The first review was published in February 2018 by Di Ciaula ( 4 ) and was based on a systematic search of epidemiological, in vivo , and in vitro studies identified in the PubMed database. Di Ciaula reported no funding or conflict of interest (CoI), but an internet search identified membership of the International Society of Doctors for Environment (ISDE), which published a 5G appeal for a moratorium on the development of 5G ( https://www.isde.org/5G_appeal.pdf ). Di Ciaula discussed the evidence for cancer, reproductive effects, neurologic effects, and microbiological effects and specifically addressed evidence in relation to MMWs. No formal assessment of the quality of the studies was included, and the author concluded that “[the evidence] clearly point to the existence of multi-level interactions between high-frequency EMF and biological systems, and to the possibility of oncologic and non-oncologic (mainly reproductive, metabolic, neurologic, microbiologic) effects” and further raises concerns regarding the increased susceptibility of children. The main aim of the review was to provide the rationale to invoke the precautionary principle, which is mentioned both in the Conclusion section and Abstract.
Russell published a similar review in April 2018 ( 5 ). Despite being the Executive Director of Physicians for Safe Technology, the author reported no affiliation, funding, or CoI. Russell does acknowledge support from Smernoff and Moskowitz; an internet search identifies the latter as being on the Advisory Board of Physicians for Safe Technology as well as being an advisor to the International EMF Scientist Appeal (and its spokesperson for the United States). The review reported effects on cancer, dermal effects, ocular effects, effects on reproduction and neurology, microbiological effects, and effects on the immune system. It further reports specific effects from MMWs, electrohypersensitivity [or, more accurately, idiopathic environmental intolerance attributed to electromagnetic fields (IEI-EMF)], and effects on children, and discusses how industry bias has obscured these facts. Scientific uncertainty is only mentioned in passing and is largely attributed to industry distortion. Russell concludes that “current radiofrequency radiation wavelengths we are exposed to appear to act as a toxin to biological systems” and “although 5G technology may have many unimagined uses and benefits, it is also increasingly clear that significant negative consequences to human health and ecosystems could occur if it is widely adopted.” It further makes specific policy recommendations that “public health regulations need to be updated to match appropriate independent science with the adoption of biologically based exposure standards prior to further deployment of 4G or 5G technology” and that “a moratorium on the deployment of 5G is warranted, along with the development of independent health and environmental advisory boards that include independent scientists who research biological effects and exposure levels of radiofrequency radiation.”
McClelland and Jaboin, who do not seem to have published on the topic of mobile phones and health before, published a commentary in August 2018 ( 6 ). They reported no CoIs, the commentary was supported by a few references to in vivo studies, and the sole aim of the commentary was to bring a 5G moratorium to the attention of the journal's readership.
Miller et al. published their review on August 2019 ( 7 ). The manuscript was initially developed as a Position Statement of the International Network for Epidemiology in Policy (INEP), but after its board voted to abandon its involvement, the authors decided to publish it regardless. They reported affiliations to universities as well as the campaigning organizations the Environmental Health Trust and the Environment and Cancer Research Foundation, but did not, for example, report their involvement in the Physician's Health Initiative for Radiation and Environment (PHIRE) (Miller, Hardell, Davis) and Oceania Radiofrequency Scientific Advisory Association (ORSAA) (Hardell, Morgan, Davis). No information is provided on the methodology of this narrative review, and no quality assessment of included references is conducted, but scientific uncertainty is discussed. Carcinogenic and reproductive effects are reported as a specific susceptibility of children to RF. Particularly in relation to 5G, skin effects, oxidative stress, altered gene expression, immune function, and other biological endpoints are mentioned. The authors make several policy recommendations, but not specifically in relation to 5G.
In September 2019, Simkó and Mattsson published a pragmatic review of in vivo and in vitro evidence for health and biological effects in relation to 6 to 100 GHz frequency range ( 8 ). Both authors were from SciProof International and reported that their review was funded by Deutsche Telekom Technik GmbH. Although described in opaque language, the review seems to be based on a systematic approach to evidence synthesis and includes an assessment of study quality. Scientific uncertainty is discussed in detail, and the authors conclude that “regarding the health effects of 6–100 GHz at power densities not exceeding the exposure guidelines, the studies provide no clear evidence due to contradictory information from the in vivo and in vitro investigations.” They further highlight that “regarding the quality of the presented studies, a few studies fulfill the minimal quality criteria to allow any further conclusions.”
Hardell and Nyberg published a commentary in January 2020 ( 9 ). Both reported university affiliations and reported that neither funding was received for the work nor do they report any CoIs. However, in addition to unreported associations already mentioned above, it has also been documented that Hardell has previously received direct industry funding as well as funding from pressure groups, while he has also acted as an expert witness for the plaintiff in hearings around brain tumors and mobile phones ( 10 ). He is the spokesperson for the International EMF Scientist Appeal for Sweden and also runs a charity, the Environment and Cancer Research Foundation, which accepts direct donations and is heavily involved in appeals. The commentary includes several strong claims, including that “RF radiation may now be classified as a human carcinogen, Group 1” and that “experience with the EU, and the governments of the Nordic countries suggest that the majority of decision-makers are scientifically uninformed on health risks from RF radiation”, and interestingly and without basis that “they [the EU and governments of Nordic countries] seem to be uninterested to being informed by scientists representing the majority of the scientific community.”
In January 2020, there was also the publication of a review of health effects of 5G under real-life conditions by Kostoff et al. ( 11 ). They reported university affiliations and declared that neither external funding was received for the work nor any CoIs. However, an internet search identified that Héroux is the spokesperson for the International EMF Scientists Appeal for Canada. There is no assessment of study quality or scientific uncertainty. They mentioned that industry influence is the cause of the lack of consensus on health effects of mobile phones. The authors claimed that “there is a large body of data from laboratory and epidemiological studies showing that previous and present generations of wireless networking technology have significant adverse health impacts”, and that, with respect to 5G specifically, “superimposing 5G radiation on an already imbedded toxic wireless radiation environment will exacerbate the adverse health effects shown to exist.”
An information statement from the IEEE Committee on Man and Radiation (COMAR) was published in relation to health and safety issues concerning the exposure of the general public to electromagnetic energy from 5G wireless communication networks in June 2020 ( 1 ). All authors report industry CoIs. The main focus of the review relates to RF exposures from 5G, but some discussion specifically on potential biological and health effects of MMWs is included. Study quality is discussed in detail, including the varying quality of narrative reviews [including ( 4 )], and research gaps regarding the bioeffects of MMWs are highlighted. The authors refer back to ( 8 ) for a discussion on bioeffects and conclude that “… while we acknowledge gaps in the scientific literature, particularly for exposures at MMW frequencies, the likelihood of yet unknown health hazards at exposure levels within current exposure limits is considered to be very low, if they exist at all.”
Hardell contributed a second commentary in this period, with Carlberg as co-author ( 12 ). In this commentary, they reported the Environmental and Cancer Research Foundation as their affiliation, but declared neither CoI nor any external funding for the work. Also, the authors discussed the involvement of certain experts in various committees related to RF health and safety in the EU and internationally and the influence of industry. In addition, they mentioned effects of RF exposure, including 5G, on cancer, reproduction, and neurology; effects on the immune system; and microbiological effects, and also mentioned the susceptibility of children to RF. The claim that “the IARC Category should be upgraded from Group 2B to Group 1, a human carcinogen” is re-iterated, referencing Hardell's earlier contribution as the basis for this claim ( 9 ). Hardell and Carlberg highlighted the appeal for a 5G moratorium sent to the EU in 2017.
Leszczynski published a review on the physiological effects of MMWs on the skin and skin cells in August 2020 ( 13 ). He reports a university affiliation, neither external funding for the work nor CoI. Leszczynski conducted a systematic review of several databases for studies of >6 GHz. The quality and uncertainty of the available evidence are specifically discussed, and he concludes that “this evidence is currently insufficient to claim that any effects have been proven or disproven”. Leszczynski addresses policy and argues that “deployment for industrial use should be the first, but the further broader deployment for the non-industrial use should preferably await for the results of the biomedical research”.
Frank published an essay on 5G and the precautionary principle in January 2021 ( 14 ). He declares neither external funding nor CoI. He is, however, a member of the PHIRE team. Frank has no previous track record in radiation epidemiology, but he has reviewed the evidence and provided support for the work by Miller et al. ( 7 ). He concluded that the precautionary principle should be applied and recommended a moratorium on 5G development.
A team from the Swinburne University of Technology and the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) published two studies in March 2021: a comprehensive review of the literature for experimental studies of bioeffects of RF fields between 6 and 300 GHz and a complementary meta-analysis ( 15 , 16 ). The authors reported Australian government and National Health and Medical Research Council funding, but no CoIs. Of relevance is that Karipidis is a member of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICRNIRP). The included studies in these publications were identified in a systematic literature search, and the authors have explicitly discussed study quality. They concluded that many studies have low-quality methods and that experimental data do not provide evidence that low-level MMWs are associated with biological effects relevant to human health.
Jargin published a letter to the editor in March 2021 ( 17 ) in which he has argued that various publications claiming there are health harms related to 5G published by interest groups overestimate any health risks from RF-EMF to hamper the technological advancement of developed nations. He further argued that excessive restrictions would only be unfavorable for the economy and add difficulties to daily life. As such, it advocates a policy recommendation of no action. He has reported neither external funding for the work nor any CoI.
Hardell also contributed a third publication ( 18 ). In this opinion piece/review, Hardell argued that evaluations by the Health Council of the Netherlands, the WHO, ICNIRP, and the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority are not impartial and that a moratorium on the implementation of 5G is urgently required. He has reported both university and foundation affiliations, but has reported neither external funding nor any of the above identified CoI.
This chronological overview of the publications published during the initial critical phase of discussions around 5G and health leads to the interesting observation that publications by authors with links to anti-5G campaigning organizations dominated the early phase in which adverse effects related to 5G were discussed. Over half of the 15 publications had links to such organizations in the initial 3-year period covered here. Such patterns of efforts to control the narrative during critical periods have been studied elsewhere, for example, in the sugar-sweetened beverage research ( 19 ); although in this example, the opposite pattern was observed in which the contribution of industry-related studies was high at the start and decreased significantly with time.
With the increasing contribution from independent and industry-linked authors over the covered time period, the narrative shifts from the exclusive reporting of increased risks of all biological or health effects covered to predominantly descriptions of mixed results and conclusions not supporting increased risks. This difference in the interpretation of the same evidence depending on the affiliation in RF research has been mentioned previously, specifically in relation to the funding source of primary studies ( 20 , 21 ), but the current overview is indicative of a similar pattern in other types of peer-reviewed publications. Reviews from independent and industry-linked authors were systematic-style reviews, rather than narrative reviews, and were of higher methodological quality because they based their inferences on a more systematic approach to the identification of relevant literature and also explicitly included some forms of assessment of the quality of these studies. They also had a narrower aim in terms of exposures or health outcomes, which will have facilitated a more systematic approach. There is evidence from various industries, including the telecommunications industry ( 20 , 21 ), of a correlation between industry funding of research and null findings. However, there is much less discussion of its mirror image: the phenomenon that independently funded studies may be biased if the authors have strong a priori beliefs about the question under study. This “white hat bias” is observable in the literature as selective referencing and the acceptance of a lower standard of scientific evidence for studies supporting the authors' beliefs ( 22 ), and was first explored in obesity research ( 23 , 24 ). The non-systematic inclusion of references (or “cherry picking”) and lack of explicit assessment of study quality observed in the publications in the current work were most prominent in the narrative reviews by authors with links to campaigning organizations and likely will have resulted in biased inferences. Importantly, since these publications made up most of the earliest publications during the critical window, these inferences will have disproportionally influenced the narrative. Given that all of these articles had the specific aim to influence policy and, in most cases, advocated for a moratorium on 5G, this provides further support for the presence of “white hat bias” influencing the initial peer-reviewed and, through that, lay literature.
Given the observed differences between publications by authors with links to campaigning organizations and those with industry-linked or independent authors, the reporting of CoI becomes more important. Direct industry funding and other financial CoIs are generally considered the main sources of potential bias, and these were reported by the publications with links to industry (either as a CoI or as a funding source) and by one of the papers with links to activism. However, no other financial CoIs were reported; for example, it is recorded that Hardell, who has contributed three publications in this critical time period, has previously received direct industry funding as well as funding from pressure groups, while he has also acted as an expert witness for the plaintiff in hearings around brain tumors and mobile phones ( 10 ). Importantly, industry and other financial CoIs are not the only potential source of CoI bias ( 25 ), and a variety of non-financial CoIs have been described, for instance, originating from particular concerns, ideals, and predilections ( 26 ). Membership of campaigning organizations or their advisory or expert boards would, presumably, constitute such non-financial CoIs and, therefore, should have been reported. Despite internet searches by the authors identifying quite a number of such CoIs, only a few of these were reported by the authors (or could be inferred from affiliations). Likewise, the membership of national or international expert organizations constitutes non-financial CoIs that ideally should have been reported, and Karipidis' membership of ICNIRP is relevant in the context of these publications.
Although the discussed timeline of publications highlights some interesting trends and areas of concern, this work has a number of limitations. Although the selected manuscripts were identified through a systematic search, it was not a systematic review of the literature, and publications that did not specifically mention 5G in the title, abstract, or keywords might have been missed. Furthermore, the search was also limited to publications in English language. Although the wider debate about health effects of 5G is much larger and also includes gray literature, popular, and social media, these were not included in this overview. It would be an interesting future exercise to evaluate similar trends in these media. Although several non-reported CoIs were identified, these were identified following cursory internet searches only and do not constitute an exhaustive list. It is likely that a more thorough systematic search would reveal additional links not reported here. It is also possible that some such CoIs did not exist yet at the time of publication.
In conclusion, the discussion around 5G as a significant human health risk in the peer-reviewed literature was initially largely driven by authors from, or with links to, various campaigning organizations and linked publications directly to appeals for a moratorium on 5G. Commentaries and letters are personal opinions and are rarely based upon a methodological appraisal of the evidence, but the narrative of the initial period covered in the current review, relied mostly on reviews of lower methodological quality compared, with the subsequently published reviews by independent researchers and researchers with links to industry. It is likely that articles in the popular media, therefore, were influenced more heavily by the initial advocacy publications than by the later higher quality contributions. Importantly, there is no clear answer (yet) whether the resulting narrative from the peer-reviewed literature describes an overestimation of risks as a result of articles with links to campaigning organizations, or whether later contributions from authors with links to industry, and possibly most independent authors, at the latter stages of the critical window describe an underestimation of true causal associations, or whether their combined evaluation will inform future evidence synthesis closer to “the truth”. It is, however, well established that not including explicit evaluation of the quality of studies included in evidence synthesis, and which was most evident in publications classified as “activism”, makes such reviews more susceptible to biased inferences. In addition to issues related to controlling the narrative and the impact of “white hat bias”, the current work further describes undisclosed non-financial CoIs that are likely to have influenced the interpretation of evidence. This was also observed particularly for those publications associated with campaigning organizations. The narrative around 5G and potential human health effects should be interpreted through this lens, in particular because many of the authors with links to various campaigning organizations in this article (Hardell, Héroux, Miller, and Moskowitz) as well as others who published works after the covered period have recently joined up formally in a new advocacy group ICBE-EMF ( 27 ).
FdV conceived of the study and wrote the first version of the manuscript. FdV and PA conducted the analyses. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
The authors would like to thank Tabitha Pring, whose MSc dissertation partly informed the current work.
FdV is a member of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Radiation in the Environment COMARE, IRPA NIR Task Group, SRP EMFOR, and EMF Group of the Health Council of the Netherlands. FdV consulted for EPRI not directly related to this work. The remaining author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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Study and investigation on 5g technology: a systematic review.
1.1. evolution from 1g to 5g, 1.2. key contributions.
2.1. limitations of existing surveys, 2.2. article organization, 3. preliminary section, 3.1. emerging 5g paradigms and its features, 3.2. commercial service providers of 5g, 3.3. 5g research groups, 3.4. 5g applications.
4.1. 5g massive mimo.
4.2. 5g non-orthogonal multiple access (noma).
4.3. 5g millimeter wave (mmwave).
5. description of novel 5g features over 4g, 5.1. small cell, 5.2. beamforming, 5.3. mobile edge computing, 6. 5g security, 7. summary of 5g technology based on above-stated challenges, 8. conclusions, 9. future findings, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.
Click here to enlarge figure
Generations | Access Techniques | Transmission Techniques | Error Correction Mechanism | Data Rate | Frequency Band | Bandwidth | Application | Description |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1G | FDMA, AMPS | Circuit Switching | NA | 2.4 kbps | 800 MHz | Analog | Voice | Let us talk to each other |
2G | GSM, TDMA, CDMA | Circuit Switching | NA | 10 kbps | 800 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, 1900 MHz | 25 MHz | Voice and Data | Let us send messages and travel with improved data services |
3G | WCDMA, UMTS, CDMA 2000, HSUPA/HSDPA | Circuit and Packet Switching | Turbo Codes | 384 kbps to 5 Mbps | 800 MHz, 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, 1900 MHz, 2100 MHz | 25 MHz | Voice, Data, and Video Calling | Let us experience surfing internet and unleashing mobile applications |
4G | LTEA, OFDMA, SCFDMA, WIMAX | Packet switching | Turbo Codes | 100 Mbps to 200 Mbps | 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz initially | 100 MHz | Voice, Data, Video Calling, HD Television, and Online Gaming. | Let’s share voice and data over fast broadband internet based on unified networks architectures and IP protocols |
5G | BDMA, NOMA, FBMC | Packet Switching | LDPC | 10 Gbps to 50 Gbps | 1.8 GHz, 2.6 GHz and 30–300 GHz | 30–300 GHz | Voice, Data, Video Calling, Ultra HD video, Virtual Reality applications | Expanded the broadband wireless services beyond mobile internet with IOT and V2X. |
Abbreviation | Full Form | Abbreviation | Full Form |
---|---|---|---|
AMF | Access and Mobility Management Function | M2M | Machine-to-Machine |
AT&T | American Telephone and Telegraph | mmWave | millimeter wave |
BS | Base Station | NGMN | Next Generation Mobile Networks |
CDMA | Code-Division Multiple Access | NOMA | Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access |
CSI | Channel State Information | NFV | Network Functions Virtualization |
D2D | Device to Device | OFDM | Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing |
EE | Energy Efficiency | OMA | Orthogonal Multiple Access |
EMBB | Enhanced mobile broadband: | QoS | Quality of Service |
ETSI | European Telecommunications Standards Institute | RNN | Recurrent Neural Network |
eMTC | Massive Machine Type Communication | SDN | Software-Defined Networking |
FDMA | Frequency Division Multiple Access | SC | Superposition Coding |
FDD | Frequency Division Duplex | SIC | Successive Interference Cancellation |
GSM | Global System for Mobile | TDMA | Time Division Multiple Access |
HSPA | High Speed Packet Access | TDD | Time Division Duplex |
IoT | Internet of Things | UE | User Equipment |
IETF | Internet Engineering Task Force | URLLC | Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communication |
LTE | Long-Term Evolution | UMTC | Universal Mobile Telecommunications System |
ML | Machine Learning | V2V | Vehicle to Vehicle |
MIMO | Multiple Input Multiple Output | V2X | Vehicle to Everything |
Authors& References | MIMO | NOMA | MmWave | 5G IOT | 5G ML | Small Cell | Beamforming | MEC | 5G Optimization |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chataut and Akl [ ] | Yes | - | Yes | - | - | - | Yes | - | - |
Prasad et al. [ ] | Yes | - | Yes | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Kiani and Nsari [ ] | - | Yes | - | - | - | - | - | Yes | - |
Timotheou and Krikidis [ ] | - | Yes | - | - | - | - | - | - | Yes |
Yong Niu et al. [ ] | - | - | Yes | - | - | Yes | - | - | - |
Qiao et al. [ ] | - | - | Yes | - | - | - | - | - | Yes |
Ramesh et al. [ ] | Yes | - | Yes | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Khurpade et al. [ ] | Yes | Yes | - | Yes | - | - | - | - | - |
Bega et al. [ ] | - | - | - | - | Yes | - | - | - | Yes |
Abrol and jha [ ] | - | - | - | - | - | Yes | - | - | Yes |
Wei et al. [ ] | - | Yes | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Jakob Hoydis et al. [ ] | - | - | - | - | - | Yes | - | - | - |
Papadopoulos et al. [ ] | Yes | - | - | - | - | - | Yes | - | - |
Shweta Rajoria et al. [ ] | Yes | - | Yes | - | - | Yes | Yes | - | - |
Demosthenes Vouyioukas [ ] | Yes | - | - | - | - | - | Yes | - | - |
Al-Imari et al. [ ] | - | Yes | Yes | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Michael Till Beck et al. [ ] | - | - | - | - | - | - | Yes | - | |
Shuo Wang et al. [ ] | - | - | - | - | - | - | Yes | - | |
Gupta and Jha [ ] | Yes | - | - | - | - | Yes | - | Yes | - |
Our Survey | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Research Groups | Research Area | Description |
---|---|---|
METIS (Mobile and wireless communications Enablers for Twenty-twenty (2020) Information Society) | Working 5G Framework | METIS focused on RAN architecture and designed an air interface which evaluates data rates on peak hours, traffic load per region, traffic volume per user and actual client data rates. They have generate METIS published an article on February, 2015 in which they developed RAN architecture with simulation results. They design an air interface which evaluates data rates on peak hours, traffic load per region, traffic volume per user and actual client data rates.They have generate very less RAN latency under 1ms. They also introduced diverse RAN model and traffic flow in different situation like malls, offices, colleges and stadiums. |
5G PPP (5G Infrastructure Public Private Partnership) | Next generation mobile network communication, high speed Connectivity. | Fifth generation infrastructure public partnership project is a joint startup by two groups (European Commission and European ICT industry). 5G-PPP will provide various standards architectures, solutions and technologies for next generation mobile network in coming decade. The main motto behind 5G-PPP is that, through this project, European Commission wants to give their contribution in smart cities, e-health, intelligent transport, education, entertainment, and media. |
5GNOW (5th Generation Non-Orthogonal Waveforms for asynchronous signaling) | Non-orthogonal Multiple Access | 5GNOW’s is working on modulation and multiplexing techniques for next generation network. 5GNOW’s offers ultra-high reliability and ultra-low latency communication with visible waveform for 5G. 5GNOW’s also worked on acquiring time and frequency plane information of a signal using short term Fourier transform (STFT) |
EMPhAtiC (Enhanced Multicarrier Technology for Professional Ad-Hoc and Cell-Based Communications) | MIMO Transmission | EMPhAtiC is working on MIMO transmission to develop a secure communication techniques with asynchronicity based on flexible filter bank and multihop. Recently they also launched MIMO based trans-receiver technique under frequency selective channels for Filter Bank Multi-Carrier (FBMC) |
NEWCOM (Network of Excellence in Wireless Communications) | Advanced aspects of wireless communications | NEWCOM is working on energy efficiency, channel efficiency, multihop communication in wireless communication. Recently, they are working on cloud RAN, mobile broadband, local and distributed antenna techniques and multi-hop communication for 5G network. Finally, in their final research they give on result that QAM modulation schema, system bandwidth and resource block is used to process the base band. |
NYU New York University Wireless | Millimeter Wave | NYU Wireless is research center working on wireless communication, sensors, networking and devices. In their recent research, NYU focuses on developing smaller and lighter antennas with directional beamforming to provide reliable wireless communication. |
5GIC 5G Innovation Centre | Decreasing network costs, Preallocation of resources according to user’s need, point-to-point communication, Highspeed connectivity. | 5GIC, is a UK’s research group, which is working on high-speed wireless communication. In their recent research they got 1Tbps speed in point-to-point wireless communication. Their main focus is on developing ultra-low latency app services. |
ETRI (Electronics and Telecommunication Research Institute) | Device-to-device communication, MHN protocol stack | ETRI (Electronics and Telecommunication Research Institute), is a research group of Korea, which is focusing on improving the reliability of 5G network, device-to-device communication and MHN protocol stack. |
Approach | Throughput | Latency | Energy Efficiency | Spectral Efficiency |
---|---|---|---|---|
Panzner et al. [ ] | Good | Low | Good | Average |
He et al. [ ] | Average | Low | Average | - |
Prasad et al. [ ] | Good | - | Good | Avearge |
Papadopoulos et al. [ ] | Good | Low | Average | Avearge |
Ramesh et al. [ ] | Good | Average | Good | Good |
Zhou et al. [ ] | Average | - | Good | Average |
Approach | Spectral Efficiency | Fairness | Computing Capacity |
---|---|---|---|
Al-Imari et al. [ ] | Good | Good | Average |
Islam et al. [ ] | Good | Average | Average |
Kiani and Nsari [ ] | Average | Good | Good |
Timotheou and Krikidis [ ] | Good | Good | Average |
Wei et al. [ ] | Good | Average | Good |
Approach | Transmission Rate | Coverage | Cost |
---|---|---|---|
Hong et al. [ ] | Average | Average | Low |
Qiao et al. [ ] | Average | Good | Average |
Wei et al. [ ] | Good | Average | Low |
Approach | Data Rate | Security Requirement | Performance |
---|---|---|---|
Akpakwu et al. [ ] | Good | Average | Good |
Khurpade et al. [ ] | Average | - | Average |
Ni et al. [ ] | Good | Average | Average |
Author References | Key Contribution | ML Applied | Network Participants Component | 5G Network Application Parameter | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alave et al. [ ] | Network traffic prediction | LSTM and DNN | ✓ | ✓ | * | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | X |
Bega et al. [ ] | Network slice admission control algorithm | Machine Learning and Deep Learing | ✓ | X | X | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | X |
Suomalainen et al. [ ] | 5G Security | Machine Learning | X | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Bashir et al. [ ] | Resource Allocation | Machine Learning | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | X |
Balevi et al. [ ] | Low Latency communication | Unsupervised clustering | X | ✓ | X | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | X |
Tayyaba et al. [ ] | Resource Management | LSTM, CNN, and DNN | ✓ | ✓ | X | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Sim et al. [ ] | 5G mmWave Vehicular communication | FML (Fast machine Learning) | X | ✓ | * | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | X |
Li et al. [ ] | Intrusion Detection System | Machine Learning | X | ✓ | X | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Kafle et al. [ ] | 5G Network Slicing | Machine Learning | X | ✓ | X | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Chen et al. [ ] | Physical-Layer Channel Authentication | Machine Learning | X | ✓ | X | X | X | X | ✓ |
Sevgican et al. [ ] | Intelligent Network Data Analytics Function in 5G | Machine Learning | ✓ | X | ✓ | X | X | * | * |
Abidi et al. [ ] | Optimal 5G network slicing | Machine Learning and Deep Learing | X | ✓ | X | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | * |
Approach | Energy Efficiency | Quality of Services (QoS) | Latency |
---|---|---|---|
Fang et al. [ ] | Good | Good | Average |
Alawe et al. [ ] | Good | Average | Low |
Bega et al. [ ] | - | Good | Average |
Approach | Energy Efficiency | Power Optimization | Latency |
---|---|---|---|
Zi et al. [ ] | Good | - | Average |
Abrol and jha [ ] | Good | Good | - |
Pérez-Romero et al. [ ] | - | Average | Average |
Lähetkangas et al. [ ] | Average | - | Low |
Types of Small Cell | Coverage Radius | Indoor Outdoor | Transmit Power | Number of Users | Backhaul Type | Cost |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Femtocells | 30–165 ft 10–50 m | Indoor | 100 mW 20 dBm | 8–16 | Wired, fiber | Low |
Picocells | 330–820 ft 100–250 m | Indoor Outdoor | 250 mW 24 dBm | 32–64 | Wired, fiber | Low |
Microcells | 1600–8000 ft 500–250 m | Outdoor | 2000–500 mW 32–37 dBm | 200 | Wired, fiber, Microwave | Medium |
Approach | R1 | R2 | R3 | R4 | R5 | R6 | R7 | R8 | R9 | R10 | R11 | R12 | R13 | R14 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Panzner et al. [ ] | Good | Low | Good | - | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Qiao et al. [ ] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Avg | Good | Avg | - | - | - | - |
He et al. [ ] | Avg | Low | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Abrol and jha [ ] | - | - | Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Good |
Al-Imari et al. [ ] | - | - | - | - | Good | Good | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Papadopoulos et al. [ ] | Good | Low | Avg | - | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Kiani and Nsari [ ] | - | - | - | - | Avg | Good | Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Beck [ ] | - | Low | - | - | - | - | - | Avg | - | - | - | Good | - | Avg |
Ni et al. [ ] | - | - | - | Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | Avg | Avg | - | - |
Elijah [ ] | Avg | Low | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Alawe et al. [ ] | - | Low | Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Avg | - |
Zhou et al. [ ] | Avg | - | Good | - | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Islam et al. [ ] | - | - | - | - | Good | Avg | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Bega et al. [ ] | - | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Good | - |
Akpakwu et al. [ ] | - | - | - | Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | Avg | Good | - | - |
Wei et al. [ ] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Good | Avg | Low | - | - | - | - |
Khurpade et al. [ ] | - | - | - | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Avg | - | - |
Timotheou and Krikidis [ ] | - | - | - | - | Good | Good | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Wang [ ] | Avg | Low | Avg | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Akhil Gupta & R. K. Jha [ ] | - | - | Good | Avg | Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | Good | Good | - |
Pérez-Romero et al. [ ] | - | - | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Avg |
Pi [ ] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Good | Good | Avg | - | - | - | - |
Zi et al. [ ] | - | Avg | Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Chin [ ] | - | - | Good | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | Avg | - | Good | - | - |
Mamta Agiwal [ ] | - | Avg | - | Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | Good | Avg | - | - |
Ramesh et al. [ ] | Good | Avg | Good | - | Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Niu [ ] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Good | Avg | Avg | - | - | - | |
Fang et al. [ ] | - | Avg | Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Good | - |
Hoydis [ ] | - | - | Good | - | Good | - | - | - | - | Avg | - | Good | - | - |
Wei et al. [ ] | - | - | - | - | Good | Avg | Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Hong et al. [ ] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Avg | Avg | Low | - | - | - |
Rashid [ ] | - | - | - | Good | - | - | - | Good | - | - | - | Avg | - | Good |
Prasad et al. [ ] | Good | - | Good | - | Avg | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Lähetkangas et al. [ ] | - | Low | Av | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
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Dangi, R.; Lalwani, P.; Choudhary, G.; You, I.; Pau, G. Study and Investigation on 5G Technology: A Systematic Review. Sensors 2022 , 22 , 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010026
Dangi R, Lalwani P, Choudhary G, You I, Pau G. Study and Investigation on 5G Technology: A Systematic Review. Sensors . 2022; 22(1):26. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010026
Dangi, Ramraj, Praveen Lalwani, Gaurav Choudhary, Ilsun You, and Giovanni Pau. 2022. "Study and Investigation on 5G Technology: A Systematic Review" Sensors 22, no. 1: 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010026
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Short for “fifth generation,” 5G is the latest version of mobile internet connection and an upgrade from the 4G network. Compared to earlier generations, it’s designed to be better at handling large amounts of data consumption and deployment when people are trying to access the same mobile service at the same time. New 5G also provides faster browsing and download speeds—up to 20 times faster than the 4G or LTE mobile networks, according to 5G research.
5G also promises lower latency than LTE and other mobile networks for connected devices, which can boost the performance of digital experiences such as video streaming, automated cars, virtual reality, smart factories, online gaming, and more.
Given these improvements it’s no wonder that, since hitting the market in 2019, 5G is already making a major impact around the globe. In fact, the number of 5G users is expected to hit 3 billion by 2025 , according to reports by Statista.
5G has the potential to create a smarter and more connected world, but it’s still a relatively new technology and much research is being done to understand it. This article explores the emerging research in 5G technology and its potential impact on today’s organizations.
While the future for this emerging technology seems promising, realizing its potential has come with its own set of challenges. Here are some of the obstacles facing 5G research:
5G research and development is expensive to coordinate and administer, and the potential benefits aren’t certain. On top of that, 5G wireless networks and improved tech cost billions to build. Global spending on 5G network infrastructure will total 19.1 billion in 2021—up 39% from 2020 according to 5G research. In countries like China, governments are taking some of the strain off operators to fund the upfront costs. But in the United States, mobile operators like AT&T, Verizon, and T-Mobile have greater pressure to sign on customers to cover the cost of a 5G buildout.
Technological Deficiencies
It’s difficult to study 5G capabilities when the technology needed to do so isn’t fully developed. Two technologies in particular—high-band technology and end-to-end network slicing—are important for network performance but aren’t yet fully developed. It's also difficult to know how the tech will work in real time, what bandwidth is truly needed to make the technology worthwhile, and more.
5G means more data—which introduces new modes of cyberattacks and expands the potential of security breaches. This presents an additional challenge for researchers to come up with solutions that will be to safely move forward with 5G technology.
Misinformation
Since the emergence of 5G, there has been misinformation regarding its safety—namely, the possible health effects of radio-frequency (RF) energy transmitted by 5G base stations. However, a 2019 review of environmental levels of RF signals in the environment did not find an increase in overall levels since 2012 despite the rapid increase of wireless communications. Currently, there is no solid evidence that 5G causes negative health effects in humans or animals, especially compared to LTE and other existing technologies.
5G research and technology has paved the way for a powerful new communication standard that can connect billions of devices and sensors to the internet. This is referred to as the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT allows devices to communicate and share data faster than ever before, empowering industries such as healthcare, education, automotive, and more.
5G’s faster network speeds and higher bandwidth not only save organization’s time and money, but in the case of the healthcare industry, this improved technology has the power to save lives. For example, 5G allows doctors to treat patients remotely and provide care—and even robotic surgery—to remote areas.
Another industry that’s benefitting from 5G technology and research is automotive.
According to a recent article by Forbes , “Vehicle automation is expected to be a top use case for the adoption of 5G in IoT applications. This includes the capability to deliver autonomous vehicles that can guide themselves, as well as new services based on the collection of more real-time and granular data about the health and performance of a vehicle.“
5G research has also helped develop safer and more efficient cars. In fact, many of 5G’s applications relate to safety, such as automatic notifications that alert drivers to cars traveling in the wrong direction on one-way roads.
When most of us think of 5G we think of its obvious uses—smartphones and mobile devices. However, there are other important areas and industries that 5G research is currently exploring.
Healthcare organizations use telehealth more than ever before, and 5G research and technology has played a large role in empowering that growth.
According to a study by Market Research Future, telemedicine is expected to grow by 16.5% by 2023. The research determined this growth is due in large part to the increased demand for healthcare in rural areas. With more telehealth systems in place that are powered by 5G technology, healthcare systems can reach more patients and help them get them treated sooner.
Small Cells
Researchers are currently focusing on small cells to meet the higher data capacity demands of 5G networks. Small cells are low-powered portable base stations that can be placed throughout small geographical areas to improve mobile communication. Because they’re capable of handling high data rates, as well as IoT devices, small cells are well equipped to handle more 5G rollouts.
Research suggests that the speed and reliability of 5G network connectivity will enable more cost-effective and reliable energy transmission. With smart power grids, the energy industry can more effectively manage power consumption and distribution based on need. This will allow them to tap into more off-grid energy sources such as windmills and solar panels.
Smart Cities
Research into 5G and IoT is looking at the potential to create smart city networks that can benefit the lives of citizens. An article by Forbes describes an IoT-equipped smart city powered by 5G where “sports fans driving to a sold-out game could receive real-time notifications of available parking locations while they’re en route.” The article goes on to add, “Integrating video analytics and artificial intelligence (AI) could result in adjustments to traffic signals and traffic flows, reducing congestion and travel times. Minimizing the time cars idle at red lights could save time and frustration while increasing safety and lowering pollution by reducing peak traffic on roadways.”
Cybersecurity
Cybersecurity is becoming a major area of focus for 5G research. Because this new technology makes everything more software based, the rollout of 5G opens more opportunities for organizations and IT teams to enhance security measures and combat cybercriminals. Additionally, the use of 5G-enabled technologies such as AI, IoT, and cloud computing will help IT pros prevent new cybersecurity threats and operate entire business networks more securely.
5G research is also exploring ways to improve farm efficiency. By using artificial intelligence (AI) combined with 5G technology, farmers get faster, more accurate information from their fields. For example, farm equipment coupled with ground sensors, will be able to give farmers instant updates on the health and performance of their crops. Researchers are also looking into self-driving tractors paired with drones that could guide their work.
Keep in mind these are just the latest areas that researchers and IT experts are exploring. But just like any new technology, the future of 5G is changing every day. With the right training, current and prospective IT experts may easily discover even more ways to use 5G.
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Research reveals increased cloudification of network infrastructures with software-based services to hit tipping point for cellular traffic in five years’ time, enabling more dynamic 5g networks.
As operators deploy cloud infrastructure to improve network efficiency, and with hyperscalers and tech companies in general eyeing up the opportunities for software-based solutions in the market, the volume of cellular data serviced by the cloud is set to explode from 700,000 PB in 2024 to as much as 2.8 million PB in 2028, according to a study from Juniper Research.
Global telecommunications cloud strategies market 2024-2028 assessed the telecommunications cloud market in 60 countries using a dataset containing almost 11,000 market statistics over a five-year period.
Fundamentally, the study noted that the shift towards telecommunications cloudification has been triggered by virtualising network functions, replacing traditional network appliances with efficient virtualised functions using industry-standard computing equipment. As a result, said the analyst, standardised server hardware can be used for multiple purposes instead of bespoke and proprietary hardware.
Juniper believes that the expansion in cloud infrastructure will enable dynamic resource provisioning, allowing operators to increase the reliability of their 5G network services . This, it added, would enable operators to redistribute network resources to areas under strain, preventing network congestion.
Juniper calculates that operators will spend $26.6bn on telecommunications cloud in 2024, rising to $64.9bn in 2028. Driving this increase will be total cost of ownership pressured by data consumption, new 5G deployments expand cloud opportunities in telecommunications, and sustainability goals – such as net zero – necessitating the cloud.
In this, Juniper stressed that unlike in fixed wireless networks, the total cost of ownership in wireless cellular networks affected by the volume of data travelling over the network. This is because the radio access network is not dedicated to individual users, with network elements being allocated so that they are able to facilitate traffic generated by users. Juniper forecasts the total data generated over operator networks to increase from 1.929 PB in 2024 to 5.347 PB in 2028. The growth in total data was attributed to both increasing average data consumed per user and a rise in the total number of users.
An anticipated key feature is cloud-based dynamic resource provisioning , the process of distributing telecommunications network resources in near-real-time. Juniper believes that the transition to cloud-based 5G networks is key to enabling dynamic resource provisioning, allowing operators to easily reallocate computing resources for network functions. This automation Juniper predicts will enable operators to provision network resources in near-real time, due to the efficiency and speed provided.
The energy and smart cities sectors were highlighted as key market verticals for cloud-based 5G network service monetisation. Reliability was seen as essential in these market verticals due to their role as critical infrastructure, and operators must exploit this requirement by charging a premium to service providers.
“To charge a premium, operators must couple increased reliability with improved latency and throughput, providing prioritised network slices to connections where possible,” remarked the research author Alex Webb.
Going forward, the report urged operators to integrate automated dynamic resource provisioning with other forms of network automation and resource management, to ensure a unified approach. This, said the analyst, would be critical to maximising network efficiency and performance, as it prevents a chaotic collection of network resource management strategies and software.
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The deployment of 5G networks is progressing as demand for faster and more reliable connectivity continues to grow. The standalone (SA) deployment model marks a significant milestone in the evolution of 5G, aiming to offer lower latency, increased bandwidth, and improved reliability compared to earlier network configurations. In this article, we use Ookla Speedtest Intelligence® data to track 5G SA deployments since Q2 2023, 5G SA service adoption, and examine its impact on network performance. We also highlight key regions and countries that made notable advancements in 5G SA infrastructure.
Most existing 5G deployments use the non-standalone (NSA) model which uses the 4G core network. This model is faster to roll out, requires less investment, and maximizes existing network assets. Unlike 5G NSA, 5G SA uses a dedicated 5G core network, unlocking the full capabilities of 5G with better speed, latency, support for large numbers of devices, and more agile service creation. It also enables new features such as network slicing where an operator can dedicate a network segment to specific customers or use cases. Furthermore, the core network functions provided by a cloud-native architecture enable more scalability and automation than physical or virtualized architectures. However, this comes with higher infrastructure complexity, investment as well as staff training costs. Many operators use NSA as a stepping stone towards SA, with a few exceptions, such as DISH in the U.S. and Jio in India, which adopted SA from the outset. Other scenarios for deploying 5G SA include an overlay for a public 5G NSA network or as a private network for enterprise use cases.
The Global Mobile Suppliers Association (GSA) identified 230 operators that had invested in public 5G SA networks as of the end of June 2024. 5G SA represented more than 37% of the 614 operators known to have invested in 5G either through trials or deployments. The GSA reported 1,535 commercially available devices, including handsets and fixed wireless access (FWA) customer premises equipment (CPEs), that support 5G SA, demonstrating the growing maturity of the device ecosystem.
However, only 11 new 5G SA deployments in nine countries were recorded (out of 46 new 5G networks launched in 32 countries) in 2023, according to Analysys Mason , showing a slowdown in deployments. We expect the pace of 5G SA launches to accelerate in 2024 and beyond supported by the growing device ecosystem and commercial appetite for new 5G use cases. To identify where 5G SA access has been activated and the network expanded between Q2 2023 and Q2 2024, we used Speedtest Intelligence® data to identify devices that connect to 5G SA. The maps below confirm that the number of 5G SA samples increased year-on-year and that coverage has expanded beyond urban centers. However, mobile subscribers in most of Africa, Europe, Central Asia, and Latin America have yet to experience 5G SA.
In the following sections, we examine the year-on-year changes in 5G SA performance across different regions and identify which countries are leading in the Developed Asia Pacific, the Americas, Emerging Asia Pacific, and Europe.
Operators in this region boast 5G SA networks, with launches happening as early as 2020. Strong government support, operators’ technology leadership, and a high consumer appetite for high-speed internet services drove this rapid adoption.
South Korea is considered a pioneer in the adoption and deployment of 5G technology, with SK Telecom deploying one of the first 5G SA services in H1 2020, and supporting advanced features such as network slicing and mobile edge computing (MEC). Speedtest Intelligence data shows that the country led the region in download and upload speeds in Q2 2024. South Korea has one of the highest median speeds among the countries analyzed at 729.89 Mbps (download) and 77.65 Mbps (upload). The other top-performing country is the U.A.E with a median download speed of 879.89 Mbps and a median upload speed of 70.93 Mbps.
All three service providers in Singapore commercialized 5G SA services, covering more than 95% of the country . Users experienced excellent download speed with a median value of 481.96 Mbps. However, Singapore lagged in upload speed with a median value of 32.09 Mbps.
Macau and Japan are second and third in the region with median download speeds of 404.22 Mbps and 272.73 Mbps, respectively. Mainland China followed with a median speed of 236.95 Mbps. Policies and initiatives such as network-sharing agreements and government subsidies supported 5G growth.
In Australia, TPG Telecom launched its 5G SA network in November 2021, following Telstra’s announcement in May 2020. However, the country lagged behind its regional peers with median download speeds and upload speeds of 146.68 Mbps and 17.69 Mbps, respectively.
The performance of most reviewed DVAP countries remained largely stable or slightly declined between Q2 2023 and Q2 2024. The only two exceptions are South Korea and Australia where performance improved by 12% and 18%, respectively. The most substantial declines were observed in upload speeds, while South Korea stood out with a 17% boost in performance.
5G Standalone Network Performance, Select Countries in Developed Asia Pacific Source: Speedtest Intelligence® | Q2 2023 – Q2 2024 5G Standalone Network Performance, Select Countries in Developed Asia Pacific
In the U.S., T-Mobile launched its 5G Standalone (SA) network over 600 MHz spectrum in August 2020, becoming one of the first operators in the world to do so. This was followed by a faster service over 2.5 GHz mid-band spectrum in November 2022 which helped the operator to maintain its national lead in 5G performance . On the other hand, Verizon extensively tested 5G SA in 2023 but so far has been slow to deploy a nationwide SA network . DISH, another notable 5G SA operator, pioneered a cloud-native Open RAN-based 5G SA network in June 2023 and expanded coverage to 73% of the population by the end of that year . In Canada, Rogers Wireless launched the first 5G SA at the beginning of 2021, a year after introducing 5G NSA.
In Brazil, the median download and upload speeds reached 474.65 Mbps and 32.36 Mbps in Q2 2024, respectively, exceeding those in Canada and the U.S. The main operators in Brazil, Claro, Telefonica (Vivo), and TIM have launched 5G SA over the 3.5 GHz band, making the service available to a large proportion of the population .
While download and upload speed improved in Canada and the U.S. between Q2 2023 and Q2 2024, according to Speedtest Intelligence, it declined in Brazil. The deployment of C-band has likely helped to increase download speed in both Canada and the U.S.
5G Standalone Network Performance, Select Countries in the Americas Source: Speedtest Intelligence® | Q2 2023 – Q2 2024 5G Standalone Network Performance, Select Countries in the Americas
India is at the forefront of the Emerging Asian Pacific region’s rapid 5G Standalone (SA) network expansion. However, according to Ookla’s Speedtest data for Q2 2024, the Philippines surpasses both India and Thailand with a median 5G SA download speed of 375.40 Mbps. Globe, the first mobile operator to introduce 5G Non-Standalone (NSA) in the Philippines, expanded its 5G outdoor coverage to 97.44% of the capital by the end of H1 2023. The company also launched 5G SA private networks in 2023, along with network slicing.
India follows closely behind the Philippines, with a median download speed of just under 300 Mbps. Jio has been a leader in enhancing 5G SA coverage since its launch in October 2022, while Bharti Airtel initially opted for NSA, with plans to transition to full 5G SA.
Jio’s rapid coverage expansion and high throughput are supported by its access to mid-band (3.5 GHz) and low-band (700 MHz) frequencies. Additionally, all new 5G handsets released in India are SA-compatible , boosting the adoption of 5G SA services, and more than 90% of them support carrier aggregation and Voice over New Radio (VoNR).
Thailand lags behind in median download speed for Q2 2024 but outperforms India and the Philippines in upload speed. It was among the first countries in the region to introduce 5G services, with operators quickly expanding coverage to reach over 80% of the population. AIS, the leading operator in Thailand, launched 5G NSA services in February 2020 using 700 MHz, 2.6 GHz, and 26 GHz bandwidths , followed by 5G SA in July 2020. The operator enabled VoNR in 2021.
Unlike the DVAP region, countries in EMAP have experienced a more substantial decline in 5G SA network performance compared to Q2 2023. The rapid coverage expansion and adoption have likely increased the load on 5G SA infrastructure, putting pressure on the operators to scale up network capacity in the future to at least maintain a similar performance level.
5G Standalone Network Performance, Select Countries in Emerging Asia Pacific Source: Speedtest Intelligence® | Q2 2023 – Q2 2024 5G Standalone Network Performance, Select Countries in Emerging Asia Pacific
A growing number of European operators are offering or planning to offer 5G SA, driven by a maturing device ecosystem. However, many remain hesitant due to cost and the need to demonstrate clear business cases for 5G SA. GSMA Intelligence reports that Europe has the highest number of planned 5G SA launches, with 45 operators planning to deploy it as of Q1 2024.
Elisa in Finland was one of the first operators in the region to launch 5G SA in November 2021. Other notable examples of SA implementations include Vodafone in Germany (April 2021) and the UK (June 2023), Bouygues Telecom (2022) in France, Three in Austria, Wind Tre in Italy (both in 2022), Orange and Telefónica in Spain, and TDC Denmark in 2023.
The recent 5G SA launch in Spain may explain why that country saw such high speeds, with Speedtest Intelligence reporting download and upload speeds of 614.91 Mbps and 56.93 Mbps, respectively, in Q2 2023. However, Spain experienced a significant drop in performance in 2024, with speeds falling to 427.64 Mbps (download) and 30.55 Mbps (upload). Despite this decline, Spain continued to outperform the UK and Germany.
5G Standalone Network Performance, Select Countries in Europe Source: Speedtest Intelligence® | Q2 2023 – Q2 2024 5G Standalone Network Performance, Select Countries in Europe
While 5G SA deployments appear to have slowed in 2023 compared to previous years, we expect momentum to increase from 2024 due to rising enterprise demand for private networks and interest in network slicing, as well as consumer demand for immersive gaming and VR applications. The ecosystem’s maturity and the availability of more network equipment and devices supporting 5G SA will also stimulate the market. According to the GSA, 21% of operators worldwide investing in 5G have included 5G SA in their plans .
Interestingly, the growing popularity and adoption of 5G SA have impacted its performance, with many markets seeing some degradation compared to 2023, according to Speedtest Intelligence. Nonetheless, 5G SA still offers a markedly faster download speed than 5G NSA. Beyond speed, 5G SA promises new capabilities, such as network slicing, that have started to emerge in the most advanced markets but will take time to become a reality for most consumers and enterprises worldwide.
We will continue to track the deployments of 5G SA and monitor their impact on network global performance. For more information about Speedtest Intelligence data and insights, please contact us .
Ookla retains ownership of this article including all of the intellectual property rights, data, content graphs and analysis. This article may not be quoted, reproduced, distributed or published for any commercial purpose without prior consent. Members of the press and others using the findings in this article for non-commercial purposes are welcome to publicly share and link to report information with attribution to Ookla.
Karim Yaici is the Lead Industry Analyst at Ookla covering the Middle East and Africa (MEA) region. Previously, he directed Analysys Mason's MEA research program, where he was responsible for telecoms forecasts, market reports, consumer surveys, and custom research.
Ee tops reliability chart as new research reveals the uk’s best network.
Aug 5, 2024
Independent testing of the everyday mobile experience across the UK has demonstrated EE is the most reliable network for mobile customers, being named the UK’s best network for a record 11 th year in a row.
To provide a robust and definitive picture of the performance of all four of the UK’s mobile network operators – EE, Three, O2 and Vodafone – RootMetrics® analysts have conducted more than 625,000 tests across every region of the country in the last six months, including the sixteen largest UK cities and more than 22,000 miles of roads.
These tests examined the mobile network experience in real-life situations in a variety of locations and scenarios using a Samsung Galaxy S23 smartphone. EE was found to deliver:
Marc Allera, Chief Executive Officer at EE, said : "The average internet user in the UK spends more than six hours every day online, using multiple connected devices. This makes having reliable connectivity at home and on the move more important than ever. This research gives every person in the UK a trusted source of insight into the performance of all mobile operators, including in the busiest cities where we all compete every day to provide the most reliable experience.
“With that in mind, for EE to be crowned the UK’s best mobile network for eleven years in a row is a remarkable achievement. We’ve worked tirelessly to deliver the fastest and most reliable mobile network in the UK and we will continue to put network quality at the heart of our customer experience.”
A recent separate piece of research from Farrpoint demonstrated the social and economic value of reliable connectivity to communities across the UK, especially in rural areas – making EE’s performance in RootMetrics® UK-wide reliability testing even more important.
When analysing 5G performance across the UK, RootMetrics® testing focuses on two main criteria: network availability and performance. The results found EE provided the best 5G experience across the UK, with its 5G availability increasing 8.5% in the last six months and its 5G network delivering 50% faster download speeds for the widest number of consumers. 4
EE’s 5G network now provides coverage to more than 78% of the entire UK population and has been made available in a further 1,531 locations - from rural Scotland to central London - since the end of 2023. This includes major event venues such as Wembley Stadium, Murrayfield, Vicarage Road and Villa Park.
This expansion in network availability is part of EE’s ambition to offer a 5G connection anywhere in the UK by 2028.
More than 32% of consumers in the UK state that mobile is their top gaming platform 5 , making it one of the fastest growing areas for RootMetrics® to analyse. Its testing focuses on core network connectivity issues that create the optimal gaming experience, including latency, packet loss, jitter and download speed.
The results found:
The mobile industry in the UK is one of the most competitive in the world. To understand which network is living up to its claims, RootMetrics H1 2024 test results are available to read in full here: rootmetrics.com/en-GB/content/uk-mobile-performance-review-1h-2024
Here is a snapshot of the network awards EE has won following the independent testing conducted by RootMetrics® throughout the UK:
The UK’s best network for 11 years in a row
The UK’s most reliable network
The UK’s fastest network
The UK’s best 5G experience
The UK’s best network for mobile gaming
The UK’s most reliable network for mobile gaming
The UK’s best network for video
The UK’s best network for calls and data
The UK’s most accessible network
The best network performance in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland
The best network performance in 16 of the largest cities in the UK
Telcos & ai, what’s up with… sk telecom, lumen, ntt docomo.
Aug 6, 2024
Uscellular leverages latest ericsson router technology to elevate 5g infrastructure in rural america, atis, o-ran alliance agree on transposition of o-ran specifications to atis standards, nokia and samsung electronics achieve 6gbit/s downlink speeds with 6cc 5g carrier aggregation, email newsletters.
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Highlights from the 2024 dsp leaders world forum.
Autonomous core network for a higher level network stability.
A new study by Signals Research Group (SRG) gives operators more reasons to hasten their transition to 5G standalone (SA) networks. That's because the study shines a light on new 5G SA uplink features that can drastically improve throughput, coverage and/or spectral efficiency – all big deals when it comes to social media and AI applications.
In the study, SRG focused on features that amplify the uplink data transfer. Usually, it’s the downlink that gets all the attention and rightfully so, because the majority of mobile data traffic resides in the downlink.
However, “the times, they are a changin’,” wrote SRG President Michael Thelander, quoting a fellow Minnesotan .
Thelander, a 20-year wireless industry veteran who last year famously chronicled how he turned off 5G on his phone, said AI is an oft-cited use case that’s driving interest in the uplink channel. But perhaps a more prevalent driver right now is plain old social media – with or without the AI.
Thelander cites his favorite walleye fisherman who on YouTube is now streaming his adventures from remote lakes in Wisconsin where there isn’t a reliable Wi-Fi hotspot for miles.
“We’re thinking his mobile operator should sponsor him and display their logo on his fishing boat,” Thelander quipped in his latest report.
Infrastructure vendors like Ericsson and Nokia might also want to jump on board. Both of them emphasized the importance of uplink at their recent analyst events, Thelander noted.
One of the features that figures prominently in SRG’s report is 5G uplink MIMO, or UL-MIMO. Outside of China, it’s a feature that remains mostly on the sidelines from a device perspective, but it’s now available in bands 1.9 GHz and 2.5 GHz. Like other features SRG tested, UP MIMO shows promise for extending the phone's battery life.
UL-MIMO can double the speed/spectral efficiency of a data session. Like it sounds, it’s very similar to downlink MIMO but in the opposite direction.
“It basically means that over a given radio channel, you’re sending essentially two data streams, so in theory, you can double your capacity,” he told Fierce. “You can get twice the data speeds in an individual phone and you can double the efficiency of your radio channel.”
The other up-and-coming feature is UL-Carrier Aggregation, or UL-CA, which serves as a nice complement to UL-MIMO, he said.
UL-CA delivers higher throughput by using two uplink channels, and it proves very effective in increasing the uplink data speeds, especially when the smartphone doesn’t support UL-MIMO.
UL-CA might be easier to implement in a device, probably because it’s been done with LTE, he said. UL-CA is somewhat comparable to Evolved Non-standalone Dual Connectivity (EN-DC), which involves a combination of data traffic on a 5G radio bearer and LTE radio bearer.
SRG’s executive summary doesn’t include exact data speeds achieved in the tests. But earlier this year , T-Mobile boasted about the record uplink speed of 345 Mbps it achieved on its 5G SA network using a new feature called UL Tx switching. SRG’s report mentions that feature, which Thelander said is right around the corner but wasn’t available when he conducted his tests.
SRG’s tests focused on 5G handset features that are designed to improve throughput, coverage and/or spectral efficiency, but generally require a 5G SA network, which are few and far between.
In the U.S., T-Mobile is the sole incumbent wireless operator with a nationwide commercial 5G SA network. Verizon and AT&T are lagging but working toward nationwide 5G SA status. The financially strapped Dish Network also boasts a 5G SA network, albeit with far fewer customers.
So, SRG conducted its tests in early July using T-Mobile’s network in the Seattle area, which uses radio access network (RAN) gear provided by Nokia. The devices– the razr 2024 and razr+ 2024 – were provided by Motorola.
Neither T-Mobile nor Motorola company had any direct involvement in SRG’s tests or analysis, although they were given a heads up just before the July 31 report was published, Thelander said.
The upshot for the other two incumbent U.S. carriers that haven’t yet launched nationwide 5G SA is that by the time they’re ready to introduce these new features, it’s probably going to be a lot easier than it was for T-Mobile, Thelander said.
“All the heavy lifting has been done,” such as interop testing between chipsets and infrastructure, he said. “There was probably a lot of pain that was felt to get to this point,” so when a vendor wants to install UL-CA, for example, the learning curve is much better than it was when T-Mobile started.
All of this begs the question of whether we’re ever going to see handsets more closely aligned to networks. In the past, operators like AT&T and Verizon have said they’re in no hurry to widely deploy 5G SA until there’s a sizable number of compatible devices in customers’ hands that can take advantage of the new features.
“I guess you have to build the house before you put the roof on it,” Thelander said, noting that if you take the most advanced network solution and most advanced chipset, the network in most cases is still going to be ahead of the handsets.
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