released and how big a volume of water it is released into. A small quantity of a toxic chemical may have little impact if it is spilled into the ocean from a ship. But the same amount of the same chemical can have a much bigger impact pumped into a lake or river, where there is less clean water to disperse it.

"The introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment (including estuaries) resulting in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including fishing, impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities." [1]

What are the main types of water pollution?

When we think of Earth's water resources, we think of huge oceans, lakes, and rivers. Water resources like these are called surface waters . The most obvious type of water pollution affects surface waters. For example, a spill from an oil tanker creates an oil slick that can affect a vast area of the ocean.

Photo: Detergent pollution entering a river—an example of surface water pollution. Photo courtesy of US Fish & Wildlife Service Photo Library.

Not all of Earth's water sits on its surface, however. A great deal of water is held in underground rock structures known as aquifers, which we cannot see and seldom think about. Water stored underground in aquifers is known as groundwater . Aquifers feed our rivers and supply much of our drinking water. They too can become polluted, for example, when weed killers used in people's gardens drain into the ground. Groundwater pollution is much less obvious than surface-water pollution, but is no less of a problem. In 1996, a study in Iowa in the United States found that over half the state's groundwater wells were contaminated with weed killers. You might think things would have improved since then, but, two decades on, all that's really changed is the name of the chemicals we're using. Today, numerous scientific studies are still finding weed killers in groundwater in worrying quantities: a 2012 study discovered glyphosate in 41 percent of 140 groundwater samples from Catalonia, Spain; scientific opinion differs on whether this is safe or not. [2]

Surface waters and groundwater are the two types of water resources that pollution affects. There are also two different ways in which pollution can occur. If pollution comes from a single location, such as a discharge pipe attached to a factory, it is known as point-source pollution . Other examples of point source pollution include an oil spill from a tanker, a discharge from a smoke stack (factory chimney), or someone pouring oil from their car down a drain. A great deal of water pollution happens not from one single source but from many different scattered sources. This is called nonpoint-source pollution .

When point-source pollution enters the environment, the place most affected is usually the area immediately around the source. For example, when a tanker accident occurs, the oil slick is concentrated around the tanker itself and, in the right ocean conditions, the pollution disperses the further away from the tanker you go. This is less likely to happen with nonpoint source pollution which, by definition, enters the environment from many different places at once.

Sometimes pollution that enters the environment in one place has an effect hundreds or even thousands of miles away. This is known as transboundary pollution . One example is the way radioactive waste travels through the oceans from nuclear reprocessing plants in England and France to nearby countries such as Ireland and Norway.

How do we know when water is polluted?

Some forms of water pollution are very obvious: everyone has seen TV news footage of oil slicks filmed from helicopters flying overhead. Water pollution is usually less obvious and much harder to detect than this. But how can we measure water pollution when we cannot see it? How do we even know it's there?

There are two main ways of measuring the quality of water. One is to take samples of the water and measure the concentrations of different chemicals that it contains. If the chemicals are dangerous or the concentrations are too great, we can regard the water as polluted. Measurements like this are known as chemical indicators of water quality. Another way to measure water quality involves examining the fish, insects, and other invertebrates that the water will support. If many different types of creatures can live in a river, the quality is likely to be very good; if the river supports no fish life at all, the quality is obviously much poorer. Measurements like this are called biological indicators of water quality.

What are the causes of water pollution?

Most water pollution doesn't begin in the water itself. Take the oceans: around 80 percent of ocean pollution enters our seas from the land. [16] Virtually any human activity can have an effect on the quality of our water environment. When farmers fertilize the fields, the chemicals they use are gradually washed by rain into the groundwater or surface waters nearby. Sometimes the causes of water pollution are quite surprising. Chemicals released by smokestacks (chimneys) can enter the atmosphere and then fall back to earth as rain, entering seas, rivers, and lakes and causing water pollution. That's called atmospheric deposition . Water pollution has many different causes and this is one of the reasons why it is such a difficult problem to solve.

With billions of people on the planet, disposing of sewage waste is a major problem. According to 2017 figures from the World Health Organization, some 2 billion people (about a quarter of the world's population) don't have access to safe drinking water or the most basic sanitation, 3.4 billion (60 people of the population) lack "safely managed" sanitation (unshared, with waste properly treated). Although there have been great improvements in securing access to clean water, relatively little, genuine progress has been made on improving global sanitation in the last decade. [20] Sewage disposal affects people's immediate environments and leads to water-related illnesses such as diarrhea that kills 525,000 children under five each year. [3] (Back in 2002, the World Health Organization estimated that water-related diseases could kill as many as 135 million people by 2020; in 2019, the WHO was still estimating the annual death toll from poor water and sanitation at over 800,000 people a year.) In developed countries, most people have flush toilets that take sewage waste quickly and hygienically away from their homes.

Yet the problem of sewage disposal does not end there. When you flush the toilet, the waste has to go somewhere and, even after it leaves the sewage treatment works, there is still waste to dispose of. Sometimes sewage waste is pumped untreated into the sea. Until the early 1990s, around 5 million tons of sewage was dumped by barge from New York City each year. [4] According to 2002 figures from the UK government's Department for the Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), the sewers of Britain collect around 11 billion liters of waste water every day; there are still 31,000 sewage overflow pipes through which, in certain circumstances, such as heavy storms, raw sewage is pumped untreated into the sea. [5] The New River that crosses the border from Mexico into California once carried with it 20–25 million gallons (76–95 million liters) of raw sewage each day; a new waste water plant on the US-Mexico border, completed in 2007, substantially solved that problem. [6] Unfortunately, even in some of the richest nations, the practice of dumping sewage into the sea continues. In early 2012, it was reported that the tiny island of Guernsey (between Britain and France) has decided to continue dumping 16,000 tons of raw sewage into the sea each day.

In theory, sewage is a completely natural substance that should be broken down harmlessly in the environment: 90 percent of sewage is water. [7] In practice, sewage contains all kinds of other chemicals, from the pharmaceutical drugs people take to the paper , plastic , and other wastes they flush down their toilets. When people are sick with viruses, the sewage they produce carries those viruses into the environment. It is possible to catch illnesses such as hepatitis, typhoid, and cholera from river and sea water.

Photo: Nutrients make crops grow, but cause pollution when they seep into rivers and other watercourses. Photo courtesy of US Department of Agriculture (Flickr) .

Suitably treated and used in moderate quantities, sewage can be a fertilizer: it returns important nutrients to the environment, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, which plants and animals need for growth. The trouble is, sewage is often released in much greater quantities than the natural environment can cope with. Chemical fertilizers used by farmers also add nutrients to the soil, which drain into rivers and seas and add to the fertilizing effect of the sewage. Together, sewage and fertilizers can cause a massive increase in the growth of algae or plankton that overwhelms huge areas of oceans, lakes, or rivers. This is known as a harmful algal bloom (also known as an HAB or red tide, because it can turn the water red). It is harmful because it removes oxygen from the water that kills other forms of life, leading to what is known as a dead zone . The Gulf of Mexico has one of the world's most spectacular dead zones. Each summer, according to studies by the NOAA , it typically grows to an area of around 5500–6500 square miles (14,000–16,800 square kilometers), which is about the same size as the state of Connecticut. [21]

Waste water

A few statistics illustrate the scale of the problem that waste water (chemicals washed down drains and discharged from factories) can cause. Around half of all ocean pollution is caused by sewage and waste water. Each year, the world generates perhaps 5–10 billion tons of industrial waste, much of which is pumped untreated into rivers, oceans, and other waterways. [8] In the United States alone, around 400,000 factories take clean water from rivers, and many pump polluted waters back in their place. However, there have been major improvements in waste water treatment recently. Since 1970, in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has invested about $70 billion in improving water treatment plants that, as of 2021, serve around 90 percent of the US population (compared to just 69 percent in 1972). However, another $271 billion is still needed to update and upgrade the system. [15]

Factories are point sources of water pollution, but quite a lot of water is polluted by ordinary people from nonpoint sources; this is how ordinary water becomes waste water in the first place. Virtually everyone pours chemicals of one sort or another down their drains or toilets. Even detergents used in washing machines and dishwashers eventually end up in our rivers and oceans. So do the pesticides we use on our gardens. A lot of toxic pollution also enters waste water from highway runoff . Highways are typically covered with a cocktail of toxic chemicals—everything from spilled fuel and brake fluids to bits of worn tires (themselves made from chemical additives) and exhaust emissions. When it rains, these chemicals wash into drains and rivers. It is not unusual for heavy summer rainstorms to wash toxic chemicals into rivers in such concentrations that they kill large numbers of fish overnight. It has been estimated that, in one year, the highway runoff from a single large city leaks as much oil into our water environment as a typical tanker spill. Some highway runoff runs away into drains; others can pollute groundwater or accumulate in the land next to a road, making it increasingly toxic as the years go by.

Chemical waste

Detergents are relatively mild substances. At the opposite end of the spectrum are highly toxic chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) . They were once widely used to manufacture electronic circuit boards , but their harmful effects have now been recognized and their use is highly restricted in many countries. Nevertheless, an estimated half million tons of PCBs were discharged into the environment during the 20th century. [9] In a classic example of transboundary pollution, traces of PCBs have even been found in birds and fish in the Arctic. They were carried there through the oceans, thousands of miles from where they originally entered the environment. Although PCBs are widely banned, their effects will be felt for many decades because they last a long time in the environment without breaking down.

Another kind of toxic pollution comes from heavy metals , such as lead, cadmium, and mercury. Lead was once commonly used in gasoline (petrol), though its use is now restricted in some countries. Mercury and cadmium are still used in batteries (though some brands now use other metals instead). Until recently, a highly toxic chemical called tributyltin (TBT) was used in paints to protect boats from the ravaging effects of the oceans. Ironically, however, TBT was gradually recognized as a pollutant: boats painted with it were doing as much damage to the oceans as the oceans were doing to the boats.

The best known example of heavy metal pollution in the oceans took place in 1938 when a Japanese factory discharged a significant amount of mercury metal into Minamata Bay, contaminating the fish stocks there. It took a decade for the problem to come to light. By that time, many local people had eaten the fish and around 2000 were poisoned. Hundreds of people were left dead or disabled. [10]

Radioactive waste

People view radioactive waste with great alarm—and for good reason. At high enough concentrations it can kill; in lower concentrations it can cause cancers and other illnesses. The biggest sources of radioactive pollution in Europe are two factories that reprocess waste fuel from nuclear power plants : Sellafield on the north-west coast of Britain and Cap La Hague on the north coast of France. Both discharge radioactive waste water into the sea, which ocean currents then carry around the world. Countries such as Norway, which lie downstream from Britain, receive significant doses of radioactive pollution from Sellafield. [19] The Norwegian government has repeatedly complained that Sellafield has increased radiation levels along its coast by 6–10 times. Both the Irish and Norwegian governments continue to press for the plant's closure. [11]

Oil pollution

Photo: Oil-tanker spills are the most spectacular forms of pollution and the ones that catch public attention, but only a fraction of all water pollution happens this way. Photo by Lamar Gore courtesy of US Fish & Wildlife Service Photo Library and US National Archive .

When we think of ocean pollution, huge black oil slicks often spring to mind, yet these spectacular accidents represent only a tiny fraction of all the pollution entering our oceans. Even considering oil by itself, tanker spills are not as significant as they might seem: only 12 percent of the oil that enters the oceans comes from tanker accidents; over 70 percent of oil pollution at sea comes from routine shipping and from the oil people pour down drains on land. [12] However, what makes tanker spills so destructive is the sheer quantity of oil they release at once — in other words, the concentration of oil they produce in one very localized part of the marine environment. The biggest oil spill in recent years (and the biggest ever spill in US waters) occurred when the tanker Exxon Valdez broke up in Prince William Sound in Alaska in 1989. Around 12 million gallons (44 million liters) of oil were released into the pristine wilderness—enough to fill your living room 800 times over! Estimates of the marine animals killed in the spill vary from approximately 1000 sea otters and 34,000 birds to as many as 2800 sea otters and 250,000 sea birds. Several billion salmon and herring eggs are also believed to have been destroyed. [13]

If you've ever taken part in a community beach clean, you'll know that plastic is far and away the most common substance that washes up with the waves. There are three reasons for this: plastic is one of the most common materials, used for making virtually every kind of manufactured object from clothing to automobile parts; plastic is light and floats easily so it can travel enormous distances across the oceans; most plastics are not biodegradable (they do not break down naturally in the environment), which means that things like plastic bottle tops can survive in the marine environment for a long time. (A plastic bottle can survive an estimated 450 years in the ocean and plastic fishing line can last up to 600 years.)

While plastics are not toxic in quite the same way as poisonous chemicals, they nevertheless present a major hazard to seabirds, fish, and other marine creatures. For example, plastic fishing lines and other debris can strangle or choke fish. (This is sometimes called ghost fishing .) About half of all the world's seabird species are known to have eaten plastic residues. In one study of 450 shearwaters in the North Pacific, over 80 percent of the birds were found to contain plastic residues in their stomachs. In the early 1990s, marine scientist Tim Benton collected debris from a 2km (1.5 mile) length of beach in the remote Pitcairn islands in the South Pacific. His study recorded approximately a thousand pieces of garbage including 268 pieces of plastic, 71 plastic bottles, and two dolls heads. [14]

Alien species

Most people's idea of water pollution involves things like sewage, toxic metals, or oil slicks, but pollution can be biological as well as chemical. In some parts of the world, alien species are a major problem. Alien species (sometimes known as invasive species ) are animals or plants from one region that have been introduced into a different ecosystem where they do not belong. Outside their normal environment, they have no natural predators, so they rapidly run wild, crowding out the usual animals or plants that thrive there. Common examples of alien species include zebra mussels in the Great Lakes of the USA, which were carried there from Europe by ballast water (waste water flushed from ships ). The Mediterranean Sea has been invaded by a kind of alien algae called Caulerpa taxifolia . In the Black Sea, an alien jellyfish called Mnemiopsis leidyi reduced fish stocks by 90 percent after arriving in ballast water. In San Francisco Bay, Asian clams called Potamocorbula amurensis, also introduced by ballast water, have dramatically altered the ecosystem. In 1999, Cornell University's David Pimentel estimated that alien invaders like this cost the US economy $123 billion a year; in 2014, the European Commission put the cost to Europe at €12 billion a year and "growing all the time. [18]

Other forms of pollution

These are the most common forms of pollution—but by no means the only ones. Heat or thermal pollution from factories and power plants also causes problems in rivers. By raising the temperature, it reduces the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water, thus also reducing the level of aquatic life that the river can support. Another type of pollution involves the disruption of sediments (fine-grained powders) that flow from rivers into the sea. Dams built for hydroelectric power or water reservoirs can reduce the sediment flow. This reduces the formation of beaches, increases coastal erosion (the natural destruction of cliffs by the sea), and reduces the flow of nutrients from rivers into seas (potentially reducing coastal fish stocks). Increased sediments can also present a problem. During construction work, soil, rock, and other fine powders sometimes enters nearby rivers in large quantities, causing it to become turbid (muddy or silted). The extra sediment can block the gills of fish, effectively suffocating them. Construction firms often now take precautions to prevent this kind of pollution from happening.

What are the effects of water pollution?

Some people believe pollution is an inescapable result of human activity: they argue that if we want to have factories, cities, ships, cars, oil, and coastal resorts, some degree of pollution is almost certain to result. In other words, pollution is a necessary evil that people must put up with if they want to make progress. Fortunately, not everyone agrees with this view. One reason people have woken up to the problem of pollution is that it brings costs of its own that undermine any economic benefits that come about by polluting.

Take oil spills, for example. They can happen if tankers are too poorly built to survive accidents at sea. But the economic benefit of compromising on tanker quality brings an economic cost when an oil spill occurs. The oil can wash up on nearby beaches, devastate the ecosystem, and severely affect tourism. The main problem is that the people who bear the cost of the spill (typically a small coastal community) are not the people who caused the problem in the first place (the people who operate the tanker). Yet, arguably, everyone who puts gasoline (petrol) into their car—or uses almost any kind of petroleum-fueled transport—contributes to the problem in some way. So oil spills are a problem for everyone, not just people who live by the coast and tanker operates.

Sewage is another good example of how pollution can affect us all. Sewage discharged into coastal waters can wash up on beaches and cause a health hazard. People who bathe or surf in the water can fall ill if they swallow polluted water—yet sewage can have other harmful effects too: it can poison shellfish (such as cockles and mussels) that grow near the shore. People who eat poisoned shellfish risk suffering from an acute—and sometimes fatal—illness called paralytic shellfish poisoning. Shellfish is no longer caught along many shores because it is simply too polluted with sewage or toxic chemical wastes that have discharged from the land nearby.

Pollution matters because it harms the environment on which people depend. The environment is not something distant and separate from our lives. It's not a pretty shoreline hundreds of miles from our homes or a wilderness landscape that we see only on TV. The environment is everything that surrounds us that gives us life and health. Destroying the environment ultimately reduces the quality of our own lives—and that, most selfishly, is why pollution should matter to all of us.

How can we stop water pollution?

There is no easy way to solve water pollution; if there were, it wouldn't be so much of a problem. Broadly speaking, there are three different things that can help to tackle the problem—education, laws, and economics—and they work together as a team.

Making people aware of the problem is the first step to solving it. In the early 1990s, when surfers in Britain grew tired of catching illnesses from water polluted with sewage, they formed a group called Surfers Against Sewage to force governments and water companies to clean up their act. People who've grown tired of walking the world's polluted beaches often band together to organize community beach-cleaning sessions. Anglers who no longer catch so many fish have campaigned for tougher penalties against factories that pour pollution into our rivers. Greater public awareness can make a positive difference.

One of the biggest problems with water pollution is its transboundary nature. Many rivers cross countries, while seas span whole continents. Pollution discharged by factories in one country with poor environmental standards can cause problems in neighboring nations, even when they have tougher laws and higher standards. Environmental laws can make it tougher for people to pollute, but to be really effective they have to operate across national and international borders. This is why we have international laws governing the oceans, such as the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (signed by over 120 nations), the 1972 London (Dumping) Convention , the 1978 MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships , and the 1998 OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic . The European Union has water-protection laws (known as directives) that apply to all of its member states. They include the 1976 Bathing Water Directive (updated 2006), which seeks to ensure the quality of the waters that people use for recreation. Most countries also have their own water pollution laws. In the United States, for example, there is the 1972 Clean Water Act and the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act .

Most environmental experts agree that the best way to tackle pollution is through something called the polluter pays principle . This means that whoever causes pollution should have to pay to clean it up, one way or another. Polluter pays can operate in all kinds of ways. It could mean that tanker owners should have to take out insurance that covers the cost of oil spill cleanups, for example. It could also mean that shoppers should have to pay for their plastic grocery bags, as is now common in Ireland, to encourage recycling and minimize waste. Or it could mean that factories that use rivers must have their water inlet pipes downstream of their effluent outflow pipes, so if they cause pollution they themselves are the first people to suffer. Ultimately, the polluter pays principle is designed to deter people from polluting by making it less expensive for them to behave in an environmentally responsible way.

Our clean future

Life is ultimately about choices—and so is pollution. We can live with sewage-strewn beaches, dead rivers, and fish that are too poisonous to eat. Or we can work together to keep the environment clean so the plants, animals, and people who depend on it remain healthy. We can take individual action to help reduce water pollution, for example, by using environmentally friendly detergents , not pouring oil down drains, reducing pesticides, and so on. We can take community action too, by helping out on beach cleans or litter picks to keep our rivers and seas that little bit cleaner. And we can take action as countries and continents to pass laws that will make pollution harder and the world less polluted. Working together, we can make pollution less of a problem—and the world a better place.

If you liked this article...

Don't want to read our articles try listening instead, find out more, on this site.

• Air pollution (introduction)
• Climate change and global warming
• Environmentalism (introduction)
• Land pollution
• Organic food and farming

For older readers

For younger readers.

• Earth Matters by Lynn Dicks et al. Dorling Kindersley, 2008: A more general guide to problems Earth faces, with each major biome explored separately. In case you're interested, I contributed the polar regions chapter. The book is mostly a simple read and probably suitable for 7–10 (and maybe 9–12).

Selected news articles

Water pollution videos, notes and references.

Text copyright © Chris Woodford 2006, 2022. All rights reserved. Full copyright notice and terms of use .

This article was originally written for the UK Rivers Network and first published on their website in April 2006. It is revised and updated every year.

Rate this page

Tell your friends, cite this page, more to explore on our website....

• Get the book
• Send feedback

Essay on Water Pollution

Students are often asked to write an essay on Water Pollution in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Water Pollution

Introduction.

Water pollution is a major issue in today’s world. It involves the contamination of water bodies such as rivers, oceans, lakes, and groundwater.

Water pollution is primarily caused by human activities. Industrial waste, sewage, oil spills, and littering are common causes.

Water pollution harms aquatic life and disrupts ecosystems. It also poses health risks to humans who consume contaminated water.

Preventing water pollution requires collective efforts. We need to reduce waste, recycle, and enforce stricter pollution laws.

Also check:

250 Words Essay on Water Pollution

Water pollution is an escalating problem with far-reaching implications for the health of both ecosystems and human populations. It involves the contamination of water bodies such as rivers, oceans, lakes, and groundwater due to human activities, leading to a deterioration in water quality.

The Causes of Water Pollution

Water pollution arises from various sources, including industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and domestic sewage. Industrial waste often contains harmful chemicals and heavy metals, while agricultural runoff is replete with pesticides and fertilizers. Domestic sewage, on the other hand, is a source of pathogens and organic pollutants.

Impacts of Water Pollution

The effects of water pollution are manifold and severe. It disrupts ecosystems, leading to the loss of biodiversity and the death of aquatic species. Moreover, it poses significant health risks to humans, causing diseases like cholera and dysentery. Polluted water also affects agriculture, reducing crop yield and quality.

Solutions to Water Pollution

Addressing water pollution requires a multi-pronged approach. Legislation and enforcement are necessary to regulate waste discharge from industries and agriculture. Technological solutions, such as wastewater treatment and recycling, can also play a pivotal role. Additionally, public awareness and education about water conservation and pollution prevention are essential.

500 Words Essay on Water Pollution

Water pollution is an escalating global concern that threatens the health of our planet and its inhabitants. It refers to the contamination of water bodies such as rivers, oceans, lakes, and groundwater, caused by human activities. This pollution affects not only the quality of water but also the broader ecosystem, impacting both aquatic and terrestrial life forms.

Water pollution can be attributed to a myriad of sources, broadly categorized into point sources and non-point sources. Point sources relate to pollutants directly discharged into water bodies from identifiable locations such as factories, sewage treatment plants, and oil spills. Non-point sources, on the other hand, are diffuse and harder to control, including agricultural runoff, urban runoff, and atmospheric deposition.

The Consequences of Water Pollution

Water pollution also poses a significant threat to public health. Contaminated water is a breeding ground for waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid. With over 780 million people lacking access to clean water, the health impact is substantial and disproportionately affects vulnerable populations.

Addressing Water Pollution

Public awareness and education are also key in addressing this issue. By understanding the causes and effects of water pollution, individuals can make informed decisions and contribute to the solution, whether through responsible consumption, waste disposal, or advocacy.

Water pollution is a pressing issue that requires immediate and sustained attention. While the situation is dire, it is not insurmountable. Through collective action, stringent regulations, technological advancements, and increased awareness, we can mitigate water pollution and safeguard our water resources for future generations. The fight against water pollution is not just an environmental obligation, but also a prerequisite for our survival and well-being.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

• PRO Courses Guides New Tech Help Pro Expert Videos About wikiHow Pro Upgrade Sign In
• EDIT Edit this Article
• EXPLORE Tech Help Pro About Us Random Article Quizzes Request a New Article Community Dashboard This Or That Game Happiness Hub Popular Categories Arts and Entertainment Artwork Books Movies Computers and Electronics Computers Phone Skills Technology Hacks Health Men's Health Mental Health Women's Health Relationships Dating Love Relationship Issues Hobbies and Crafts Crafts Drawing Games Education & Communication Communication Skills Personal Development Studying Personal Care and Style Fashion Hair Care Personal Hygiene Youth Personal Care School Stuff Dating All Categories Arts and Entertainment Finance and Business Home and Garden Relationship Quizzes Cars & Other Vehicles Food and Entertaining Personal Care and Style Sports and Fitness Computers and Electronics Health Pets and Animals Travel Education & Communication Hobbies and Crafts Philosophy and Religion Work World Family Life Holidays and Traditions Relationships Youth
• Browse Articles
• Learn Something New
• Quizzes Hot
• Happiness Hub
• This Or That Game
• Train Your Brain
• Explore More
• Support wikiHow
• About wikiHow
• Log in / Sign up
• Education and Communications
• Social Activism
• Environmental Awareness
• Pollution Prevention

How to Prevent Water Pollution: 14 Practical Ways

Last Updated: August 28, 2024 Fact Checked

• Ways to Reduce Water Pollution

What is water pollution?

This article was co-authored by Kathryn Kellogg . Kathryn Kellogg is the founder of goingzerowaste.com, a lifestyle website dedicated to breaking eco-friendly living down into a simple step-by-step process with lots of positivity and love. Kathryn is the author of two books focusing on sustainability, 101 Ways to Go Zero Waste and 101 Tips for a Zero Waste Kitchen. She is the spokesperson for plastic-free living for National Geographic, has been featured by the Guardian, CNN, Refinery29, and Bustle, and has a following on instagram of over 700k. There are 20 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,021,133 times.

Water is one of the world's most important resources. Did you know that the average American family uses 300 US gal (1,100 L) a day? That’s enough to fill 4 large bathtubs! [1] X Trustworthy Source United States Environmental Protection Agency Independent U.S. government agency responsible for promoting safe environmental practices Go to source Water pollution (when harmful substances infiltrate a water supply) is a major environmental concern, and because water is so essential for humans and the environment, it's essential that we take care of it. We spoke to environmentalist Kathryn Kellogg to bring you the best advice on how to stop water pollution, live a more eco-friendly life, and make a lasting difference.

What You Can Do to Reduce Water Pollution

• Use eco-friendly cleaning products, and avoid products that contain bleach or ammonia.
• Avoid single-use plastic to prevent build-up in water sources. Opt for reusable products.
• Dispose of waste properly. Never pour chemicals, oil, or paint down drains.
• Avoid using pesticides and fertilizers, and stick with organic gardening solutions.
• Conserve water. Turn off the faucet when brushing your teeth and take quicker showers.

The Dos & Don’ts of Reducing Water Pollution

• Common household supplies like white vinegar and baking soda can be used for everything (from washing windows to scrubbing bathroom tiles), and they’re completely non-toxic.
• The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provides a list of cleaning products (as well as a variety of other products) that are considered “green,” meaning they won't pollute the water supply. So, use it as your guide to environmentally friendly cleaning!

• Cleaning solvents
• Pool chemicals

• Talk to your pharmacy about how to safely dispose of your old medications.

• You can also help by using cloth diapers , recycled toilet paper , and biodegradable tampons , which reduces the number of items that end up in the landfill.

• Take showers instead of baths, as showers use less water.
• Turn off your faucets when you’re not using water, such as when brushing your teeth.
• Avoid overwatering your lawn to save water.
• Use a broom instead of water to clean your driveway.
• Water your garden before the sun comes up or after it sets, as you’ll have to use more water during the hottest times of the day. [9] X Trustworthy Source National Resources Defence Council Multinational environmental advocacy group focused on grassroots activism and legislative action Go to source

• Using a reusable glass container to store your leftovers, investing in cloth napkins , or shopping with a reusable bag are small changes that can make a big difference. [11] X Trustworthy Source United States Environmental Protection Agency Independent U.S. government agency responsible for promoting safe environmental practices Go to source

• Look into organic gardening practices to find creative ways to deal with garden pests. For example, many pests can be dealt with using a simple dish soap and water solution.
• Planting native species can also help, as native species have developed a resistance to the pests and weeds in the area. Species native to other lands are more susceptible to disease as well.

• In addition, don't forget to dispose of motor oil properly instead of washing it down the drain. Bring motor oil in a secure container to a recycling center. To find a center near you, search your location using RecycleSearch.com . [15] X Research source
• Get your tires inspected at an auto repair shop at least once a year. Tire shreds are a major pollutant in the world's oceans because they often wash into storm drains and waterways.

• Contain your compost in a bin or barrel to prevent the materials from being washed away.
• Use a mulching mower instead of bagging grass clippings. Mulching mowers add a natural layer of compost to your lawn without needing to dispose of grass clippings.
• If you don't compost or have yard waste you can't compost, contact your local waste management or environmental protection agency to determine how to dispose of it.

• For example, you could recommend that your office or school switch to eco-friendly cleaning supplies and make suggestions as to which ones work well.
• You could also put up signs reminding people to conserve water in the bathroom and kitchen areas, like reminders to never leave the sink running.

• If you can't find a local group working to reduce water pollution in your area, you might be just the person to start one! Consider hosting a cleanup day. Set a date, publicize the event, and have a plan for collecting and disposing of the trash.

• Learn about local and national laws against water pollution and join groups working to protect water in your area. [23] X Trustworthy Source United States Environmental Protection Agency Independent U.S. government agency responsible for promoting safe environmental practices Go to source
• Voting for political candidates who strive to protect waterways is a great way to do your part to reduce pollution.
• Water pollution occurs when harmful substances contaminate a body of water. Water is typically polluted when chemicals or microorganisms are spilled, poured, or dumped into a stream, river, lake, ocean, or other water source. The harmful substance degrades the water quality, making it toxic for humans, wildlife, and the environment. [24] X Trustworthy Source National Resources Defence Council Multinational environmental advocacy group focused on grassroots activism and legislative action Go to source

What causes water pollution?

• Agricultural contamination: Fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste can wash into waterways and pollute groundwater.
• Sewage and wastewater: Used water from sinks, showers, toilets, and storm drains can put oils, grease, chemicals, and debris into waterways, even after being processed or recycled.
• Oil pollution: Spilled oil and gasoline can find their way into groundwater and waterways.

What are the effects of water pollution?

• 1 Water pollution makes roughly 1 billion people sick each year. Drinking contaminated or polluted water can be detrimental to human health. Disease-causing bacteria from human or animal waste is a leading cause of cholera, giardia, and typhoid. And drinking polluted water isn’t the only risk. Swimming or bathing in contaminated water can cause rashes, respiratory infections, and hepatitis. [26] X Trustworthy Source National Resources Defence Council Multinational environmental advocacy group focused on grassroots activism and legislative action Go to source
• For instance, say a lake is polluted. The contaminant may cause the lake’s ecosystem to produce more algae and phytoplankton, which disrupts the water quality. Because of the changing water quality, fish can die, and if the fish die, the birds that eat the fish will either die or try to travel somewhere else for food (which will then disrupt the flow of another established ecosystem).

Community Q&A

• If you are not sure whether something is hazardous, check with your local waste management or environmental protection department or do some research online. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Think about the big picture. You may think a little oil leak on your car isn't a big deal. However, the oil from thousands of cars with minor oil leaks adds up quickly. You can't fix all the oil leaks in the world, but you can fix yours. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

Tips from our Readers

• You can help by picking up every single piece of trash around you to solve the problem of land pollution and also soil pollution, which can lead to water pollution. And maybe you can educate your family, friends, or even acquaintances on this topic. By doing this, you could help solve the problem of land and soil pollution.
• Limit how much asphalt, brick, concrete, cigarettes, alcohol (vineyards), and hair/clothing dyes you use. These are the biggest wastes of water!

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://www.epa.gov/watersense/how-we-use-water
• ↑ https://www.epa.gov/urbanwaterspartners/how-you-can-help
• ↑ Kathryn Kellogg. Sustainability Specialist. Expert Interview. 15 November 2019.
• ↑ https://raleighnc.gov/stormwater/services/spot-report-and-stop-water-pollution/6-ways-prevent-water-pollution
• ↑ https://www.nrdc.org/stories/water-pollution-everything-you-need-know#prevent
• ↑ https://www.nrdc.org/stories/6-ways-you-can-help-keep-our-water-clean
• ↑ https://www.cityofdubuque.org/DocumentCenter/View/400/EPA-Water-Pollution-Prevention?bidId=
• ↑ https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/great-pacific-garbage-patch/
• ↑ https://www.epa.gov/plastics/what-you-can-do-reduce-plastic-waste
• ↑ https://groundwater.org/what-is-groundwater/
• ↑ https://groundwater.org/threats/contamination/
• ↑ https://www.dep.pa.gov/Citizens/RecyclingDisposal/MotorOil/Pages/default.aspx
• ↑ Kathryn Kellogg. Sustainability Specialist. Expert Interview. 11 July 2019.
• ↑ https://extension.psu.edu/the-role-of-trees-and-forests-in-healthy-watersheds
• ↑ https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/yard_waste_practices_impact_water_quality
• ↑ Kathryn Kellogg. Environmentalist. Expert Interview. 28 June 2019.
• ↑ https://www.epa.gov/sourcewaterprotection/how-can-you-help-protect-source-water
• ↑ https://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/about-office-water#wetlands
• ↑ https://www.nrdc.org/stories/water-pollution-everything-you-need-know
• ↑ https://www.nrdc.org/stories/water-pollution-everything-you-need-know#effects

About This Article

To reduce water pollution, use natural cleaners like vinegar and baking soda in place of toxic chemicals like bleach and ammonia. Additionally, avoid using pesticides and herbicides in order to prevent groundwater contamination. If you need to dispose of old medications, look into local “take back” programs instead of flushing them down the toilet, where they can end up back in the drinking water. Additionally, avoid flushing non-biodegradable items like diapers and wet wipes, since they can harm fish and other wildlife when they end up in lakes and rivers. For more advice, including how to reduce water pollution by using pesticide and herbicide alternatives, keep reading. Did this summary help you? Yes No

• Send fan mail to authors

Reader Success Stories

Feb 11, 2023

Did this article help you?

Hirut Bedilu

Dec 5, 2016

Rania Sultan

Jul 31, 2017

Eric Connor

Aug 2, 2017

Ganpatrao Aapte

Oct 22, 2016

Featured Articles

Trending Articles

Watch Articles

• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Do Not Sell or Share My Info
• Not Selling Info

wikiHow Tech Help Pro:

Develop the tech skills you need for work and life

• Growth & Development
• Play & Activities
• Life Skills
• Play & Learning
• Learning & Education
• Rhymes & Songs
• Preschool Locator

Essay On Water Pollution – 10 Lines, Short And Long Essay For Children

Key Points To Remember When Writing An Essay On Water Pollution For Class 1, 2 and 3

10 lines on water pollution for kids, a paragraph on water pollution for kids, short essay on the topic ‘water pollution’ in english for kids, long essay on water pollution for children, interesting facts about water pollution for kids, what will your child learn from writing about water pollution.

Water is crucial for the sustainability of life on earth. An essay on water pollution for classes 1, 2 and 3 will teach kids about this important issue.

Almost all the essential physical and natural activities of all living beings are dependent on water in some ways. Moreover, our climate and global temperature depend on the availability of water on land. Our atmosphere controls its temperature because of its physical property to change states. We all how crucial water is for life on earth. Therefore, we must preserve water, prevent pollution and reduce its wastage. In this article, we will write a water pollution essay in English to emphasise its importance.

When writing an essay for lower classes, your goal should be to deliver the basic knowledge efficiently. Here are some key points for writing an essay on water pollution.

• The introductory paragraph of the essay should talk about the importance of water.
• Write the definition of pollution. Talk about other types of pollution too.
• Dedicate a portion to the water cycle.
• Explain the properties of water to help kids understand how contaminants are introduced into natural resources.
• Dedicate a short paragraph to the causes of pollution.
• Next, write a short paragraph on the adverse effects of water pollution.
• Lastly, conclude by mentioning a few ways to reduce water pollution.

When writing an essay for classes 1 and 2, you should have a knack for keeping it plain and simple. It is better to engage kids in writing in points and simple sentences to understand the basics of pollution. Here are 10 lines on water pollution for kids:

• Water is important for sustaining life on earth.
• It is essential for humans, animals, plants and all living beings for life and survival.
• 71% area of our planet is covered in water. However, only about 3% of that water is fit for use.
• Pollution is defined as the adverse physical change in natural resources due to the introduction of contaminants
• Water Pollution refers to the phenomenon where chemicals and other contaminants pollute freshwater.
• It is difficult to treat severely polluted water, which leads to wastage, and this is the primary cause of water scarcity in most parts of India.
• When sources of water like rivers, seas, and oceans get polluted, it makes survival difficult for fish and other marine lives.
• The water cycle is the phenomenon by which nature regulates the supply of freshwater and controls the temperature of the surface.
• The water cycle includes evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and infiltration.
• Some common causes of water pollution include sewage, sediments, toxins, petroleum oil pollution, and thermal pollution.

When writing informative essays for lower classes, it is crucial to stick to the facts. Avoid too many technical details. Here is how to write a paragraph on water pollution for kids.

Water is crucial for the sustenance of life on earth. Living beings consume water to regulate their body temperature and facilitate digestion. Roughly 60% of our body is made of water, which is central to our survival. However, consuming polluted water can lead to severe health issues. Therefore, we must try to keep our freshwater sources clean. Pollution occurs when there are contaminants in natural sources that cause adverse physical changes. It also adversely affects the marine life. Some common causes of water pollution are industrial chemicals, sewages, thermal pollution, and petroleum oil pollution. We can reduce water pollution by bringing strict regulations and imposing hefty penalties on water-polluting industries.

A short essay on water pollution for kids should contain all the basic details like what is water pollution, the water cycle, the causes of water pollution, and the effects of water pollution. Here is an essay on water pollution in 150 words.

Water is one of the primary reasons that earth sustains life. Roughly 60% of the human body is made of water too. Moreover, 71% of our planet is also covered in water, but only about 3% of that is potable or fit to use. This limited supply of potable water is also known as freshwater, and it is crucial to preserve freshwater if we want to ensure sustainability. However, freshwater reserves have depleted due to the mass wastage of water and water pollution. This has led to critical problems in many parts of the world.

Water pollution means introducing contaminants in freshwater resources that cause adverse physical change. Primarily, water pollution is caused by sewage, plastic, toxins, industrial waste, and petroleum waste. When these contaminants seep into the freshwater sources, they cause health issues to people who consume them directly or indirectly. Water pollution affects the lives of fish and other marine animals. 

We can educate ourselves on preserving water resources by not throwing plastic waste in rivers during picnics and trips. Try to never drain fat and grease to avoid polluting sewers which ultimately land in the natural resources. 

Water is crucial for all the life forms on earth. Roughly 60% of our body has water, which means we can’t ignore the physiological importance of water for survival. Also, water is equally crucial for nature because that’s how nature controls the temperature and seasons and ensures livable conditions for us. Here is an example of how to write an essay for class 3.

Around 71% of the earth is covered in water, but we can’t consume all of the water available on the earth because approximately 97% of this water is saline and not fit for consumption. This makes it very important to save the limited freshwater resources. We use freshwater for important tasks such as cooking, agriculture, washing, drinking, etc.

What Is Water Pollution And The Water Cycle?

Water is said to be polluted when there are traces of dissolved toxins found in it, making it harmful to one’s health. Now, let’s look at the details of the water cycle to understand the adverse physical change caused by water pollution. It is pertinent to note that the physical property of water allows it to change states like solid, liquid and gas. Here are the processes involved in the water cycle:

• Evaporation:  This is the first step in the water cycle. The water on the surface of large water bodies heats up due to the sun and rises to form vapours.
• Transpiration:  Plants and trees also lose water in the atmosphere, in a process called transpiration. Transpiration is the main cause of rain in the Amazon rainforests.
• Condensation: The water that rises in the form of vapour due to heat begins to cool down eventually to form clouds. This is known as condensation.
• Precipitation:  When the winds blow profusely, the water-laden clouds collide, leading to rainfall. This phenomenon is called precipitation.
• Infiltration:  When the rain falls on the earth, the water either flows back into the water bodies or gets absorbed by the soil. This phenomenon is known as infiltration.

Common Causes Of Water Pollution

Some common causes of water pollution are:

• Domestic Sewage Containing Pathogens  

Domestic sewage is full of harmful chemicals like phosphorus and mercury, and this sewage sometimes is released directly into a water source without any treatment.

• Toxins From Industrial or Factory Waste  

Chemical waste from the industries is one of the common causes of water pollution. Such waste is produced in high volumes, which pollutes the nearby water source.

• The Frequent Oil Spills in Seas and Oceans  

Petroleum and other related products are traded via sea routes. The ships carrying these products often fail the safety measures and spill the oil on the seas. The oil forms a thin layer on the surface and suffocates marine life.

Major Effects Of Water Pollution

• Climate Change  

Water pollution leads to climate change and water scarcity. It is crucial to recycle water and reuse it if we want to ensure sustainability.

• Causing Disease  

When people consume polluted freshwater, they become susceptible to terminal diseases. Diseases like cholera, typhoid, etc., are common among people living near a polluted freshwater source.

• Endangering Marine Life  

Several marine species and fishes have been pushed to extinction due to water pollution. The most common example is the bleaching of corals in Australia.

Ways To Prevent Water Pollution

• Legislative Measures

Government must bring laws to keep a check on industrial and agricultural waste. Stringent laws are the need of the hour, and hefty penalties can add a deterring effect and cause a behavioural change.

• Agricultural Measures

Farmers must be encouraged to use organic fertilisers. Fertilisers have harmful chemicals that are washed down during irrigation, and these chemicals enter the lakes and rivers and cause water pollution. Hence, we must encourage farmers to use organic fertilisers.

There is no alternative to education. Therefore, we must raise awareness about this issue via modules and public seminars. 

Here are some interesting facts on the issue of water pollution for kids:

• One out of three people globally doesn’t have access to safe drinking water.
• Chlorination of water is the most common method of water purification.
• The Yamuna is the most polluted river in India.
• Several marine species have been pushed to extinction because of plastic waste dumping in water bodies.
• BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) is the indicator of water pollution.

This essay highlights the definition of water pollution and articulates several facts related to it. Your child will learn how to structure an essay and include all the relevant points. This essay will teach your kid about the importance of water in our lives.

Which River Is The Most Highly Polluted in India?

River Yamuna is India’s most highly polluted river.

Why Is It Important For Us To Prevent Water Pollution?

Water is the most crucial for all life forms on earth. We use water to hydrate ourselves and carry out other routine tasks such as cooking, washing, etc. It is important to prevent water pollution because polluted water can lead to terminal diseases and adversely affect life on earth.

Our water bodies call for help, and we must come forward to take a step toward saving them. Dealing with water pollution has to be a group effort in which people from across the globe have to give their due contribution.

Essay On Air Pollution For Kids Essay On ‘My Village’ For Classes 1, 2 and 3 For Children Essay On A Rainy Day For Classes 1, 2 And 3 Kids

• Essays for Class 1
• Essays for Class 2
• Essays for Class 3

How Your Screen Time Directly Impacts Your Child

13 helpful tips to get your child to listen to you, how to build a healthy relationship with food for your child, leave a reply cancel reply.

Log in to leave a comment

Most Popular

Why playing alone is recommended for kids, recent comments.

FirstCry Intelli Education is an Early Learning brand, with products and services designed by educators with decades of experience, to equip children with skills that will help them succeed in the world of tomorrow.

The FirstCry Intellikit `Learn With Stories` kits for ages 2-6 brings home classic children`s stories, as well as fun activities, specially created by our Early Learning Educators.

For children 6 years and up, explore a world of STEAM learning, while engaging in project-based play to keep growing minds busy!

Build a love for reading through engaging book sets and get the latest in brain-boosting toys, recommended by the educators at FirstCry Intellitots.

Our Comprehensive 2-year Baby Brain Development Program brings to you doctor-approved toys for your baby`s developing brain.

Our Preschool Chain offers the best in education across India, for children ages 2 and up.

©2024 All rights reserved

• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Use

Welcome to the world of Intelli!

We have some FREE Activity E-books waiting for you. Fill in your details below so we can send you tailor- made activities for you and your little one.

Parent/Guardian's Name

Child's DOB

What would you like to receive other than your Free E-book? I would like information, discounts and offers on toys, books and products I want to find a FirstCry Intellitots Preschool near me I want access to resources for my child's development and/or education

Welcome to the world of intelli!

FREE guides and worksheets coming your way on whatsapp. Subscribe Below !!

THANK YOU!!!

Here are your free guides and worksheets.

• Email This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged.
• Climate Change
• Policy & Economics
• Biodiversity
• Conservation

Get focused newsletters especially designed to be concise and easy to digest

• ESSENTIAL BRIEFING 3 times weekly
• TOP STORY ROUNDUP Once a week
• MONTHLY OVERVIEW Once a month
• Enter your email *
• Name This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged.

What Causes Water Pollution and How Do We Solve it?

Water pollution is putting our health at risk. Unsafe water kills more people each year than war and all other forms of violence combined. Meanwhile, less than 1% of the Earth’s freshwater is actually accessible to us and it’s in our best interest to protect what we have, especially considering that by 2050, global demand for freshwater is expected to be one-third greater than it is now. Here are six causes of water pollution, as well as what we can do to reduce it.

Water is uniquely vulnerable to pollution because it’s able to dissolve more substances than any other liquid on Earth. Toxic substances from farms, towns, and factories readily dissolve into and mix with it, which causes water pollution as a result.

6 Most Common Causes of Water Pollution

1. sewage and wastewater .

According to the UN , more than 80% of the world’s wastewater flows back into the environment without being treated or reused; in some least-developed countries, this figure tops 95%. Harmful chemicals and bacteria can be found in sewage and wastewater even after it’s been treated. Households release sewage and wastewater, which makes its way to the ocean, mixing with freshwater and affecting the water quality and marine life. Also, the bacteria and pathogens found in wastewater breed disease, and cause health-related issues in humans and animals. 

2. Oil Spills

Large oil spills and leaks are some of most significant causes of water pollution. These are often caused by oil drilling operations in the ocean, but nearly half of the estimated 1 million tons of oil that makes its way into marine environments each year come not from oil tankers, but from land-based sources like factories, farms and cities. In England and Wales, there are about 3,000 pollution incidents involving oil and fuel each year. Oil makes drinking water unsafe and a substantial amount of oil released into oceans or become river water pollution, will destroy marine life and the ecosystems that support them. What’s more, oil reduces the oxygen supply within the water environment.  Oil is also naturally released from under the ocean floor through fractures known as seeps.

You Might Also Like: How Do Oil Spills Affect the Environment?

3. Industrial Waste

Industrial waste is one of the biggest sources of water contamination. Many industrial sites produce waste in the form of toxic chemicals and pollutants, and some don’t have proper waste management systems in place. Sometimes, industrial waste is dumped into nearby freshwater systems. The toxic chemicals leached from this waste can make the water unsafe for human consumption, and they can also cause the temperature in freshwater systems to change, making them dangerous for marine life. Finally, industrial waste can cause “ dead zones ,” which are areas of water that contain so little oxygen that marine life cannot survive in them.

4. Agricultural Runoff

To protect crops from pests, farmers use pesticides, however when these substances seep into the groundwater, they can harm animals, plants and humans. Additionally, when it rains, the chemicals mix with rainwater, which flows into waterways and creates further pollution. Other agricultural processes such as uncontrolled spreading of slurries and manures, tillage and ploughing the land can also cause water pollution.

5. Marine Dumping and Plastic Pollution in the Sea

Most items collected and dumped into oceans by many countries can take anywhere from two to 200 years to decompose completely! Other sources of waste at sea include plastic and other materials blown or washed from land. Currently, about 11 million metric tons of plastic make their way into the oceans each year. Research has found that should this rate of pollution continues, the amount of ocean plastics will grow to 29 million metric tons per year by 2040. The damage to wildlife habitats and to life on land is incalculable. 

You Might Also Like: 8 Shocking Plastic Pollution Statistics to Know About

6. Radioactive Waste

Radioactive waste can persist in the environment for thousands of years , making disposal a major challenge and one of the most harmful water contaminants. Radioactive waste released from facilities that create nuclear energy can be extremely harmful to the environment and must be disposed of properly; uranium, the element used in the creation of nuclear energy, is a highly toxic chemical. Accidents occur at these facilities from time to time, and toxic waste is released into the environment.

In April 2021, Japan discharged contaminated water containing radioactive materials from the damaged Fukushima nuclear plant into the sea. Though the Japanese government claims potential health risks and damage to marine life to be minimal as the waste water have been treated, close monitoring is required to ensue there are no environment effects from the water pollution. 

You Might Also Like: The Nuclear Waste Disposal Dilemma

How Can You Reduce Water Pollution?

• Reduce your plastic consumption and reuse or recycle plastic when you can. 
• Properly dispose of chemical cleaners, oils and non-biodegradable items.
• Use phosphate-free detergents – phosphates lead to algae blooms and kill fish and other aquatic animals by reducing the oxygen in the water. 
• Dispose of medical waste properly.
• Eat more organic food, which is produced without the use of pesticides.
• Cut down on your meat consumption – raising animals for meat takes lots of water for the grains and other feed they need. Furthermore, the antibiotics and solid waste are both likely to end up in groundwater and rivers.

You Might Also Like: Flood Water Contamination Threatens Communities Living Near Chemical Facilities – Can Private Law Protect Them?

Fast Fashion and Its Environmental Impact

10 Companies Called Out For Greenwashing

10 Concerning Fast Fashion Waste Statistics

Hand-picked stories weekly or monthly. We promise, no spam!

Boost this article By donating us $100, $50 or subscribe to Boosting $10/month – we can get this article and others in front of tens of thousands of specially targeted readers. This targeted Boosting – helps us to reach wider audiences – aiming to convince the unconvinced, to inform the uninformed, to enlighten the dogmatic.

Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Water Pollution — Water Pollution, Its Factors, And Ways To Reduce

Water Pollution, Its Factors, and Ways to Reduce

• Categories: Environmental Issues Pollution Water Pollution

About this sample

Words: 783 |

Published: Mar 18, 2021

Words: 783 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, point-source and nonpoint source pollution, factors that contribute to pollution, methods of limiting pollution.

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Dr. Karlyna PhD

Verified writer

• Expert in: Environment

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

1 pages / 749 words

2 pages / 1135 words

2 pages / 905 words

1 pages / 488 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Water Pollution

Water is an essential resource that is vital for all forms of life on Earth. It is crucial for human survival, as it is needed for drinking, cooking, sanitation, agriculture, and industry. However, the availability and access to [...]

Water pollution is a major environmental issue that affects the world. It is defined as the contamination of water bodies, including rivers, lakes, oceans, and groundwater. Various factors contribute to the problem, and it has [...]

Water pollution is a pressing issue that poses a significant threat to the quality of our water resources and the health of ecosystems and communities. It stems from various human activities and has detrimental effects on both [...]

The world's oceans cover more than 70% of the Earth's surface and are vital for sustaining life on our planet. However, in recent years, the issue of ocean pollution has gained significant attention due to its detrimental [...]

The importance of wastewater treatment cannot be overstated in today's world. As populations grow and urbanization continues, the generation of wastewater has surged, posing serious environmental and public health challenges. [...]

Overview of the issue of ocean pollution and its impact on marine ecosystems and the environment Mention of plastic pollution as a particularly destructive form of pollution Statistics on the environmental impact [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

Self Study Mantra

• Essay for IBPS PO Mains
• Essay for State PSC
• Essay for Banking Exam
• Important Essays
• Letter Writing
• हिन्दी निबंध
• One Word Substitution
• Computer Knowledge
• Important Days
• जीवन परिचय
• Government Schemes List

How to prevent water pollution Essay, How can we prevent water pollution

How to prevent water pollution.

All types of pollution including water pollution is growing day by day. It is time to prevent water pollution by making combine efforts by all of us. How to prevent water pollution is a common question when someone want to reduce water pollution . Some of us want to contribute for betterment of water bodies and ask for ways how we can prevent water pollution . Here we have written an essay on how to prevent water pollution . This essay on how we can prevent water pollution will help all the students in their essay writing as well as all the public who want know how to prevent water pollution .

How to prevent water pollution essay

Increasing water pollution has now become global cause of concern. Many life threating diseases are caused due to water pollution . Therefore it is very necessary to prevent water pollution that are growing day by day. Water pollution are basically caused due to contamination of unwanted particles into the water bodies. One of the major causes of water pollution is drainage of water waste into the rivers. These water wastes came from the houses and factories. Many factories use highly hazardous chemicals that are drain into water bodies and makes water polluted. There are other numerous causes of water pollution like; use of excessive chemical fertilizer, use of pesticides, oil leakages in the water bodies, single use plastics etc.

It is time to come together and work to prevent water pollution without any delay. Because water pollution has already spread across almost all types of water resources. If we will not work right now to prevent water pollution it would be very dangerous for all living creatures including human.

How we can prevent water pollution

On the above facts it is very clear that prevention of water pollution is very necessary. Below are top 10 ways to prevent water pollution :

• Waste material should not be thrown into water bodies. It should be dumped from where it can be disposed off properly or recycled.
• Always dispose off toxic chemical waste properly.
• Factory wastage should be should be disposed off properly. It should not be allowed to throw it into water body directly.
• We should never pour fat, grease or any types of oil into the drain.
• We should always use phosphate free detergent and dish cleaner.
• Bathing and washing clothes should not be allowed in the water bodies like river, pond, lake etc.
• We should reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and promote the use of compost.
• Similarly we should reduce the use of pesticides.
• We should eat more organic food items and promote it.
• We should not through any types of garbage's basically single use plastics into water bodies.

Applying the above 10 methods we can prevent water pollution significantly. In addition to this we should try to make people aware to prevent water pollution .

You may like these posts

Post a comment.

• Download PDF Essay for All Exams

Download PDF Essay for All Exams Most important essays ranging from 250 words to 1000 …

Popular this Month

Trending Essay Topics | Important Essay Topics for Competitive Exams

20 Most expected essay topics for IBPS PO Mains Exam | Important Essay Topics for IBPS PO Mains Exam | Essay for IBPS PO Mains

My School Essay in English 10 Lines, Essay on My School

My Family Essay in English 10 Lines, Essay on My Family

20 Most Important Essay Topics for CAPF 2024 | UPSC CAPF Essay Topics 2024

Essay on Har Ghar Tiranga

Important Days in 2024 | Important National and International Days | Important Days and Dates

Essay for Bank Exams | Essay Topics for Banking Exams

My Father Essay in English 10 Lines, Essay on My father

One word substitution (download here👇👇).

Essay Writing in English

Important Topics

• Essay in English
• Essay in Hindi
• 20 Essays for IBPS PO Descriptive Paper
• Trending Essay Topics
• IBPS PO Previous Year Descriptive Paper
• Important Essays for UPSC
• Essay Topics for UPSC CAPF AC Exam
• How To Crack SSC CGL In First Attempt?
• 100 Most Important One Word Substitution
• Essay on Artificial Intelligence
• Latest Jobs | Admit Card | Result
• Essay on Global Warming
• पर्यावरण प्रदूषण: नियंत्रण के उपाय
• Essay on Women Empowerment
• Daily Homework for Class 1 to 5

Blog Archive

Quick links.

• Paragraph in English
• Advertise With Us
• Career with Us
• Privacy Policy
• Disclaimer, Terms and Condition
• Shipping and Delivery Policy
• Cancellation and Refund Policy
• Products and Pricing
• 10 Lines 13
• Best Books for SSC CGL 2
• Biography 6
• Education System 6
• English Grammar 1
• Essay in Hindi 18
• Essay Topics 32
• essay writing 154
• Farmer Welfare Schemes 1
• Important National and International Days 34
• Mathematics 5
• One Word Substitution 2
• Online Classes 3
• Paragraph Writing 19
• Political Science 1
• Pollution 7
• Republic Day 1
• Speech in Hindi 1
• SSC Exams 5
• Study Tips 7
• जीवन परिचय 6

Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav Essay in English

Essay on Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Classes

Copyright (c) 2019-24 Self Study Mantra All Rights Reseved

Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction: Water Pollution in the United States

Discussion: causes of water pollution and the means of reducing it, conclusion: spring cleaning on a global scale, reference list.

The issue of water scarcity and to following strategy for its sustainable use is quite tricky. While technically being a renewable resource, water should not be viewed as the one that can replenish itself, either – due to the dangerously high rates of water pollution, the existing amounts of freshwater are getting increasingly low.

Although water pollution can hardly be ceased entirely, the current rates of water pollution can be reduced by resorting to the sustainable principle of water use in both the industrial area and the realm of the household. By increasing awareness among the population and developing a sustainable approach towards the usage of the existing water resources, one will be capable of addressing the water pollution rates in the USA.

Key Causes: The Dirty Side of Water Use

Unfortunately, there is no single negative factor that contributes to the increase in water pollution rates, and there is no malefactor, either – instead, it is the inconsiderate use of the existing resources that triggers water pollution. Among the key factors that trigger water pollution, its industrial usage seems to be the reason for concern for the most part. However, it is the urban runoff (i.e., the abuse of water resources by the residents of the urban areas) that triggers the so-called nonpoint (i.e., irreversible) source pollution.

Along with nutrients and chemicals pollution, the contamination by sewage discharges is an especially huge threat to the American resources of clean water.

Industrial waste

While having to comply with the existing regulations regarding environmental protection, a range of companies resort to unclean practices by dumping their waste into the areas, where the waste becomes a threat to water. The recent Exxon scandal has shown that the estimated $8.9 billion of environmental damages has been made in 2015 (THE EDITORIAL BOARD, 2015).

Underground storage leakages

Underground storage tanks, which traditionally contain petroleum and other harmful substances, often tend to leak, therefore, triggering the release of petrol and the related substances into water, hence the water pollution.

Septic tanks

Contributing to underground storage leaking (), septic tanks contribute to water pollution in the U.S. significantly by discharging around 2 sq. m of waste into the water daily (BELIN, 2015).

Ocean dumping

Another essential factor that defines the rates of water pollution in the USA, ocean dumping needs to be reduced significantly.

Oil pollution

The notorious case of Exxon’s oil spill in 2015 (THE EDITORIAL BOARD, 2015) has shown that oil pollution must be prevented at all costs. The 2013 oil pollution issues have caused the USA 125 miles of coast, affecting the water and the wildlife in the vicinity (Oil spills and disasters, 2014).

Radioactive waste

Much like ocean dumping, radioactive waste disposal is difficult to trace and, therefore, it is easier for organizations dealing with the substances in question to dispose of them improperly.

Fossil fuels burning

Emitting around 117,000, 164,000 and 208,000 billion Btu annually (Comparison against other fossil fuels, 2015), natural gas, oil and coal correspondingly pose a serious threat to the quality of water in the United States.

Landfill leakage

The problem of land pollution and the following contamination of groundwater is a major problem for the United States. According to the 2015 statistics, 56% of trash in the USA is transported to landfills (BRADFORD, 2010). The leakage from the latter, in its turn, poisons the groundwater in the vicinity with detritus from rotten food and the pollutants from plastic items decomposition (BRADFORD, 2010).

Animal waste

Animal droppings also decompose into the elements that, when introduced to the soil, penetrate the groundwater area and, therefore, pollute the water.

Atmospheric deposition

The destruction of atmosphere layers leads to the exposition of water resources to an extreme level of radiation and, therefore, triggers their untimely desiccation.

Global warming

One of the most notorious and, nevertheless, the one of the lengthiest effect, global warming causes the U.S. rivers to overflow; as a result, the sewage contents will pour into clean water, contaminating it. 1.2 trillion gallons of sewage contaminate freshwater annually in the U.S (Water pollution facts, n. d., para. 24).

Death of aquatic animals

Global warming triggers a steady rise in the temperature of the water, thus, causing deaths of numerous aquatic organisms. The decomposition elements of the latter pollute the waters of the Atlantic Ocean coast and the American rivers.

By introducing wastewater to rivers and oceans, the authorities of the U.S. risk the contamination of the aquatic animals and, therefore, the transfer of pollution by the sick animals to the clean water areas.

Food chains disruption

The effects of wastewater and food chains disruption are, in fact, reciprocal, as the latter trigger an increase in the death toll among the water life forms and, therefore, cause the contamination of water with the decomposition products, the algae, which are no longer consumed by the deceased aquatic animals, etc.

Ecosystems destruction

As a result of the lack of proper food, the inhabitants of the American rivers and seas, as well as the Atlantic, the Pacific and the Arctic Oceans are likely to die out. The lack of certain elements of the ocean food chain, in its turn, will result in higher death tolls among the aquatic animals and, thus, higher decomposition rates.

Reaching the point of no return

Agriculture.

To facilitate proper growth of crops, American farmers and farming organizations spend water resources unreasonably. 130 billion gallons being used for irrigation and livestock (ADMIN, 2011), agriculture is the leading cause of water scarcity in some of the regions of the USA.

Municipal point sources

Leading to a significant reduction of dissolved oxygen, MPS also drastically affect the cleanness of water in the U.S.

Urban runoff

Made of impervious materials, pavement does not allow snow and rain to trickle into the ground; as a result, the hydrological water cycle is disrupted.

Stream/habitat changes

Another factor that causes numerous water creatures to die or migrate, stream and habitat changes alter essential characteristics of the environment, thus, causing water to become filled with bacteria, algae, etc.

Means of Control: Starting with Personal Responsibility

Reasonable use of water.

Sustainability as the basis towards the use of water resources can be viewed as the strategy that should make the basis for the proper use of water. The specified approach must be deployed at every level of water resources distribution from municipal to agricultural.

Pollution Prevention Act

Adopted in 1990, the Act creates the premises for “reducing the amount of pollution through cost-effective changes in production, operation, and raw materials use” (Summary of the Pollution Prevention Act, 1990, par. 1).

Raising awareness among the citizen

Apart from designing legal ramifications, state authorities should consider the idea of influencing people on a personal level. By promoting the responsible use of resources, one will be capable of reducing water waste rates significantly.

Reducing the number of solids

Solid waste reduction is likely to postpone the process of water supplies exhaustion.

EPA laws enhancement

Although the approaches suggested by EPA are generally reasonable, they seem to have been disregarded when defining the strategies for water resources use in the USA. Thus, there is a need to facilitate compliance with EPA laws. This can be done by imposing fines on the individuals and organizations abusing water resources.

Ocean Dumping Program

The program was designed in 2014 after the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (Research project description, 2014) and requires sustainable and responsible disposal of waste.

Oil Pollution Prevention regulation

Designed for addressing the issues such as the case of Exxon and, therefore, preventing the catastrophes related to oil spills, the specified act requires that specific standards for oil tanks design and the storage of oil therein should be complied with.

Solutions to be designed: radioactive waste and direct injection

Even though there is no solution to handling the issue of radioactive waste management, as well as the process of direct injection, measures must be taken to facilitate remoteness of the specified types of waste from any life forms and sources of water.

Abandoning the use of landfills

Although there is no alternative to landfill use for waste management at present, a more appropriate location of landfills can be considered a possibility. Specifically, the regions, where groundwater flows are generally very low, can be viewed as an option (BRADFORD 2010).

Animal waste collection

While the process of collecting animal waste may be rather complicated due to the difficulties related to tracing the locations of stray animals, making people take proper care of their pets and picking up the droppings left by the latter can be carried out comparatively easily by issuing the corresponding laws.

Global warming prevention

A very complex and difficult task, it involves a variety of measures starting from the sustainable use of resources to the transfer to driving hybrid vehicles and refrain from usage of a variety of pollutants including aerosols.

Marine sustainability

Introducing a set of more rigid regulations regarding the waste disposal for businesses along with the development of marine sustainability principles may help in not only preventing water pollution but also addressing the negative effects that it has caused.

The U.S. authorities have adopted a range of programs aimed at water sanitation, including the USAID’s Water and Development Strategy (USAID, 2013).

Sustainable use of resources

The introduction of individuals and organizations to a reasonable usage of water has recently been viewed as an opportunity in the United States.

Sustaining ecosystems: green infrastructure

Likewise, the key principles of sustainability should be adopted when allowing the key ecosystems to retain their

Addressing nonpoint source pollution

Clean water act.

Another suggestion for reconsidering the current rates of water usage, the CWA presupposes that the “basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States” (Summary of the Clean Water Act, 2015) should be established and that similar regulations should be provided for the use of freshwater in the USA.

NPDES Permit Program

A program aimed at regulating the current use of water, it regulates the sources, which discharge pollutants into the ocean (NPDES Stormwater Permit Program, 2015).

Wastewater programs

The phenomenon of wastewater harvesting () has been created for the sake of reducing urban runoff and may have a significant effect on sustainable water use once the awareness regarding the subject matter is increased. Even a more adequate use of water by the residents of the area can be facilitated with the introduction of similar programs. The refusal to use impervious pavement materials for sidewalks and driveways should also be viewed as an option (Urban nonpoint source fact sheet, 2003).

Total maximum daily loads

Seeing that no alternative to waste disposal for major companies have been designed yet, the organizations that dump waste into the ocean have to comply with the existing restrictions on the amount of waste that they can deposit. Unfortunately, not all states follow the requirements set by the TMDL Act (see Appendix A).

Watershed management

Likewise, the watershed management approach, which presupposes that careful studies of the watershed should be carried out with the following location of the problem areas and the measurers designed for addressing the emerging issues in a manner as timely and efficient as possible. There is no secret that watershed management presupposes dealing with not only the issue of water pollution but also the problem of habitat destruction. In other words, watershed management programs adopted in the USA currently allow for handling several issues simultaneously and, therefore, promoting a more sustainable approach towards the consumption and usage of the existing water resource.

Green infrastructure

The aforementioned sustainability issue can be attained through a series of actions that are determined for enhancing habitat recovery. Indeed, as it has been stressed above, the lack of sustainability in the management of the water resources in the USA triggers an immediate decay of the existing variability in American nature. As a result, a range of species faces the threat of extinction, therefore, triggering the overpopulation of water with smaller animals and algae (i.e., the elements that used to be the food of the extinct species). Thus, by restoring the habitats that have been destroyed, the American community will be capable of replenishing water resources or, at the very least, saving the ones that they still have at their disposal.

National Water Quality Initiative

Though having started their activity comparatively recently, the proponents of the NWQI movement have already designated “approximately five percent of EQIP financial assistance to targeted agricultural conservation practice implementation in 165 HUC 12 NWQI watersheds” (Session M5: quantifying agricultural nonpoint sources and controls, 2013, p. 2).

Fostering personal responsibility

Last, but not least, the idea of promoting personal responsibility as the basis for sustainable water use must be viewed as an option.

Although water is traditionally viewed as a renewable resource, the nonpoint pollution factors in the United States make the threat of water scarcity dangerously high. Therefore, a more sustainable approach towards the use of water not only industrial but also household levels must be introduced into the framework of the U.S. water usage.

ADMIN, 2011. US farming and irrigation water usage statistics . Sea Metrics , Web.

BELIN, F. 2015. EPP2 Water Discharge Consent, exemption, Permit, legislation for Septic Tanks and off-mains systems . Biorock , Web.

BRADFORD, A. 2010. Pollution facts & types of pollution . Live Science , Web.

Comparison against other fossil fuels , 2015. Swarthmore College . Web.

National summary of impaired waters and TMDL information , 2015. States Environmental Protection Agency. Web.

NPDES Stormwater Permit Program, 2015. United States Environmental Protection Agency . Web.

Oil spills and disasters , 2014. Infoplease. Web.

Research project description, 2014. Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education . Web.

Session M5: quantifying agricultural nonpoint sources and controls, 2013. Advisory Committee on Water Information. Web.

Summary of the Pollution Prevention Act , 1990. United States Environmental Protection Agency . Web.

THE EDITORIAL BOARD, 2015. Gov. Christie’s bad deal with Exxon . New York Times , p. 1. Web.

Urban nonpoint source fact sheet, 2003. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Web.

USAID, 2013. Water and development strategy. USAID , pp. 1–33, Web.

Water pollution facts, n. d. Conserve energy , p. 1 Web.

• Will Oil Production Peak in the Next 20 Years?
• Water Cycle and Environmental Factors
• Refinery Wastewater Management
• Kuwaiti Groundwater Management and Monitoring
• Treatment of Wastewater
• Environmental Sustainability in Clean City Organization
• Externalities Effects on People and Environment
• Ecological Footprint Analysis
• “Eco-Warriors” by Rik Scarce
• PAH’s and the 2010 BP Gulf Oil Disaster
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2020, July 7). Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the-us-causes-and-control/

"Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control." IvyPanda , 7 July 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the-us-causes-and-control/.

IvyPanda . (2020) 'Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control'. 7 July.

IvyPanda . 2020. "Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control." July 7, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the-us-causes-and-control/.

1. IvyPanda . "Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control." July 7, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the-us-causes-and-control/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control." July 7, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the-us-causes-and-control/.