how to present historical research

A Step-by-Step Guide to Doing Historical Research [without getting hysterical!] In addition to being a scholarly investigation, research is a social activity intended to create new knowledge. Historical research is your informed response to the questions that you ask while examining the record of human experience. These questions may concern such elements as looking at an event or topic, examining events that lead to the event in question, social influences, key players, and other contextual information. This step-by-step guide progresses from an introduction to historical resources to information about how to identify a topic, craft a thesis and develop a research paper. Table of contents: The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Secondary Sources Primary Sources Historical Analysis What is it? Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Choose a Topic Craft a Thesis Evaluate Thesis and Sources A Variety of Information Sources Take Efficient Notes Note Cards Thinking, Organizing, Researching Parenthetical Documentation Prepare a Works Cited Page Drafting, Revising, Rewriting, Rethinking For Further Reading: Works Cited Additional Links So you want to study history?! Tons of help and links Slatta Home Page Use the Writing and other links on the lefhand menu I. The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Back to Top Every period leaves traces, what historians call "sources" or evidence. Some are more credible or carry more weight than others; judging the differences is a vital skill developed by good historians. Sources vary in perspective, so knowing who created the information you are examining is vital. Anonymous doesn't make for a very compelling source. For example, an FBI report on the antiwar movement, prepared for U.S. President Richard Nixon, probably contained secrets that at the time were thought to have affected national security. It would not be usual, however, for a journalist's article about a campus riot, featured in a local newspaper, to leak top secret information. Which source would you read? It depends on your research topic. If you're studying how government officials portrayed student activists, you'll want to read the FBI report and many more documents from other government agencies such as the CIA and the National Security Council. If you're investigating contemporary opinion of pro-war and anti-war activists, local newspaper accounts provide a rich resource. You'd want to read a variety of newspapers to ensure you're covering a wide range of opinions (rural/urban, left/right, North/South, Soldier/Draft-dodger, etc). Historians classify sources into two major categories: primary and secondary sources. Secondary Sources Back to Top Definition: Secondary sources are created by someone who was either not present when the event occurred or removed from it in time. We use secondary sources for overview information, to familiarize ourselves with a topic, and compare that topic with other events in history. In refining a research topic, we often begin with secondary sources. This helps us identify gaps or conflicts in the existing scholarly literature that might prove promsing topics. Types: History books, encyclopedias, historical dictionaries, and academic (scholarly) articles are secondary sources. To help you determine the status of a given secondary source, see How to identify and nagivate scholarly literature . Examples: Historian Marilyn Young's (NYU) book about the Vietnam War is a secondary source. She did not participate in the war. Her study is not based on her personal experience but on the evidence she culled from a variety of sources she found in the United States and Vietnam. Primary Sources Back to Top Definition: Primary sources emanate from individuals or groups who participated in or witnessed an event and recorded that event during or immediately after the event. They include speeches, memoirs, diaries, letters, telegrams, emails, proclamations, government documents, and much more. Examples: A student activist during the war writing about protest activities has created a memoir. This would be a primary source because the information is based on her own involvement in the events she describes. Similarly, an antiwar speech is a primary source. So is the arrest record of student protesters. A newspaper editorial or article, reporting on a student demonstration is also a primary source. II. Historical Analysis What is it? Back to Top No matter what you read, whether it's a primary source or a secondary source, you want to know who authored the source (a trusted scholar? A controversial historian? A propagandist? A famous person? An ordinary individual?). "Author" refers to anyone who created information in any medium (film, sound, or text). You also need to know when it was written and the kind of audience the author intend to reach. You should also consider what you bring to the evidence that you examine. Are you inductively following a path of evidence, developing your interpretation based on the sources? Do you have an ax to grind? Did you begin your research deductively, with your mind made up before even seeing the evidence. Historians need to avoid the latter and emulate the former. To read more about the distinction, examine the difference between Intellectual Inquirers and Partisan Ideologues . In the study of history, perspective is everything. A letter written by a twenty- year old Vietnam War protestor will differ greatly from a letter written by a scholar of protest movements. Although the sentiment might be the same, the perspective and influences of these two authors will be worlds apart. Practicing the " 5 Ws " will avoid the confusion of the authority trap. Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Back to Top Historians accumulate evidence (information, including facts, stories, interpretations, opinions, statements, reports, etc.) from a variety of sources (primary and secondary). They must also verify that certain key pieces of information are corroborated by a number of people and sources ("the predonderance of evidence"). The historian poses the " 5 Ws " to every piece of information he examines: Who is the historical actor? When did the event take place? Where did it occur? What did it entail and why did it happen the way it did? The " 5 Ws " can also be used to evaluate a primary source. Who authored the work? When was it created? Where was it created, published, and disseminated? Why was it written (the intended audience), and what is the document about (what points is the author making)? If you know the answers to these five questions, you can analyze any document, and any primary source. The historian doesn't look for the truth, since this presumes there is only one true story. The historian tries to understand a number of competing viewpoints to form his or her own interpretation-- what constitutes the best explanation of what happened and why. By using as wide a range of primary source documents and secondary sources as possible, you will add depth and richness to your historical analysis. The more exposure you, the researcher, have to a number of different sources and differing view points, the more you have a balanced and complete view about a topic in history. This view will spark more questions and ultimately lead you into the quest to unravel more clues about your topic. You are ready to start assembling information for your research paper. III. Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Back to Top Because your purpose is to create new knowledge while recognizing those scholars whose existing work has helped you in this pursuit, you are honor bound never to commit the following academic sins: Plagiarism: Literally "kidnapping," involving the use of someone else's words as if they were your own (Gibaldi 6). To avoid plagiarism you must document direct quotations, paraphrases, and original ideas not your own. Recycling: Rehashing material you already know thoroughly or, without your professor's permission, submitting a paper that you have completed for another course. Premature cognitive commitment: Academic jargon for deciding on a thesis too soon and then seeking information to serve that thesis rather than embarking on a genuine search for new knowledge. Choose a Topic Back to Top "Do not hunt for subjects, let them choose you, not you them." --Samuel Butler Choosing a topic is the first step in the pursuit of a thesis. Below is a logical progression from topic to thesis: Close reading of the primary text, aided by secondary sources Growing awareness of interesting qualities within the primary text Choosing a topic for research Asking productive questions that help explore and evaluate a topic Creating a research hypothesis Revising and refining a hypothesis to form a working thesis First, and most important, identify what qualities in the primary or secondary source pique your imagination and curiosity and send you on a search for answers. Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive levels provides a description of productive questions asked by critical thinkers. While the lower levels (knowledge, comprehension) are necessary to a good history essay, aspire to the upper three levels (analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Skimming reference works such as encyclopedias, books, critical essays and periodical articles can help you choose a topic that evolves into a hypothesis, which in turn may lead to a thesis. One approach to skimming involves reading the first paragraph of a secondary source to locate and evaluate the author's thesis. Then for a general idea of the work's organization and major ideas read the first and last sentence of each paragraph. Read the conclusion carefully, as it usually presents a summary (Barnet and Bedau 19). Craft a Thesis Back to Top Very often a chosen topic is too broad for focused research. You must revise it until you have a working hypothesis, that is, a statement of an idea or an approach with respect to the source that could form the basis for your thesis. Remember to not commit too soon to any one hypothesis. Use it as a divining rod or a first step that will take you to new information that may inspire you to revise your hypothesis. Be flexible. Give yourself time to explore possibilities. The hypothesis you create will mature and shift as you write and rewrite your paper. New questions will send you back to old and on to new material. Remember, this is the nature of research--it is more a spiraling or iterative activity than a linear one. Test your working hypothesis to be sure it is: broad enough to promise a variety of resources. narrow enough for you to research in depth. original enough to interest you and your readers. worthwhile enough to offer information and insights of substance "do-able"--sources are available to complete the research. Now it is time to craft your thesis, your revised and refined hypothesis. A thesis is a declarative sentence that: focuses on one well-defined idea makes an arguable assertion; it is capable of being supported prepares your readers for the body of your paper and foreshadows the conclusion. Evaluate Thesis and Sources Back to Top Like your hypothesis, your thesis is not carved in stone. You are in charge. If necessary, revise it during the research process. As you research, continue to evaluate both your thesis for practicality, originality, and promise as a search tool, and secondary sources for relevance and scholarliness. The following are questions to ask during the research process: Are there many journal articles and entire books devoted to the thesis, suggesting that the subject has been covered so thoroughly that there may be nothing new to say? Does the thesis lead to stimulating, new insights? Are appropriate sources available? Is there a variety of sources available so that the bibliography or works cited page will reflect different kinds of sources? Which sources are too broad for my thesis? Which resources are too narrow? Who is the author of the secondary source? Does the critic's background suggest that he/she is qualified? After crafting a thesis, consider one of the following two approaches to writing a research paper: Excited about your thesis and eager to begin? Return to the primary or secondary source to find support for your thesis. Organize ideas and begin writing your first draft. After writing the first draft, have it reviewed by your peers and your instructor. Ponder their suggestions and return to the sources to answer still-open questions. Document facts and opinions from secondary sources. Remember, secondary sources can never substitute for primary sources. Confused about where to start? Use your thesis to guide you to primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources can help you clarify your position and find a direction for your paper. Keep a working bibliography. You may not use all the sources you record, but you cannot be sure which ones you will eventually discard. Create a working outline as you research. This outline will, of course, change as you delve more deeply into your subject. A Variety of Information Sources Back to Top "A mind that is stretched to a new idea never returns to its original dimension." --Oliver Wendell Holmes Your thesis and your working outline are the primary compasses that will help you navigate the variety of sources available. In "Introduction to the Library" (5-6) the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers suggests you become familiar with the library you will be using by: taking a tour or enrolling for a brief introductory lecture referring to the library's publications describing its resources introducing yourself and your project to the reference librarian The MLA Handbook also lists guides for the use of libraries (5), including: Jean Key Gates, Guide to the Use of Libraries and Information Sources (7th ed., New York: McGraw, 1994). Thomas Mann, A Guide to Library Research Methods (New York: Oxford UP, 1987). Online Central Catalog Most libraries have their holdings listed on a computer. The online catalog may offer Internet sites, Web pages and databases that relate to the university's curriculum. It may also include academic journals and online reference books. Below are three search techniques commonly used online: Index Search: Although online catalogs may differ slightly from library to library, the most common listings are by: Subject Search: Enter the author's name for books and article written about the author. Author Search: Enter an author's name for works written by the author, including collections of essays the author may have written about his/her own works. Title Search: Enter a title for the screen to list all the books the library carries with that title. Key Word Search/Full-text Search: A one-word search, e.g., 'Kennedy,' will produce an overwhelming number of sources, as it will call up any entry that includes the name 'Kennedy.' To focus more narrowly on your subject, add one or more key words, e.g., "John Kennedy, Peace Corps." Use precise key words. Boolean Search: Boolean Search techniques use words such as "and," "or," and "not," which clarify the relationship between key words, thus narrowing the search. Take Efficient Notes Back to Top Keeping complete and accurate bibliography and note cards during the research process is a time (and sanity) saving practice. If you have ever needed a book or pages within a book, only to discover that an earlier researcher has failed to return it or torn pages from your source, you understand the need to take good notes. Every researcher has a favorite method for taking notes. Here are some suggestions-- customize one of them for your own use. Bibliography cards There may be far more books and articles listed than you have time to read, so be selective when choosing a reference. Take information from works that clearly relate to your thesis, remembering that you may not use them all. Use a smaller or a different color card from the one used for taking notes. Write a bibliography card for every source. Number the bibliography cards. On the note cards, use the number rather than the author's name and the title. It's faster. Another method for recording a working bibliography, of course, is to create your own database. Adding, removing, and alphabetizing titles is a simple process. Be sure to save often and to create a back-up file. A bibliography card should include all the information a reader needs to locate that particular source for further study. Most of the information required for a book entry (Gibaldi 112): Author's name Title of a part of the book [preface, chapter titles, etc.] Title of the book Name of the editor, translator, or compiler Edition used Number(s) of the volume(s) used Name of the series Place of publication, name of the publisher, and date of publication Page numbers Supplementary bibliographic information and annotations Most of the information required for an article in a periodical (Gibaldi 141): Author's name Title of the article Name of the periodical Series number or name (if relevant) Volume number (for a scholarly journal) Issue number (if needed) Date of publication Page numbers Supplementary information For information on how to cite other sources refer to your So you want to study history page . Note Cards Back to Top Take notes in ink on either uniform note cards (3x5, 4x6, etc.) or uniform slips of paper. Devote each note card to a single topic identified at the top. Write only on one side. Later, you may want to use the back to add notes or personal observations. Include a topical heading for each card. Include the number of the page(s) where you found the information. You will want the page number(s) later for documentation, and you may also want page number(s)to verify your notes. Most novice researchers write down too much. Condense. Abbreviate. You are striving for substance, not quantity. Quote directly from primary sources--but the "meat," not everything. Suggestions for condensing information: Summary: A summary is intended to provide the gist of an essay. Do not weave in the author's choice phrases. Read the information first and then condense the main points in your own words. This practice will help you avoid the copying that leads to plagiarism. Summarizing also helps you both analyze the text you are reading and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses (Barnet and Bedau 13). Outline: Use to identify a series of points. Paraphrase, except for key primary source quotations. Never quote directly from a secondary source, unless the precise wording is essential to your argument. Simplify the language and list the ideas in the same order. A paraphrase is as long as the original. Paraphrasing is helpful when you are struggling with a particularly difficult passage. Be sure to jot down your own insights or flashes of brilliance. Ralph Waldo Emerson warns you to "Look sharply after your thoughts. They come unlooked for, like a new bird seen on your trees, and, if you turn to your usual task, disappear...." To differentiate these insights from those of the source you are reading, initial them as your own. (When the following examples of note cards include the researcher's insights, they will be followed by the initials N. R.) When you have finished researching your thesis and you are ready to write your paper, organize your cards according to topic. Notecards make it easy to shuffle and organize your source information on a table-- or across the floor. Maintain your working outline that includes the note card headings and explores a logical order for presenting them in your paper. IV. Begin Thinking, Researching, Organizing Back to Top Don't be too sequential. Researching, writing, revising is a complex interactive process. Start writing as soon as possible! "The best antidote to writer's block is--to write." (Klauser 15). However, you still feel overwhelmed and are staring at a blank page, you are not alone. Many students find writing the first sentence to be the most daunting part of the entire research process. Be creative. Cluster (Rico 28-49). Clustering is a form of brainstorming. Sometimes called a web, the cluster forms a design that may suggest a natural organization for a paper. Here's a graphical depiction of brainstorming . Like a sun, the generating idea or topic lies at the center of the web. From it radiate words, phrases, sentences and images that in turn attract other words, phrases, sentences and images. Put another way--stay focused. Start with your outline. If clustering is not a technique that works for you, turn to the working outline you created during the research process. Use the outline view of your word processor. If you have not already done so, group your note cards according to topic headings. Compare them to your outline's major points. If necessary, change the outline to correspond with the headings on the note cards. If any area seems weak because of a scarcity of facts or opinions, return to your primary and/or secondary sources for more information or consider deleting that heading. Use your outline to provide balance in your essay. Each major topic should have approximately the same amount of information. Once you have written a working outline, consider two different methods for organizing it. Deduction: A process of development that moves from the general to the specific. You may use this approach to present your findings. However, as noted above, your research and interpretive process should be inductive. Deduction is the most commonly used form of organization for a research paper. The thesis statement is the generalization that leads to the specific support provided by primary and secondary sources. The thesis is stated early in the paper. The body of the paper then proceeds to provide the facts, examples, and analogies that flow logically from that thesis. The thesis contains key words that are reflected in the outline. These key words become a unifying element throughout the paper, as they reappear in the detailed paragraphs that support and develop the thesis. The conclusion of the paper circles back to the thesis, which is now far more meaningful because of the deductive development that supports it. Chronological order A process that follows a traditional time line or sequence of events. A chronological organization is useful for a paper that explores cause and effect. Parenthetical Documentation Back to Top The Works Cited page, a list of primary and secondary sources, is not sufficient documentation to acknowledge the ideas, facts, and opinions you have included within your text. The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers describes an efficient parenthetical style of documentation to be used within the body of your paper. Guidelines for parenthetical documentation: "References to the text must clearly point to specific sources in the list of works cited" (Gibaldi 184). Try to use parenthetical documentation as little as possible. For example, when you cite an entire work, it is preferable to include the author's name in the text. The author's last name followed by the page number is usually enough for an accurate identification of the source in the works cited list. These examples illustrate the most common kinds of documentation. Documenting a quotation: Ex. "The separation from the personal mother is a particularly intense process for a daughter because she has to separate from the one who is the same as herself" (Murdock 17). She may feel abandoned and angry. Note: The author of The Heroine's Journey is listed under Works Cited by the author's name, reversed--Murdock, Maureen. Quoted material is found on page 17 of that book. Parenthetical documentation is after the quotation mark and before the period. Documenting a paraphrase: Ex. In fairy tales a woman who holds the princess captive or who abandons her often needs to be killed (18). Note: The second paraphrase is also from Murdock's book The Heroine's Journey. It is not, however, necessary to repeat the author's name if no other documentation interrupts the two. If the works cited page lists more than one work by the same author, include within the parentheses an abbreviated form of the appropriate title. You may, of course, include the title in your sentence, making it unnecessary to add an abbreviated title in the citation. > Prepare a Works Cited Page Back to Top There are a variety of titles for the page that lists primary and secondary sources (Gibaldi 106-107). A Works Cited page lists those works you have cited within the body of your paper. The reader need only refer to it for the necessary information required for further independent research. Bibliography means literally a description of books. Because your research may involve the use of periodicals, films, art works, photographs, etc. "Works Cited" is a more precise descriptive term than bibliography. An Annotated Bibliography or Annotated Works Cited page offers brief critiques and descriptions of the works listed. A Works Consulted page lists those works you have used but not cited. Avoid using this format. As with other elements of a research paper there are specific guidelines for the placement and the appearance of the Works Cited page. The following guidelines comply with MLA style: The Work Cited page is placed at the end of your paper and numbered consecutively with the body of your paper. Center the title and place it one inch from the top of your page. Do not quote or underline the title. Double space the entire page, both within and between entries. The entries are arranged alphabetically by the author's last name or by the title of the article or book being cited. If the title begins with an article (a, an, the) alphabetize by the next word. If you cite two or more works by the same author, list the titles in alphabetical order. Begin every entry after the first with three hyphens followed by a period. All entries begin at the left margin but subsequent lines are indented five spaces. Be sure that each entry cited on the Works Cited page corresponds to a specific citation within your paper. Refer to the the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (104- 182) for detailed descriptions of Work Cited entries. Citing sources from online databases is a relatively new phenomenon. Make sure to ask your professor about citing these sources and which style to use. V. Draft, Revise, Rewrite, Rethink Back to Top "There are days when the result is so bad that no fewer than five revisions are required. In contrast, when I'm greatly inspired, only four revisions are needed." --John Kenneth Galbraith Try freewriting your first draft. Freewriting is a discovery process during which the writer freely explores a topic. Let your creative juices flow. In Writing without Teachers , Peter Elbow asserts that "[a]lmost everybody interposes a massive and complicated series of editings between the time words start to be born into consciousness and when they finally come off the end of the pencil or typewriter [or word processor] onto the page" (5). Do not let your internal judge interfere with this first draft. Creating and revising are two very different functions. Don't confuse them! If you stop to check spelling, punctuation, or grammar, you disrupt the flow of creative energy. Create; then fix it later. When material you have researched comes easily to mind, include it. Add a quick citation, one you can come back to later to check for form, and get on with your discovery. In subsequent drafts, focus on creating an essay that flows smoothly, supports fully, and speaks clearly and interestingly. Add style to substance. Create a smooth flow of words, ideas and paragraphs. Rearrange paragraphs for a logical progression of information. Transition is essential if you want your reader to follow you smoothly from introduction to conclusion. Transitional words and phrases stitch your ideas together; they provide coherence within the essay. External transition: Words and phrases that are added to a sentence as overt signs of transition are obvious and effective, but should not be overused, as they may draw attention to themselves and away from ideas. Examples of external transition are "however," "then," "next," "therefore." "first," "moreover," and "on the other hand." Internal transition is more subtle. Key words in the introduction become golden threads when they appear in the paper's body and conclusion. When the writer hears a key word repeated too often, however, she/he replaces it with a synonym or a pronoun. Below are examples of internal transition. Transitional sentences create a logical flow from paragraph to paragraph. Iclude individual words, phrases, or clauses that refer to previous ideas and that point ahead to new ones. They are usually placed at the end or at the beginning of a paragraph. A transitional paragraph conducts your reader from one part of the paper to another. It may be only a few sentences long. Each paragraph of the body of the paper should contain adequate support for its one governing idea. Speak/write clearly, in your own voice. Tone: The paper's tone, whether formal, ironic, or humorous, should be appropriate for the audience and the subject. Voice: Keep you language honest. Your paper should sound like you. Understand, paraphrase, absorb, and express in your own words the information you have researched. Avoid phony language. Sentence formation: When you polish your sentences, read them aloud for word choice and word placement. Be concise. Strunk and White in The Elements of Style advise the writer to "omit needless words" (23). First, however, you must recognize them. Keep yourself and your reader interested. In fact, Strunk's 1918 writing advice is still well worth pondering. First, deliver on your promises. Be sure the body of your paper fulfills the promise of the introduction. Avoid the obvious. Offer new insights. Reveal the unexpected. Have you crafted your conclusion as carefully as you have your introduction? Conclusions are not merely the repetition of your thesis. The conclusion of a research paper is a synthesis of the information presented in the body. Your research has led you to conclusions and opinions that have helped you understand your thesis more deeply and more clearly. Lift your reader to the full level of understanding that you have achieved. Revision means "to look again." Find a peer reader to read your paper with you present. Or, visit your college or university's writing lab. Guide your reader's responses by asking specific questions. Are you unsure of the logical order of your paragraphs? Do you want to know whether you have supported all opinions adequately? Are you concerned about punctuation or grammar? Ask that these issues be addressed. You are in charge. Here are some techniques that may prove helpful when you are revising alone or with a reader. When you edit for spelling errors read the sentences backwards. This procedure will help you look closely at individual words. Always read your paper aloud. Hearing your own words puts them in a new light. Listen to the flow of ideas and of language. Decide whether or not the voice sounds honest and the tone is appropriate to the purpose of the paper and to your audience. Listen for awkward or lumpy wording. Find the one right word, Eliminate needless words. Combine sentences. Kill the passive voice. Eliminate was/were/is/are constructions. They're lame and anti-historical. Be ruthless. If an idea doesn't serve your thesis, banish it, even if it's one of your favorite bits of prose. In the margins, write the major topic of each paragraph. By outlining after you have written the paper, you are once again evaluating your paper's organization. OK, you've got the process down. Now execute! And enjoy! It's not everyday that you get to make history. VI. For Further Reading: Works Cited Back to Top Barnet, Sylvan, and Hugo Bedau. Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing: A Brief Guide to Argument. Boston: Bedford, 1993. Brent, Doug. Reading as Rhetorical Invention: Knowledge,Persuasion and the Teaching of Research-Based Writing. Urbana: NCTE, 1992. Elbow, Peter. Writing without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Gibladi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1995. Horvitz, Deborah. "Nameless Ghosts: Possession and Dispossession in Beloved." Studies in American Fiction , Vol. 17, No. 2, Autum, 1989, pp. 157-167. Republished in the Literature Research Center. Gale Group. (1 January 1999). Klauser, Henriette Anne. Writing on Both Sides of the Brain: Breakthrough Techniques for People Who Write. Philadelphia: Harper, 1986. Rico, Gabriele Lusser. Writing the Natural Way: Using Right Brain Techniques to Release Your Expressive Powers. Los Angeles: Houghton, 1983. Sorenson, Sharon. The Research Paper: A Contemporary Approach. New York: AMSCO, 1994. Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New York: MacMillan, 1979. Back to Top This guide adapted from materials published by Thomson Gale, publishers. For free resources, including a generic guide to writing term papers, see the Gale.com website , which also includes product information for schools.

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Home » Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Historical Research

Definition:

Historical research is the process of investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a variety of sources and methods. This type of research aims to reconstruct and interpret the past based on the available evidence.

Types of Historical Research

There are several types of historical research, including:

Descriptive Research

This type of historical research focuses on describing events, people, or cultures in detail. It can involve examining artifacts, documents, or other sources of information to create a detailed account of what happened or existed.

Analytical Research

This type of historical research aims to explain why events, people, or cultures occurred in a certain way. It involves analyzing data to identify patterns, causes, and effects, and making interpretations based on this analysis.

Comparative Research

This type of historical research involves comparing two or more events, people, or cultures to identify similarities and differences. This can help researchers understand the unique characteristics of each and how they interacted with each other.

Interpretive Research

This type of historical research focuses on interpreting the meaning of past events, people, or cultures. It can involve analyzing cultural symbols, beliefs, and practices to understand their significance in a particular historical context.

Quantitative Research

This type of historical research involves using statistical methods to analyze historical data. It can involve examining demographic information, economic indicators, or other quantitative data to identify patterns and trends.

Qualitative Research

This type of historical research involves examining non-numerical data such as personal accounts, letters, or diaries. It can provide insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:

• Archival research : This involves analyzing documents and records that have been preserved over time, such as government records, diaries, letters, newspapers, and photographs. Archival research is often conducted in libraries, archives, and museums.
• Oral history : This involves conducting interviews with individuals who have lived through a particular historical period or event. Oral history can provide a unique perspective on past events and can help to fill gaps in the historical record.
• Artifact analysis: This involves examining physical objects from the past, such as tools, clothing, and artwork, to gain insights into past cultures and practices.
• Secondary sources: This involves analyzing published works, such as books, articles, and academic papers, that discuss past events and cultures. Secondary sources can provide context and insights into the historical period being studied.
• Statistical analysis : This involves analyzing numerical data from the past, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends.
• Fieldwork : This involves conducting on-site research in a particular location, such as visiting a historical site or conducting ethnographic research in a particular community. Fieldwork can provide a firsthand understanding of the culture and environment being studied.
• Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of media from the past, such as films, television programs, and advertisements, to gain insights into cultural attitudes and beliefs.

Data Analysis Methods

• Content analysis : This involves analyzing the content of written or visual material, such as books, newspapers, or photographs, to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to identify changes in cultural values and beliefs over time.
• Textual analysis : This involves analyzing written texts, such as letters or diaries, to understand the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period. Textual analysis can provide insights into how people lived and thought in the past.
• Discourse analysis : This involves analyzing how language is used to construct meaning and power relations in a particular historical period. Discourse analysis can help to identify how social and political ideologies were constructed and maintained over time.
• Statistical analysis: This involves using statistical methods to analyze numerical data, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends. Statistical analysis can help to identify changes in population demographics, economic conditions, and other factors over time.
• Comparative analysis : This involves comparing data from two or more historical periods or events to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help to identify patterns and trends that may not be apparent from analyzing data from a single historical period.
• Qualitative analysis: This involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as oral history interviews or ethnographic field notes, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can provide a rich understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals in the past.

Historical Research Methodology

Here are the general steps involved in historical research methodology:

• Define the research question: Start by identifying a research question that you want to answer through your historical research. This question should be focused, specific, and relevant to your research goals.
• Review the literature: Conduct a review of the existing literature on the topic of your research question. This can involve reading books, articles, and academic papers to gain a thorough understanding of the existing research.
• Develop a research design : Develop a research design that outlines the methods you will use to collect and analyze data. This design should be based on the research question and should be feasible given the resources and time available.
• Collect data: Use the methods outlined in your research design to collect data on past events, people, and cultures. This can involve archival research, oral history interviews, artifact analysis, and other data collection methods.
• Analyze data : Analyze the data you have collected using the methods outlined in your research design. This can involve content analysis, textual analysis, statistical analysis, and other data analysis methods.
• Interpret findings : Use the results of your data analysis to draw meaningful insights and conclusions related to your research question. These insights should be grounded in the data and should be relevant to the research goals.
• Communicate results: Communicate your findings through a research report, academic paper, or other means. This should be done in a clear, concise, and well-organized manner, with appropriate citations and references to the literature.

Applications of Historical Research

Historical research has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

• Education : Historical research can be used to develop curriculum materials that reflect a more accurate and inclusive representation of history. It can also be used to provide students with a deeper understanding of past events and cultures.
• Museums : Historical research is used to develop exhibits, programs, and other materials for museums. It can provide a more accurate and engaging presentation of historical events and artifacts.
• Public policy : Historical research is used to inform public policy decisions by providing insights into the historical context of current issues. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of past policies and programs.
• Business : Historical research can be used by businesses to understand the evolution of their industry and to identify trends that may affect their future success. It can also be used to develop marketing strategies that resonate with customers’ historical interests and values.
• Law : Historical research is used in legal proceedings to provide evidence and context for cases involving historical events or practices. It can also be used to inform the development of new laws and policies.
• Genealogy : Historical research can be used by individuals to trace their family history and to understand their ancestral roots.
• Cultural preservation : Historical research is used to preserve cultural heritage by documenting and interpreting past events, practices, and traditions. It can also be used to identify and preserve historical landmarks and artifacts.

Examples of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research are as follows:

• Examining the history of race relations in the United States: Historical research could be used to explore the historical roots of racial inequality and injustice in the United States. This could help inform current efforts to address systemic racism and promote social justice.
• Tracing the evolution of political ideologies: Historical research could be used to study the development of political ideologies over time. This could help to contextualize current political debates and provide insights into the origins and evolution of political beliefs and values.
• Analyzing the impact of technology on society : Historical research could be used to explore the impact of technology on society over time. This could include examining the impact of previous technological revolutions (such as the industrial revolution) on society, as well as studying the current impact of emerging technologies on society and the environment.
• Documenting the history of marginalized communities : Historical research could be used to document the history of marginalized communities (such as LGBTQ+ communities or indigenous communities). This could help to preserve cultural heritage, promote social justice, and promote a more inclusive understanding of history.

Purpose of Historical Research

The purpose of historical research is to study the past in order to gain a better understanding of the present and to inform future decision-making. Some specific purposes of historical research include:

• To understand the origins of current events, practices, and institutions : Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• To develop a more accurate and inclusive understanding of history : Historical research can be used to correct inaccuracies and biases in historical narratives. By exploring different perspectives and sources of information, we can develop a more complete and nuanced understanding of history.
• To inform decision-making: Historical research can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, including education, public policy, business, and law. By understanding the historical context of current issues, we can make more informed decisions about how to address them.
• To preserve cultural heritage : Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage, including traditions, practices, and artifacts. By understanding the historical significance of these cultural elements, we can work to preserve them for future generations.
• To stimulate curiosity and critical thinking: Historical research can be used to stimulate curiosity and critical thinking about the past. By exploring different historical perspectives and interpretations, we can develop a more critical and reflective approach to understanding history and its relevance to the present.

When to use Historical Research

Historical research can be useful in a variety of contexts. Here are some examples of when historical research might be particularly appropriate:

• When examining the historical roots of current events: Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• When examining the historical context of a particular topic : Historical research can be used to explore the historical context of a particular topic, such as a social issue, political debate, or scientific development. By understanding the historical context, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the topic and its significance.
• When exploring the evolution of a particular field or discipline : Historical research can be used to explore the evolution of a particular field or discipline, such as medicine, law, or art. By understanding the historical development of the field, we can gain a better understanding of its current state and future directions.
• When examining the impact of past events on current society : Historical research can be used to examine the impact of past events (such as wars, revolutions, or social movements) on current society. By understanding the historical context and impact of these events, we can gain insights into current social and political issues.
• When studying the cultural heritage of a particular community or group : Historical research can be used to document and preserve the cultural heritage of a particular community or group. By understanding the historical significance of cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts, we can work to preserve them for future generations.

Characteristics of Historical Research

The following are some characteristics of historical research:

• Focus on the past : Historical research focuses on events, people, and phenomena of the past. It seeks to understand how things developed over time and how they relate to current events.
• Reliance on primary sources: Historical research relies on primary sources such as letters, diaries, newspapers, government documents, and other artifacts from the period being studied. These sources provide firsthand accounts of events and can help researchers gain a more accurate understanding of the past.
• Interpretation of data : Historical research involves interpretation of data from primary sources. Researchers analyze and interpret data to draw conclusions about the past.
• Use of multiple sources: Historical research often involves using multiple sources of data to gain a more complete understanding of the past. By examining a range of sources, researchers can cross-reference information and validate their findings.
• Importance of context: Historical research emphasizes the importance of context. Researchers analyze the historical context in which events occurred and consider how that context influenced people’s actions and decisions.
• Subjectivity : Historical research is inherently subjective, as researchers interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own perspectives and biases. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis.
• Importance of historical significance: Historical research emphasizes the importance of historical significance. Researchers consider the historical significance of events, people, and phenomena and their impact on the present and future.
• Use of qualitative methods : Historical research often uses qualitative methods such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis to analyze data and draw conclusions about the past.

Advantages of Historical Research

There are several advantages to historical research:

• Provides a deeper understanding of the past : Historical research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of past events and how they have shaped current social, political, and economic conditions. This can help individuals and organizations make informed decisions about the future.
• Helps preserve cultural heritage: Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage. By studying the history of a particular culture, researchers can gain insights into the cultural practices and beliefs that have shaped that culture over time.
• Provides insights into long-term trends : Historical research can provide insights into long-term trends and patterns. By studying historical data over time, researchers can identify patterns and trends that may be difficult to discern from short-term data.
• Facilitates the development of hypotheses: Historical research can facilitate the development of hypotheses about how past events have influenced current conditions. These hypotheses can be tested using other research methods, such as experiments or surveys.
• Helps identify root causes of social problems : Historical research can help identify the root causes of social problems. By studying the historical context in which these problems developed, researchers can gain a better understanding of how they emerged and what factors may have contributed to their development.
• Provides a source of inspiration: Historical research can provide a source of inspiration for individuals and organizations seeking to address current social, political, and economic challenges. By studying the accomplishments and struggles of past generations, researchers can gain insights into how to address current challenges.

Limitations of Historical Research

Some Limitations of Historical Research are as follows:

• Reliance on incomplete or biased data: Historical research is often limited by the availability and quality of data. Many primary sources have been lost, destroyed, or are inaccessible, making it difficult to get a complete picture of historical events. Additionally, some primary sources may be biased or represent only one perspective on an event.
• Difficulty in generalizing findings: Historical research is often specific to a particular time and place and may not be easily generalized to other contexts. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions about human behavior or social phenomena.
• Lack of control over variables : Historical research often lacks control over variables. Researchers cannot manipulate or control historical events, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Subjectivity of interpretation : Historical research is often subjective because researchers must interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own biases and perspectives. Different researchers may interpret the same data differently, leading to different conclusions.
• Limited ability to test hypotheses: Historical research is often limited in its ability to test hypotheses. Because the events being studied have already occurred, researchers cannot manipulate variables or conduct experiments to test their hypotheses.
• Lack of objectivity: Historical research is often subjective, and researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis. However, it can be difficult to maintain objectivity when studying events that are emotionally charged or controversial.
• Limited generalizability: Historical research is often limited in its generalizability, as the events and conditions being studied may be specific to a particular time and place. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions that apply to other contexts or time periods.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Historical Research – A Guide Based on its Uses & Steps

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 16th, 2021 , Revised On August 29, 2023

History is a study of past incidents, and it’s different from natural science. In natural science, researchers prefer direct observations. Whereas in historical research, a researcher collects, analyses the information to understand, describe, and explain the events that occurred in the past.

They aim to test the truthfulness of the observations made by others. Historical researchers try to find out what happened exactly during a certain period of time as accurately and as closely as possible. It does not allow any manipulation or control of  variables .

When to Use the Historical Research Method?

You can use historical research method to:

• Uncover the unknown fact.
• Answer questions
• Identify the association between the past and present.
• Understand the culture based on past experiences..
• Record and evaluate the contributions of individuals, organisations, and institutes.

How to Conduct Historical Research?

Historical research involves the following steps:

• Select the Research Topic
• Collect the Data
• Analyse the Data
• Criticism of Data
• Present your Findings

Tips to Collect Data

Step 1 – select the research topic.

If you want to conduct historical research, it’s essential to select a research topic before beginning your research. You can follow these tips while choosing a topic and  developing a research question .

• Consider your previous study as your previous knowledge and data can make your research enjoyable and comfortable for you.
• List your interests and focus on the current events to find a promising question.
• Take notes of regular activities and consider your personal experiences on a specific topic.
• Develop a question using your research topic.
• Explore your research question by asking yourself when? Why? How

Step 2- Collect the Data

It is essential to collect data and facts about the research question to get reliable outcomes. You need to select an appropriate instrument for  data collection . Historical research includes two sources of data collection, such as primary and secondary sources.

Primary Sources

Primary sources  are the original first-hand resources such as documents, oral or written records, witnesses to a fact, etc. These are of two types, such as:

Conscious Information : It’s a type of information recorded and restored consciously in the form of written, oral documents, or the actual witnesses of the incident that occurred in the past.

It includes the following sources:

Unconscious information : It’s a type of information restored in the form of remains or relics.

It includes information in the following forms:

Secondary Sources

Sometimes it’s impossible to access primary sources, and researchers rely on secondary sources to obtain information for their research. 

It includes:

• Publications
• Periodicals
• Encyclopedia

Step 3 – Analyse the Data

After collecting the information, you need to analyse it. You can use data analysis methods  like 

• Thematic analysis
• Coding system
• Theoretical model ( Researchers use multiple theories to explain a specific phenomenon, situations, and behavior types.)
• Quantitative data to validate

Step 4 – Criticism of Data

Data criticism is a process used for identifying the validity and reliability of the collected data. It’s of two types such as:

External Criticism :

It aims at identifying the external features of the data such as signature, handwriting, language, nature, spelling, etc., of the documents. It also involves the physical and chemical tests of paper, paint, ink, metal cloth, or any collected object.

Internal Criticism :

It aims at identifying the meaning and reliability of the data. It focuses on the errors, printing, translation, omission, additions in the documents. The researchers should use both external and internal criticism to ensure the validity of the data.

Step 5 – Present your Findings

While presenting the  findings of your research , you need to ensure that you have met the objectives of your research or not. Historical material can be organised based on the theme and topic, and it’s known as thematic and topical arrangement. You can follow these tips while writing your research paper :

Build Arguments and Narrative

Your research aims not just to collect information as these are the raw materials of research. You need to build a strong argument and narrate the details of past events or incidents based on your findings. 

Organise your Argument

You can review the literature and other researchers’ contributions to the topic you’ve chosen to enhance your thinking and argument.

Proofread, Revise and Edit

After putting your findings on a paper, you need to proofread it to weed out the errors, rewrite it to improve, and edit it thoroughly before submitting it.

Are you looking for professional research writing services?

We hear you.

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In this world of technology, many people rely on Google to find out any information. All you have to do is enter a few keywords and sit back. You’ll find several relevant results onscreen.

It’s an effective and quick way of gathering information. Sometimes historical documents are not accessible to everyone online, and you need to visit traditional libraries to find out historical treasures. It will help you explore your knowledge along with data collection. 

You can visit historical places, conduct interviews, review literature, and access  primary and secondary  data sources such as books, newspapers, publications, documents, etc. You can take notes while collecting the information as it helps to organise the data accurately.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the initial steps to perform historical research.

Initial steps for historical research:

• Define research scope and period.
• Gather background knowledge.
• Identify primary and secondary sources.
• Develop research questions.
• Plan research approach.
• Begin data collection and analysis.

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HIS 401: Historical Research and Writing: Research Process

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The Research Process

There is no single approach that is used in conducting historical research although there is a general set of steps that are typically followed. These include the following steps although there is some overlap and movement back and forth between the steps.

Step 1: Identify an idea, topic or research question

This is the first step in any type of academic research. 

Ideas for historical research topics can come from many different sources, such as the accomplishments of an individual, a political policy, or the relationship between events. 

Step 2: Conduct a background literature review

This step involves identifying, locating, and collecting information pertaining to the research topic. 

The goal of this step is to compile background and starting information so you can evaluate the validity and strength of your topic. When conducting background information, you are looking to broaden the breadth of knowledge pertaining to your topic. You will dig deeper for more in-depth information and research later in process. 

Step 3: Refine the research idea and questions

Here is where you identify what works and what doesn't with your original topic and idea.

The first attempt at creating your final topic should not be your last. Once your preliminary research is completed, you will begin to see the areas where your topic will not cover and where you expand your topic out further. Refine the scope of your topic to create the strongest topic possible for your research needs. 

Step 4: Identify and locate primary and secondary data sources

In step two, you conducted background research. Now, it is time to dig deeper into your topic, locating sources to use in your historical writing. 

Information sources are often contained in documents such as diaries or newspapers, records, photographs, and interviews with individuals who have had experience with or knowledge of the research topic. These sources are broken into two types: Primary and Secondary sources.

Primary Sources: a source that has a direct involvement with the event. Examples include diaries, original maps, news coverage, etc. 

Secondary Sources: a source that was created from a primary source. Examples include a book written about the event or a review after the fact. 

Step 5: Evaluate the authenticity and accuracy of source materials

Not all sources and information are created equal. When compiling and conducting your research, you will need to evaluate all materials. There are two types of evaluations that all sources must pass. 

External Criticism: the process of determining the validity, trustworthiness, and authenticity of the source. Here you will look at the author and where the information came from. 

Internal Criticism: the process of determining the reliability and accuracy of the information contained in the source. Here you are looking at the information itself. Ask: Are the statements made easily understood? Is there a vagueness or uncertainty in the meaning of the words used within the source? Are there assumptions tied to the world today that are made (placing current ideas and concepts into past events in a way that is not correct)? Is the person giving the primary information reliable or do they have a bias and agenda? 

Step 6: Analyze the data and develop a narrative exposition of the findings.

This step refers to synthesizing, or putting the material collected into a narrative account of the topic selected.

Synthesis refers to selecting, organizing, and analyzing the materials collected into topical themes and central ideas or concepts. These themes are then pulled together to form a contiguous and meaningful whole. 

Books on Historical Research and Writing

Writing History

Author: William Kelleher Storey Call Number: Main Collection D16 .S864 2016 Publication Date: 2015

Stylish Academic Writing

Author: Helen Sword Call Number: eBook Publication Date: 2012

Going to the Sources

Author: Anthony Brundage Call Number: eBook Publication Date: 2017

Doing Oral History

Author:  Donald A. Ritchie Call Number: eBook Publication Date: 2014

Past, Present and Personal

Author: William C. Kashatus Call Number: eBook Publication Date: 2002

Historians in Trouble

Author: Jon Wiener Call Number: Main Collection E175.45 .W54 2005 Publication Date: 2004

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Presentation Guidelines

GOAL: The point of your talk is to share your research paper’s thesis and your arguments in support of it. Obviously, you cannot discuss everything that your paper covers – just as you cannot discuss everything in your paper that your research uncovers.

THE CRITERIA FOR THE PRESENTATION:

• clarity of thesis
• organization and development of the argument
• introduction, argument’s main points, and conclusion
• historical detail and accuracy
• delivery (eye contact, posture, movements, voice, pronunciation, grammar)
• adherence to the time limit

THE INTRODUCTION:

• The presentation must have a clear introduction that explains what your talk will be about. It should make clear how your talk will be organized and your main points.
• It is almost impossible for an introduction to be too explicit in its explanation of your topic, thesis, and organization. Do not be afraid to list, for instance, the four main points of your argument.

THE BODY OF THE PRESENTATION:

• The supporting arguments for the thesis presented in your introduction must be clearly organized and carefully and explicitly (if briefly) explained.
• Assume that your audience is smart, but completely unfamiliar with your topic. Remember that your listeners cannot “reread” your talk in order to understand parts that you do not make clear.
• The audience has only your quickly passing spoken words to help understand your presentation, so your organization and your explanations must be more explicit than in your paper and must use organization and content appropriate to a talk, not to a paper.
• For example, explain in your introduction that you will discuss four points; list them. As you reach each during your talk, announce that you are now on point one. “Too obvious” is not a phrase often associated with oral presentations.

THE CONCLUSION:

• You should reiterate the key points of your presentation.
• You should discuss the direction that future research should take.
• You should come up with a clear, structured ending.

VISUAL AIDS:

Do not forget that what is clear and simple to you will likely be complex and confusing to your audience; your audience may benefit from a visual aid.

Use visual aids or handouts to illustrate your points—or perhaps use the blackboard, either at the outset for reference or during the talk for explanation/emphasis.  [This visual aid could just be a map, chronology, picture or photograph of the person/topic/event being studied.]  Bear in mind, however, these points:

• Make sure all aids looked “professional.”  Sloppy, marginally relevant, materials are worse than none at all.
• If handouts (or other visual aids) are not brief and easy to read, your audience will be reading rather than listening.
• Never use a visual aid without telling listeners when to refer to it (e.g., “As you can see on the handout” and “As the diagram on the board demonstrates”). A quick nod in the direction of the board or at a handout is not sufficient.
• If you do use PowerPoint, remember that it should augment your presentation, not BE the presentation.
• Do a practice run in the room with the computer ahead of time.
• Bring the presentation on multiple formats (CD-ROM, USB Flash Key, email attachment).

OTHER SUGGESTIONS:

• Do not write out your presentation verbatim. You should use carefully constructed note cards. Many professors will require you to turn the note cards in immediately after your talk.
• It is important that your graded presentation is NOT the first time you deliver your talk before an audience. Receive advice and encouragement–as well as a taste of standing before an audience–before you speak for a grade. Adjust your presentation according to the advice you receive about clarity, organization, mannerisms, etc. Practice also to make sure you are taking full advantage of your allotted time, that you do not run over, and that time signals do not fluster you.
• If the classroom is available–as it usually is on weekends and most evenings–use it for practice sessions.
• You should take advantage of the various resources that the  Speaking Center  can provide.
• Be reasonable about nervousness; everyone has “butterflies” when they address a group.
• You will feel more nervous that you look.
• Remember that you have an understanding audience, one that is going through the same things you are.
• Also remember that this assignment is a learning exercise; you are NOT expected to be flawless; you are expected to be new at this process. In other words, this presentation is no different from your graded written assignments. It is a learning exercise to help you do better in future presentations.

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The Princeton Guide to Historical Research

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• Language: English
• Publisher: Princeton University Press
• Copyright year: 2021
• Audience: College/higher education;Professional and scholarly;General/trade;
• Main content: 440
• Other: 2 b/w illus. 1 table.
• Keywords: Newspaper ; Primary source ; Writing ; Narrative ; Oral history ; Technology ; Publication ; Public history ; Secondary source ; Americans ; Storytelling ; Archivist ; Slavery ; Finding ; Scientist ; World War II ; Paragraph ; Archive ; Headline ; African Americans ; Textbook ; Deed ; The Other Hand ; Note-taking ; Illustration ; Bibliography ; Literature ; Historiography ; Institution ; Thucydides ; Blog ; Website ; Archaeology ; Politics ; Word processor ; Politician ; Database ; Historical figure ; Ideology ; Manuscript ; Instance (computer science) ; Writer ; Military history ; Tax ; Popular history ; Career ; Memoir ; Result ; The Newspaper ; Topic sentence ; Critical reading ; Thesis statement ; Google Books ; Reference Manager ; Laurel Thatcher Ulrich ; Racism ; Big History ; Librarian ; Monograph ; Autobiography ; Edition (book) ; Eugenics ; Classroom ; Advertising ; Periodization ; Pamphlet ; Exploration ; Biography ; Local history ; Adviser
• Published: April 27, 2021
• ISBN: 9780691215488

Historical Research Method: Home

What is historical research.

Historical research  or historiography , "attempts to systematically recapture the complex nuances, the people,meanings,events,and even ideas of the past that have influenced and shaped the present". (Berg & Lure, 2012, p. 305 )

Historical research relies on a wide variety of sources, both primary & secondary including unpublished material. 

Primary Sources

• Eyewitness accounts of events
• Can be oral or written testimony
• Found in public records & legal documents, minutes of meetings, corporate records, recordings, letters, diaries, journals, drawings.
• Located in university archives, libraries or privately run collections such as local historical society.

Secondary Sources

• Can be oral or written
• Secondhand accounts of events
• Found in textbooks, encyclopedias, journal articles, newspapers, biographies and other media such as films or tape recordings.

Steps in Historical Research

Historical research involves the following steps:

• Identify an idea, topic or research question
• Conduct a background literature review
• Refine the research idea and questions
• Determine that historical methods will be the method used
• Identify and locate primary and secondary data sources
• Evaluate the authenticity and accuracy of source materials
• Analyze the date and develop a narrative exposition of the findings.

(Berg & Lune, 2012, p.311)

Locating Information: Libraries

In addition to raw data and unpublished manuscripts, libraries also hold back copies of journals and newspapers.

• Western Australia
• ECU Library
• Curtin University
• Murdoch University
• Notre Dame University
• State Library of W.A.
• Trove Books, images, historic newspapers, maps, music, archives and more
• WorldCat Can limit to archival and downloadable

Locating information - Archives

• National Archives of Australia
• UK Government Web Archive
• National Archives (U.S.)
• Nursing History: Historical Methodology Produced by the AAHN

Key Sources

• Pandora PANDORA, Australia's Web Archive was established by the National Library in 1996 and is a collection of historic online publications relating to Australia and Australians. Online publications and web sites are selected for inclusion in the collection with the purpose of providing long-term and persistent access to them.
• Directory of Archives in Australia
• RSL Living History The Listening Post is the official organ of the RSL in Western Australia and was first published in December 1921. The first two decades of the Listening Post, are now available online for viewing with more scheduled releases throughout the year.
• Internet Archive Digital library of Internet sites and other cultural artifacts in digital form. Free access to researchers, historians, scholars, and the general public.
• Repositories of primary sources
• The national union catalog of manuscript collections (United States)
• National Technical Information Service (U.S.) Provides access to a large collection of historical and current government technical reports that exists in many academic, public, government, and corporate libraries.
• A history of nursing Four vols available online
• British Journal of Nursing The journal contains a wide range of information about hospitals, wards, staff, patients, illness and diseases, medicine and treatments, hospital equipment and events.
• Directory of history of medicine colections U.S. National Library of medicine. National Institutes of Health
• The Australian Nursing and Midwifery History Project
• Nursing Studies Index An annotated guide to reported studies, research methods, and historical and biographical materials in periodicals, books, and pamphlets published in English. Prepared by Yale University.
• Early experieneces in Australasia: Primary sources and personal nattatives, 1788-1901 Provides a unique and personal view of events in the region from the arrival of the first settlers through to Australian Federation at the close of the nineteenth century. Includes first-person accounts, including letters and diaries, narratives, and other primary source materials.

Locating Information: Museums

• Alfred Archives Alfred Hospital, Melbourne
• Florence Nightingale Museum (U.K.) London
• London Museums of Health & Medicine
• National Museum Australia. Research Centre National Museum Australia
• Nursing Museum Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital
• Virtual Museum South Australian Medical Heritage Society
• W.A. Medical Museum Harvey House, King Edward Memorial Hospital

Locating Information: Historical Societies

• Directory of Australian Historical Societies at Society hill Extensive list of historical societies throughout Australia
• Royal Australian Historical Society Sydney
• Royal Western Australian Historical Society

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• Researching

The historical research process explained

Researching for a History assessment piece can often be the most daunting part of the subject. However, it needn't be. Research is a systematic process that, if followed step-by-step, will become a logical and efficient part of your work. Below are links to the nine stages of good research, providing explanations and examples for each one.

• Key Inquiry Question
• Background Research
• Sub-questions
• Source Research
• Organise Quotes
• Topic Sentences
• Draft Writing
• Final Draft

Other potential research stages:

• Research Rationale
• Critical Summary of Research

Overview of the research process

Below is a pictorial explanation about how the research process works to create a hypothesis from the results of question-driven research. As you follow the research steps, each section of the diagram is completed. 

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• Research Guides
• Introduction to Historical Research
• Primary Sources

Introduction to Historical Research : Primary Sources

• Archival sources
• Multimedia sources
• Newspapers and other periodicals
• Biographical Information
• Government documents

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What are Primary Sources?

Primary sources were either created during the time period being researched or were created at a later date by a participant in the events being examined (as in the case of memoirs).  They often reflect the individual viewpoint of a participant or observer.  Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to what actually happened during an historical event or time period and can serve as evidence in making an historical argument.

Examples include:

    Artifacts

•  Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)
•  Diaries
•  Interviews (e.g., oral histories, telephone, e-mail)
•  Journal articles published in peer-reviewed publications
•  Letters
•  Newspaper articles written at the time
•  Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate, will, marriage license, trial transcript)
•  Patents
•  Photographs
•  Proceedings of Meetings, conferences and symposia
•  Records of organizations, government agencies
•  Speeches
•  Survey Research (e.g., market surveys, public opinion polls)
•  Video recordings (e.g. television programs)
•  Works of art, architecture, literature, and music
•  Web sites
• How to read a primary source
• Why Study History Through Primary Sources?
• Using Historical Sources
• Primary Sources Research guide

Primary Source Databases

Below are sample library subscription databases with digitized primary sources. More can be found on the Historical/Primary Sources page.

• American West Contains manuscript materials, broadsides, maps, and printed items documenting the history of the American West from the 18th century to the early 20th century.
• Black Abolitionist Papers, 1830–1863 15,000 articles and documents written by Black abolitionists during the antebellum period in the United States, Canada, and Europe. The contents include correspondence, speeches, sermons, lectures by African-American leaders; articles and essays published in African-American, abolitionist, and reform newspapers; and related documents.
• British and Irish Women's Letters and Diaries 1500 - 1950 A vast collection of British and Irish women's diaries and correspondence, spanning more than 300 years, it brings the personal experiences of nearly 500 women.
• Caribbean Views Caribbean Views draws from the British Library's collection of maps, manuscripts, printed books and newspapers relating to the British West Indies to conjure up a vivid picture of life in the English-speaking Caribbean during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The Library's holdings of material relating to the English slave trade and slavery are particularly strong.
• Defining Gender 50,000 images of original documents from five centuries of advice literature and related material, from diaries, advice and conduct books, as well as articles from medical and other journals, ballads, cartoons, and pamphlets, all from Europe. Much of the material is British in origin.
• Early American Imprints, Series I. Evans (1639-1800) The Evans collection is a definitive resource for all aspects of American life in the 17th and 18th centuries. Based on the renowned American Bibliography by Charles Evans and Roger Bristol's Supplement to Evans' American Bibliography. With these bibliographies, Evans and Bristol attempted to identify all works published in America through 1800.
• Early Encounters in North America--Peoples, Cultures and the Environment Contains 1,482 authors and over 100,000 pages of letters, diaries, memoirs and accounts of early encounters.
• Early English Books Online Early English Books Online (EEBO) provides full-text images of almost all the books printed in England and her colonies from the beginning of printing to 1700 (about 125,000 titles). more... less... You can search for books on your topic by author, title,and keyword, or search just for illustrations from these books if you wish. EEBO includes the items listed in Pollard & Redgrave's Short-Title Catalogue (1475-1640), Wing's Short-Title Catalogue (1641-1700), the Thomason Tracts (1640-1661), and additional supplementary materials. Gradually, searchable electronic text versions of a selection of these books are being added to the project. These searchable texts are called: EEBO-TCP, the Early English Books Online Text Creation Project. Eventually both EEBO and EEBO-TCP will be combined into one database. For now, in addition to using using Early English Books Online (EEBO), check EEBO-TCP if you want to do want to do keyword searching within an individual work.
• Eighteenth Century Collections Online An online library of over 180,000 titles published between 1701 and 1800, and printed in English-speaking countries, or countries under British colonial rule. Includes books, pamphlets, essays, broadsides and more. more... less... The majority of works in ECCO are in the English language but there are also works printed in Dutch, French, German, Italian, Latin, Spanish and Welsh. Based on the English Short Title Catalogue Works published in the UK during the 18th century plus thousands from elsewhere
• Electronic Enlightenment Contains correspondence between the greatest thinkers and writers of the eighteenth century and their families and friends, bankers and booksellers, patrons and publishers. It is an aggregation of 53,000 primary source letters from more than 6,000 writers and numerous presses. more... less... An ongoing scholarly research project of the University of Oxford and other universities and organizations, Electronic Enlightenment offers access to the web of correspondence between the greatest thinkers and writers of the eighteenth century and their families and friends, bankers and booksellers, patrons and publishers. EE is an aggregation of 53,000 primary source letters from more than 6,000 writers and numerous presses. Readers can explore writer's views on history, literature, language, arts, philosophy, science, medicine, and personal, social and political relations.
• Everyday Life and Women in America c.1800–1920 Hundreds of monographs illuminating all aspects of family life. Also includes periodicals and pamphlets. more... less... Fully-searchable access to 75 rare periodicals ranging from Echoes of the South (Florida) and the Household Magazine (North Carolina) to Lucifer the Lightbearer (Chicago), The Heathen Woman's Friend (Boston) and Women's Work (Georgia). * A rich collection of rare pamphlets. * Hundreds of monographs illuminating all aspects of family life all of which have been screened against Gerritsen, Shaw-Shoemaker, and other relevant projects to avoid needless duplication. * Insightful contextual essays by leading scholars that will help to point students at valuable resources. * Strong coverage of prescriptive literature and manuals for domestic management telling us much about the organisation of the home.
• Gerritsen Collection: Women's History Online The Gerritsen Collection includes books and periodicals from around the world which document the condition of women, the evolution of feminist consciousness, and women's rights. more... less... The Gerritsen Collection includes books and periodicals from around the world which document the condition of women, the evolution of feminist consciousness, and women's rights. More than 4,000 books and 265 periodicals in the collection are primarily in English with German, French, and Dutch-language materials strongly represented. Other languages included are Italian, Spanish, Latin, Greek, Slavic, and Scandinavian.
• Library of Latin Texts Contains 3,200 works that are attributed to approximately 950 authors. more... less... The texts which are incorporated are selected by virtue of their having been edited according to best contemporary scholarly practice. Independent research is undertaken to verify facts relating to the text, such as the veracity of the authorial attribution or the dating.
• Nineteenth Century Collections Online Nineteenth Century Collections Online unites multiple, distinct archives into a single resource, including a wide variety of previously unavailable primary sources ranging from books and monographs, newspapers and periodicals, diaries and personal letters, manuscripts, photographs, pamphlets, and maps. more... less... Initial archival modules include: British Politics and Society; European Literature, 1790-1840: The Corvey Collection; Asia and the West: Diplomacy and Cultural Exchange; and British Theatre, Music, and Literature: High and Popular Culture.
• North American Immigrant Letters, Diaries and Oral Histories Provides a unique and personal view of what it meant to immigrate to America and Canada between 1800 and 1950. Composed of contemporaneous letters and diaries, oral histories, interviews, and other personal narratives. more... less... In selected cases, users will be able to hear the actual audio voices of the immigrants. The collection will be particularly useful to researchers, because much of the original material is difficult to find, poorly indexed, and unpublished; most bibliographies of the immigrant focus on secondary research; and few oral histories have been published.
• North American Women's Letters and Diaries (Colonial to 1950) Provides a collection of published and unpublished women's diaries and correspondence, drawn from more than 1,000 sources, including journal articles, pamphlets, newsletters, monographs, and conference proceedings.
• Oxford African American Studies Center Over 1,000 images, primary sources with specially written commentaries, and over 100 maps have been collected to enhance this reference content related to the African American experience.
• Past Masters Provides access to searchable full text databases of primary works, letters, journals, and notebooks from important philosophers and women writers. All titles are in the English language, either original as written or in translation.
• Sixties The Sixties: Primary Documents and Personal Narratives, 1960 to 1974 documents the key events, trends, and movements in 1960s America. more... less... The Sixties: Primary Documents and Personal Narratives, 1960 to 1974 documents the key events, trends, and movements in 1960s America vividly conveying the zeitgeist of the decade and its effects into the middle of the next. Alongside 70,000 pages of letters, diaries, and oral histories, there are more than 30,000 pages of posters, broadsides, pamphlets, advertisements, and rare audio and video materials. The collection is further enhanced by dozens of scholarly document projects, featuring richly annotated primary-source content that is analyzed and contextualized through interpretive essays by leading historians.
• Twentieth Century Advice Literature This collection includes how-to books and guides; employee manuals, sorority and fraternity pledge manuals; scouting manuals; textbooks; commercial literature; and government manuals. more... less... Twentieth Century Advice Literature focuses on gender roles and relations, American consumerism, views of democratic citizenship, character development for children, changes in reaction to each major war (including World Wars I and II, Korea, and Vietnam), class relations, and adjustments to new technology (such as proper manners when using the telephone, point-and-shoot camera, or e-mail). Included are how-to books and guides; employee manuals, sorority and fraternity pledge manuals; scouting manuals; textbooks that deal with home economics, health and hygiene, and sex education; teacher-training and course manuals; commercial literature that promotes specific behaviors; and government instruction manuals for a variety of workplaces and industries.
• Women and Social Movements in the United States Document projects that interpret and present materials, many of which are not otherwise available online, in U.S. history and U.S. women's history.

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Neag School of Education

Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle

Historical research.

 Del Siegle, Ph.D. University of Connecticut [email protected] www.delsiegle.info

updated 2/01/2024

Princeton Correspondents on Undergraduate Research

How to Make a Successful Research Presentation

Turning a research paper into a visual presentation is difficult; there are pitfalls, and navigating the path to a brief, informative presentation takes time and practice. As a TA for  GEO/WRI 201: Methods in Data Analysis & Scientific Writing this past fall, I saw how this process works from an instructor’s standpoint. I’ve presented my own research before, but helping others present theirs taught me a bit more about the process. Here are some tips I learned that may help you with your next research presentation:

More is more

In general, your presentation will always benefit from more practice, more feedback, and more revision. By practicing in front of friends, you can get comfortable with presenting your work while receiving feedback. It is hard to know how to revise your presentation if you never practice. If you are presenting to a general audience, getting feedback from someone outside of your discipline is crucial. Terms and ideas that seem intuitive to you may be completely foreign to someone else, and your well-crafted presentation could fall flat.

Less is more

Limit the scope of your presentation, the number of slides, and the text on each slide. In my experience, text works well for organizing slides, orienting the audience to key terms, and annotating important figures–not for explaining complex ideas. Having fewer slides is usually better as well. In general, about one slide per minute of presentation is an appropriate budget. Too many slides is usually a sign that your topic is too broad.

Limit the scope of your presentation

Don’t present your paper. Presentations are usually around 10 min long. You will not have time to explain all of the research you did in a semester (or a year!) in such a short span of time. Instead, focus on the highlight(s). Identify a single compelling research question which your work addressed, and craft a succinct but complete narrative around it.

You will not have time to explain all of the research you did. Instead, focus on the highlights. Identify a single compelling research question which your work addressed, and craft a succinct but complete narrative around it.

Craft a compelling research narrative

After identifying the focused research question, walk your audience through your research as if it were a story. Presentations with strong narrative arcs are clear, captivating, and compelling.

• Introduction (exposition — rising action)

Orient the audience and draw them in by demonstrating the relevance and importance of your research story with strong global motive. Provide them with the necessary vocabulary and background knowledge to understand the plot of your story. Introduce the key studies (characters) relevant in your story and build tension and conflict with scholarly and data motive. By the end of your introduction, your audience should clearly understand your research question and be dying to know how you resolve the tension built through motive.

• Methods (rising action)

The methods section should transition smoothly and logically from the introduction. Beware of presenting your methods in a boring, arc-killing, ‘this is what I did.’ Focus on the details that set your story apart from the stories other people have already told. Keep the audience interested by clearly motivating your decisions based on your original research question or the tension built in your introduction.

• Results (climax)

Less is usually more here. Only present results which are clearly related to the focused research question you are presenting. Make sure you explain the results clearly so that your audience understands what your research found. This is the peak of tension in your narrative arc, so don’t undercut it by quickly clicking through to your discussion.

• Discussion (falling action)

By now your audience should be dying for a satisfying resolution. Here is where you contextualize your results and begin resolving the tension between past research. Be thorough. If you have too many conflicts left unresolved, or you don’t have enough time to present all of the resolutions, you probably need to further narrow the scope of your presentation.

• Conclusion (denouement)

Return back to your initial research question and motive, resolving any final conflicts and tying up loose ends. Leave the audience with a clear resolution of your focus research question, and use unresolved tension to set up potential sequels (i.e. further research).

Use your medium to enhance the narrative

Visual presentations should be dominated by clear, intentional graphics. Subtle animation in key moments (usually during the results or discussion) can add drama to the narrative arc and make conflict resolutions more satisfying. You are narrating a story written in images, videos, cartoons, and graphs. While your paper is mostly text, with graphics to highlight crucial points, your slides should be the opposite. Adapting to the new medium may require you to create or acquire far more graphics than you included in your paper, but it is necessary to create an engaging presentation.

The most important thing you can do for your presentation is to practice and revise. Bother your friends, your roommates, TAs–anybody who will sit down and listen to your work. Beyond that, think about presentations you have found compelling and try to incorporate some of those elements into your own. Remember you want your work to be comprehensible; you aren’t creating experts in 10 minutes. Above all, try to stay passionate about what you did and why. You put the time in, so show your audience that it’s worth it.

For more insight into research presentations, check out these past PCUR posts written by Emma and Ellie .

— Alec Getraer, Natural Sciences Correspondent

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• UOW Library

Finding historical information

Starting your research, think about the broader historical context.

• Gather background information & identify your knowledge gaps
• Understand what "primary" & "secondary" sources mean
• Start with reading lists, references & footnotes
• Activity & self-assessment
• Searching collections
• Identifying historical evidence
• Finding biographies

What you can learn from this page:

• Establishing your topic within its broader historical context
• Understanding primary vs secondary sources
• Reading lists, reference lists and footnotes are helpful starting points

When you want to research a topic from the past, it's important to place that topic within its broader historical context.

Think about:

• related events
• political issues
• societal issues

This helps you recognise the significance of any historical sources you might find, and interpret the source's information.

Then identify what you already know about the subject and what you need to clarify. Lastly, make sure you understand what primary and secondary sources are, where to find them  and how these terms are relative to the time period, intended usage and subject discipline.

Gather background information & identify your knowledge gaps

Start by listing any key facts and helpful points that you already know (for example people, organisations or movements, dates, events, places or main issues).

As well as listing your starting points, you should list anything you're unsure of and that you need to confirm or clarify.

You may have lots of unanswered questions at this very early stage of your research and that's OK.

• Historical overviews in Trove This curated list shows you search tips and examples of the types of historical overviews and timelines you can find from websites and books to help you get started.

Understand what "primary" & "secondary" sources mean

Primary sources.

Primary sources are records of firsthand accounts (autobiographies, documentary history books, interviews in contemporary newspapers, government reports).

Primary sources provide us with a real sense of what was happening with a person, event or specific period in time.  

Secondary sources

Secondary sources are secondhand accounts which analyse and interpret past events using primary sources (books, textbooks, journal articles).

Secondary sources provide us with historical definitions and overviews; they are usually written at a much later time after the historical event or era and draw together a range of useful comments and other relevant information.  

Recognise your sources in the appropriate context

Sometimes it can be hard to decide if something may be a primary source or not. Sometimes a secondary source can also serve as a primary source, depending on the context in which you're viewing it and wanting to use it.

For example, a well known author writes a journal article discussing a particular historical event; their article would be considered a secondary source about that historical event. Years later a biographer is researching the life of that author; in this context that same journal article would serve as a primary source example of that author's written works.

Chances are, that you're familiar with a variety of primary and secondary sources and use them in everyday life. However, locating primary sources about an academic topic can sometimes be difficult.

Primary sources are first-hand accounts of an event and are created during the time that event took place. They can also be created retrospectively at a later date by a participant in those events. They are original documents and usually don't describe or analyse other documents. They can also be creative works.

Some examples of primary sources are:

• laws and court documents
• diaries, memoirs, autobiographies and letters
• works of art
• novels and plays
• original research and data
• historical newspapers

So how can primary sources be used for research?

They can be used as a focal point of a discussion about events. They can be used to back up claims or criticisms. They can be used as evidence for series and research, and they can be used to gain historical perspectives on the topic.

Secondary sources are written by scholars and observers after the fact and interpret or analyse primary sources or events. These sources are at least one step removed from what they are describing. Some examples of secondary sources are:

• encyclopedias
• essays and reviews
• magazines or journal articles which analyze events or ideas
• books which provide a summary of events or synthesize information for many primary sources

So how are secondary sources used?

They can be used to get background information and understand the scope of a topic. They can be used to see what others have discussed or get opinions. You can use them to learn how recent events affect or fit into the larger picture and they can help you understand the significance of events, data, works of literature and art.

Let's look at an example: a primary source for a paper about the placebo effect could be data from a medical trial which is published in an academic journal. Secondary sources for this topic could include books about medication, the placebo effect and health in general, or websites which define various anxiety disorders.

One thing to keep in mind is that a source's classification as either "primary" or "secondary" can change depending on the topic that you're studying. For example, if you are writing about how the news is being represented on the internet, a news site like CNN might be considered a primary source. If you're studying news on the internet, cnn.com represents the object that you're studying.

However, if you're writing about political elections and you find an article on cnn.com that analyses them, the article will be considered a secondary source, since, in this case, you're studying the elections, an article on cnn.com is one step removed from your topic.

Remember...

For an effective research paper, try to use both primary and secondary sources that are an original source of data, historical information or creative works, as well as secondary sources which summarize, analyse or comment on ideas or events.

Start with reading lists, references & footnotes

Check your subject reading lists for details of key primary and secondary sources your lecturers may expect you to read.

Check the footnotes and bibliographies of the books and articles you're reading for background information.

Activity & self-assessment

Where and how will you look for an historical overview or background information to help you better understand your broader topic area? You may like to practice your skills with our tutorial below.

• Next: Searching collections
• Last Updated: Apr 15, 2024 3:41 PM
• URL: https://uow.libguides.com/finding-historical-information

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How to Write a History Research Paper

• How do I pick a topic?
• But I can’t find any material…

Research Guide

Writing guide.

See also: How to Write a Good History Essay

1. How do I pick a topic?

Picking a topic is perhaps the most important step in writing a research paper. To do it well requires several steps of refinement. First you have to determine a general area in which you have an interest (if you aren’t interested, your readers won’t be either). You do not write a paper “about the Civil War,” however, for that is such a large and vague concept that the paper will be too shallow or you will be swamped with information. The next step is to narrow your topic. Are you interested in comparison? battles? social change? politics? causes? biography? Once you reach this stage try to formulate your research topic as a question. For example, suppose that you decide to write a paper on the use of the films of the 1930’s and what they can tell historians about the Great Depression. You might turn that into the following question: “What are the primary values expressed in films of the 1930’s?” Or you might ask a quite different question, “What is the standard of living portrayed in films of the 1930’s?” There are other questions, of course, which you could have asked, but these two clearly illustrate how different two papers on the same general subject might be. By asking yourself a question as a means of starting research on a topic you will help yourself find the answers. You also open the door to loading the evidence one way or another. It will help you decide what kinds of evidence might be pertinent to your question, and it can also twist perceptions of a topic. For example, if you ask a question about economics as motivation, you are not likely to learn much about ideals, and vice versa.

2. But I can’t find any material…

No one should pick a topic without trying to figure out how one could discover pertinent information, nor should anyone settle on a topic before getting some background information about the general area. These two checks should make sure your paper is in the realm of the possible. The trick of good research is detective work and imaginative thinking on how one can find information. First try to figure out what kinds of things you should know about a topic to answer your research question. Are there statistics? Do you need personal letters? What background information should be included? Then if you do not know how to find that particular kind of information, ASK . A reference librarian or professor is much more likely to be able to steer you to the right sources if you can ask a specific question such as “Where can I find statistics on the number of interracial marriages?” than if you say “What can you find on racial attitudes?”

Use the footnotes and bibliographies of general background books as well as reference aids to lead you to special studies. If Carleton does not have the books or sources you need, try ordering through the library minitex. Many sources are also available on-line.

As your research paper takes shape you will find that you need background on people, places, events, etc. Do not just rely on some general survey for all of your background. Check the several good dictionaries of biography for background on people, or see if there is a standard book-length biography. If you are dealing with a legal matter check into the background of the judges who make the court decision and the circumstances surrounding the original incident or law. Try looking for public opinions in newspapers of the time. In other words, each bit of information you find should open the possibility of other research paths.

Learn to use several research techniques. You cannot count on a good research paper coming from browsing on one shelf at the library. A really pertinent book may be hidden in another section of the library due to classification quirks. The Readers’ Guide (Ref. A13 .R4) is not the only source for magazine articles, nor the card catalog for books. There are whole books which are listings of other books on particular topics. There are specialized indexes of magazine articles. Modern History Journals are indexed in the Social Studies and Humanities Index (Ref. A13 .R282) before 1976 After 1976 use the Social Sciences Index (REF A13 .S62) and the Humanities Index (Ref. A13 .H85). See also Historical Abstracts (Ref. D1 .H5). Reference Librarians would love to help you learn to use these research tools. It pays to browse in the reference room at the library and poke into the guides which are on the shelves. It also pays to browse the Internet.

3. Help! How do I put this together?

A. preliminary research:.

If you do not already have a general background on your topic, get the most recent good general source on the topic and read it for general orientation. On the basis of that reading formulate as clearly focused question as you can. You should generally discuss with your professor at that point whether your question is a feasible one.

B. Building a Basic Bibliography:

Use the bibliography/notes in your first general source, MUSE, and especially Historical Abstracts on cd-rom in the Library Reading Room (the computer farthest to the left in the front row as you walk past the Reference Desk — or ask there). If there is a specialized bibliography on your topic, you will certainly want to consult that as well, but these are often a bit dated.

C. Building a Full Bibliography:

Read the recent articles or chapters that seem to focus on your topic best. This will allow you to focus your research question quite a bit. Use the sources cited and/or discussed in this reading to build a full bibliography. Use such tools as Historical Abstracts (or, depending on your topic, the abstracts from a different field) and a large, convenient computer-based national library catalog (e.g. the University of California system from the “Libs” command in your VAX account or the smaller University of Minnesota library through MUSE) to check out your sources fully. For specific article searches “Uncover” (press returns for the “open access”) or possibly (less likely for history) “First Search” through “Connect to Other Resources” in MUSE can also be useful.

D. Major Research:

Now do the bulk of your research. But do not overdo it. Do not fall into the trap of reading and reading to avoid getting started on the writing. After you have the bulk of information you might need, start writing. You can fill in the smaller gaps of your research more effectively later.

A. Outline:

Write a preliminary thesis statement, expressing what you believe your major argument(s) will be. Sketch out a broad outline that indicates the structure — main points and subpoints or your argument as it seems at this time. Do not get too detailed at this point.

B. The First Draft:

On the basis of this thesis statement and outline, start writing, even pieces, as soon as you have enough information to start. Do not wait until you have filled all the research gaps. Keep on writing. If you run into smaller research questions just mark the text with a searchable symbol. It is important that you try to get to the end point of this writing as soon as possible, even if you leave pieces still in outline form at first and then fill the gaps after you get to the end.

Critical advice for larger papers: It is often more effective not to start at the point where the beginning of your paper will be. Especially the introductory paragraph is often best left until later, when you feel ready and inspired.

C. The Second Draft:

The “second draft” is a fully re-thought and rewritten version of your paper. It is at the heart of the writing process.

First, lay your first draft aside for a day or so to gain distance from it. After that break, read it over with a critical eye as you would somebody else’s paper (well, almost!). You will probably find that your first draft is still quite descriptive, rather than argumentative. It is likely to wander; your perspective and usually even the thesis seemed to change/develop as you wrote. Don’t despair. That is perfectly normal even for experienced writers (even after 40 years and a good deal of published work!). You will be frustrated. But keep questioning your paper along the following lines: What precisely are my key questions? What parts of my evidence here are really pertinent to those questions (that is, does it help me answer them)? How or in what order can I structure my paper most effectively to answer those questions most clearly and efficiently for my reader?

At this point you must outline your paper freshly. Mark up your first draft, ask tough questions whether your argument is clear and whether the order in which you present your points is effective! You must write conceptually a new paper at this point, even if you can use paragraphs and especially quotes, factual data in the new draft.

It is critical that in your new draft your paragraphs start with topic sentences that identify the argument you will be making in the particular paragraph (sometimes this can be strings of two or three paragraphs). The individual steps in your argument must be clearly reflected in the topic sentences of your paragraphs (or a couple of them linked).

D. The Third or Final Draft:

You are now ready to check for basic rules of good writing. This is when you need to check the diction, that is, the accuracy and suitability of words. Eliminate unnecessary passive or awkward noun constructions (active-voice, verbal constructions are usually more effective); improve the flow of your transitions; avoid repetitions or split infinitives; correct apostrophes in possessives and such. Make the style clear and smooth. Check that the start of your paper is interesting for the reader. Last but not least, cut out unnecessary verbiage and wordiness. Spell-check and proof-read.

– Diethelm Prowe, 1998

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How Institutions Use Historical Research Methods to Provide Historical Perspectives

An Overview of Historical Research Methods

Historical research methods enable institutions to collect facts, chronological data, and other information relevant to their interests. But historical research is more than compiling a record of past events; it provides institutions with valuable insights about the past to inform current cultural, political, and social dynamics.

Historical research methods primarily involve collecting information from primary and secondary sources. While differences exist between these sources, organizations and institutions can use both types of sources to assess historical events and provide proper context comprehensively.

Using historical research methods, historians provide institutions with historical insights that can give perspectives on the future.

Individuals interested in advancing their careers as historians can pursue an advanced degree, such as a Master of Arts in History , to help them develop a systematic understanding of historical research and learn about the use of digital tools for acquiring, accessing, and managing historical information.

Historians use historical research methods to obtain data from primary and secondary sources and, then, assess how the information contributes to understanding a historical period or event. Historical research methods are used with primary and secondary sources. Below is a description of each type of source.

What Is a Primary Source?              

Primary sources—raw data containing first-person accounts and documents—are foundational to historical and academic research. Examples of primary sources include eyewitness accounts of historical events, written testimonies, public records, oral representations, legal documents, artifacts, photographs, art, newspaper articles, diaries, and letters. Individuals often can find primary sources in archives and collections in universities, libraries, and historical societies.

A primary source, also known as primary data, is often characterized by the time of its creation. For example, individuals studying the U.S. Constitution’s beginnings can use The Federalist Papers, a collection of essays by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, written from October 1787 to May 1788, as a primary source for their research. In this example, the information was witnessed firsthand and created at the time of the event.

What Is a Secondary Source?              

Primary sources are not always easy to find. In the absence of primary sources, secondary sources can play a vital role in describing historical events. A historian can create a secondary source by analyzing, synthesizing, and interpreting information or data provided in primary sources. For example, a modern-day historian may use The Federalist Papers and other primary sources to reveal historical insights about the series of events that led to the creation of the U.S. Constitution. As a result, the secondary source, based on historical facts, becomes a reliable source of historical data for others to use to create a comprehensive picture of an event and its significance.

The Value of Historical Research for Providing Historical Perspectives

Current global politics has its roots in the past. Historical research offers an essential context for understanding our modern society. It can inform global concepts, such as foreign policy development or international relations. The study of historical events can help leaders make informed decisions that impact society, culture, and the economy.

Take, for example, the Industrial Revolution. Studying the history of the rise of industry in the West helps to put the current world order in perspective. The recorded events of that age reveal that the first designers of the systems of industry, including the United States, dominated the global landscape in the following decades and centuries. Similarly, the digital revolution is creating massive shifts in international politics and society. Historians play a pivotal role in using historical research methods to record and analyze information about these trends to provide future generations with insightful historical perspectives.

In addition to creating meaningful knowledge of global and economic affairs, studying history highlights the perspectives of people and groups who triumphed over adversity. For example, the historical fights for freedom and equality, such as the struggle for women’s voting rights or ending the Jim Crow era in the South, offer relevant context for current events, such as efforts at criminal justice reform.

History also is the story of the collective identity of people and regions. Historical research can help promote a sense of community and highlight the vibrancy of different cultures, creating opportunities for people to become more culturally aware and empowered.

The Tools and Techniques of Historical Research Methods

A primary source is not necessarily an original source. For example, not everyone can access the original essays written by Hamilton because they are precious and must be preserved and protected. However, thanks to digitization, institutions can access, manage, and interpret essential information, artifacts, and images from the essays without fear of degradation.

Using technology to digitize historical information creates what is known as digital history. It offers opportunities to advance scholarly research and expand knowledge to new audiences. For example, individuals can access a digital copy of The Federalist Papers from the Library of Congress’s website anytime, from anywhere. This digital copy can still serve as a primary source because it contains the same content as the original paper version created hundreds of years ago.

As more primary and secondary sources are digitized, researchers are increasingly using artificial intelligence (AI) to search, gather, and analyze these sources. An AI method known as optical character recognition can help historians with digital research. Historians also can use AI techniques to close gaps in historical information. For example, an AI system developed by DeepMind uses deep neural networks to help historians recreate missing pieces and restore ancient Greek texts on stone tablets that are thousands of years old.

As digital tools associated with historical research proliferate, individuals seeking to advance in a history career need to develop technical skills to use advanced technology in their research. Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History program prepares students with knowledge of historical research methods and critical technology skills to advance in the field of history.

Prepare to Make an Impact

Through effective historical research methods, institutions, organizations, and individuals can learn the significance of past events and communicate important insights for a better future. In museums, government agencies, universities and colleges, nonprofits, and historical associations, the combination of technology and historical research plays a central role in extending the reach of historical information to new audiences. It can also guide leaders charged with making important decisions that can impact geopolitics, society, economic development, community building, and more.

Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History prepares students with knowledge of historical research methods and skills to use technology to advance their careers across many industries and fields of study. The program’s curriculum offers students the flexibility to choose from four concentrations—Public History, American History, World History, or Legal and Constitutional History—to customize their studies based on their career goals and personal interests.

Learn how Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History degree can prepare individuals for career success in the field of history.

Recommended Readings

What Is Digital History? A Guide to Digital History Resources, Museums, and Job Description Old World vs. New World History: A Curriculum Comparison How to Become a Researcher

Getting Started with Primary Sources , Library of Congress What Is a Primary Source? , ThoughtCo. Full Text of The Federalist Papers , Library of Congress Digital History , The Inclusive Historian’s Handbook Historians in Archives , American Historical Association How AI Helps Historians Solve Ancient Puzzles , Financial Times  

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Explore the people, cultures, communities and events that have shaped the world as a Franklin College history major. Study under the guidance of a diverse and passionate faculty while you learn how to research, analyze and write about history and apply historical perspective to the world around you — all in preparation for a rewarding and prosperous career.

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Meet our people, why history at franklin college.

Have you ever found yourself wondering why certain events happen, why certain revolutions occurred, or why certain wars were won or lost? Do you think about how our world came to be the way it is? Do stories about people in the past and the present fascinate you? Do you wish to make sense of the world in which we live? Do you want to learn from the past for the future? If so, the history program at Franklin College would allow you to explore these questions, engage in historical research, and present your work publicly.

Why do students choose history at Franklin College?

The department of history at Franklin College provides students with an in-depth knowledge of the historical developments that shaped the world in which we live.

Students in the history program:

• gain a broad understanding of historical developments in world history and in U.S. history
• learn about diverse cultures and communities in local, national, regional, and global contexts
• analyze the relative merits of different problem-solving strategies in given historical situations
• participate in public history projects that serve the community and foster connections
• engage in original research of historical topics and present them publicly
• have opportunities to study abroad and complete internships
• develop a personalized academic plan with an adviser that may include double majors, minors, or related fields

History majors find a wide variety of paths available to them after graduation. Some students begin careers in fields such as education or business, while others pursue graduate programs in history, law, theology, education administration, library science, and political science among others.

The history program at Franklin College prepares students in the liberal arts tradition for life-long learning, professional service and global citizenship.

Broad coursework balanced with specialized, independent research

The Franklin College history curriculum covers a breadth of historical developments and cultures, spanning Latin America, U.S., European, African and Asian history.

The history major introduces students to public history, familiarizes them with historiographical debates, and culminates with a senior seminar. In the senior seminar, students do archival research on a topic of particular personal interest to them and present their findings to the public. Past topics have included:

• Hoosier volunteers in the Civil War
• Mid-nineteenth century Indiana women
• Challenges faced by the Indiana Latinx community during WWII
• Mexican immigrant experiences in 20th-century Indiana
• German and Italian POW experiences at Camp Atterbury
• Women’s liberation at Franklin College
• Vietnam War protests at Indiana University

Understand the present and prepare for the future by studying the past.

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Students who choose to study history at Franklin College can pursue it as either a major or a minor.

Learn more about History at Franklin College

The Franklin College History Program gives students a well-rounded background U.S. history and also exposes them to Canadian, Latin American, European, Middle Eastern and Asian history. The program also features pre-professional courses on public history and on historical thinking and methods. Senior history majors complete individual research projects that entail archival work, a scholarly paper, and a public presentation.

In history, we do not just examine the lives of people who died a long time ago — we hone reading skills, improve writing skills, enhance research skills, develop analytical skills and foster advanced critical thinking. Future employers know that history provides students with a well-rounded background that enables them to work in a variety of fields both in the private and public sector.

Student-Learning Outcomes

The history faculty is dedicated to ensuring students meet learning outcomes that will enable them to succeed in their careers, communities, and personal lives.

• Students will interpret and contextualize primary sources.
• Students will research effectively.
• Students will communicate historical findings publicly.

Meet the talented professionals who will guide you on your history journey.

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U.S. Newspaper Collections at the Library of Congress

Historical newspapers.

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This section of the guide provides an overview of the historical U.S. newspaper collections held by the Serial & Government Publications Division and served in the Newspaper & Current Periodical Reading Room (NCPRR) at the Library of Congress. "Historical," for the purposes of this guide, is defined as newspapers published during the 17th through 20th centuries.

The American newspaper collection spans 1690-present, and titles are held in microfilm, print, and/or digital formats. The Division does not have every U.S. newspaper ever published, but there are newspapers from every state and territory, including over 9,000 individual titles. Scroll down or click on the section linked below to explore the collections:

Print Collections

Microfilm collections.

• Lists by Century

Digital Collections

Historical newspapers research guides, authenticating old newspapers.

Contact us using our Ask a Librarian service to help you identify which titles are available from a certain time and place, and in which format(s). If we do not have the newspaper you need, we can help you locate it elsewhere.

The historical newspaper collection in original print format is comprised of 37,954 bound volumes, 18,979 rare 18th-century volumes, and over 50,000 individual portfolio issues. See the "Historical Newspaper Lists by Century" section below for lists of titles organized by place and available dates. Additionally, newspapers are cataloged by title in the Library of Congress Online Catalog . Collection materials must be requested through a paper call slip in the Newspaper & Current Periodical Reading Room, or requested in advance of a visit by using our Ask a Librarian service. Please note that, when available, microfilm or digital formats will be served in place of original print out of concern for the long-term preservation of the collections. Newspapers in original print format are not available for Interlibrary Loan.

Original Print Bound Volumes Collection

This collection is comprised of original print newspaper issues bound in volumes that are held in either remote storage or on-site in the Serial and Government Publications Division. For detailed holdings of bound newspapers, including location information, please search the Library of Congress Online Catalog . Items in remote storage are indicated by "Ft. Meade" in the call number. To request bound newspapers from remote storage , be sure to Ask a Librarian in advance to confirm holdings.

Portfolio Collection

The U.S. newspaper portfolio collection is comprised of individual, original print format newspaper issues and stored in large archival folders (portfolios). The Division holds portfolio collections for most U.S. states. To search the Library of Congress Online Catalog for a list of portfolios, conduct an Advanced Search , entering the state and "portfolio" in the search boxes, like this:

Narrow your search further by adding limits such as "Location in the Library" (Newspaper & Current Periodical) and "Type of Material" (Periodical or Newspaper). Call numbers generally have "X" at the end as an indication. ex: "Newspaper 8829-X: portfolio

The Division's newspaper microfilm collection consists of over 785,000 microfilm reels. Some of the most requested titles are immediately available in the Newspaper & Current Periodical Reading Room (see below). The vast majority of the collection is held in closed stacks and must be requested by filling out a paper call slip, indicating the call number, title, and dates of issues required and submitting the request at the Circulation Desk. Delivery time is generally within 30 minutes.

The lists below provide merely a starting point for finding out which titles and dates are available, and the lists are particularly useful for finding out which newspapers are available from a certain city or state. Search the Library of Congress Online Catalog for specific titles. Dates of holdings are noted by the "Older Receipts" at the bottom of catalog records, and titles will have a call number indicated by "Newspaper Microfilm ---."

Self-Service Microfilm Collection

The following newspapers are readily available in the reading room in the self-service microfilm cabinets. These titles do not circulate through interlibrary loan.

This resource lists U.S. newspapers from 1940-1980 on microfilm available for use at the Library of Congress. All entries are alphabetically arranged by state abbreviation, city, and title.

• Access the Chronological Index to Microfilm (1940-1989) Unless noted as a partial file, all holdings are assumed to be complete for the years listed. Because newspaper titles typically vary over time, the Chronological Indexes generally display the title used by a newspaper for the majority of a given decade. Microfilm control numbers have been listed to aid researchers in accurately requesting material.
• 1940-1949 U.S. Newspapers
• 1950-1959 U.S. Newspapers
• 1960-1969 U.S. Newspapers
• 1970-1979 U.S. Newspapers
• 1980-1989 U.S. Newspapers
• Microfilm Exceptions Report - newspapers with name changes, mergers, strikes, place of publication changes, etc.

Newspaper Lists by Century

• 18th Century
• 19th and 20th Century

18th Century American Newspapers

The 18th-Century American Newspapers in the Library of Congress website reflects the Library's holdings of pre-1801 American newspapers as of February 2, 1996. The list consists of individual newspaper titles arranged alphabetically by state, city, and newspaper title. The numbers in the title index and the name index (including printers, publishers, and editors) refer to entry numbers, not page numbers. This list also contains print and microform holdings.

• Access the 18th-Century American Newspapers in the Library of Congress website

This list is meant as a starting point in research and does not necessarily reflect the Library's current holdings. Please refer to the Library of Congress Online Catalog for the most up-to-date holdings information.

19th and 20th Century Original Print Bound Volumes

These lists, also linked from the left-side navigation panel, is based on an inventory of Library of Congress holdings that was conducted in Summer 1998. Arranged alphabetically by state, then city, the lists include the bound volume control number, total volume count, and summary holdings for each title. The lists do not provide detailed holdings; the dates listed may have unspecified missing issues.

This inventory is meant as a starting point in research and does not necessarily reflect all of the Library's current holdings. Please contact reference staff through Ask-a-Librarian to confirm holdings.

An ever-growing amount of historical newspapers are being digitized, though not nearly every newspaper ever published has or will be digitized. Digitization is an important preservation measure and it improves discoverability of newspaper content: digitized newspapers are typically word-searchable, while microfilm is not (it must be examined page by page). Some historical digital newspapers will be found freely available online, while others are available through subscription resources. Checking to see if a newspaper has been digitized will often require consulting several different sources.

• Chronicling America
• Digital Collections on LOC.gov
• On-site Access Only

There are ongoing efforts to digitize and provide free access to historic newspapers through the Library of Congress website. Digital newspaper collections include the following resources:

The Library provides access to many subscription-based digital resources that are available to researchers while they are on-site. See this list of historical newspaper databases in the Library's E-resources Online Catalog . Listed below are a few of the most commonly used databases for researching historical newspapers. The description indicates whether a database is limited to "On-Site Only," or if there is "Free Access" available. There are several public computer terminals in the reading room, or bring your own device and connect to the Library's Wifi. View the Library's Terms of Use for its electronic resources.

The following Research Guides produced by the Serial and Government Publications Division provide more information on historical newspapers at the Library of Congress.

Some of the most frequently asked questions we receive in the NCPRR relate to authenticating old newspapers. Newspapers are an important aspect of a community's collective memory, and saving clippings or entire issues that cover significant happenings is a common behavior through time and place. It is exciting to come across an old newspaper in an attic or at a yard sale or auction!

While there are very few historical newspaper issues with significant monetary value, some retain important artifactual value.  Although reference staff neither authenticates nor appraises items , we do provide information about a number of significant newspaper issues through "Information Circulars." These circulars were compiled by experts in the Serial & Government Publications Division and have been formatted into a guide:  Original or Reprint? A Guide to Noteworthy Newspaper Issues .

The Division accepts newspaper donations following evaluation of several factors, including the physical condition of the issue(s), long-term preservation considerations, and how the newspaper fits within the scope of the larger collections. For more information, please Ask a Librarian .

• << Previous: U.S. Newspapers Currently Received
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• Last Updated: Jun 18, 2024 1:51 PM
• URL: https://guides.loc.gov/united-states-newspapers

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Here's Why I'll Never Give Up My Costco Executive Membership

Published on Aug. 16, 2024

By: Maurie Backman

• An Executive membership at Costco costs double what you'll pay for a basic membership.
• When you shop at Costco regularly like I do, the higher fee may make sense because you earn cash back.
• Even if my Costco spending habits change, the Executive membership is a no-risk proposition.

When I first joined Costco , I didn't have kids yet and therefore didn't spend as much as I do now on groceries. But years back, I decided to upgrade to an Executive membership when my family started spending more on food, and I've stuck with it ever since. 

In fact, there's pretty much nothing anyone can say to convince me to give up that Executive membership -- despite the higher cost. Here's why.

A higher fee worth paying

But the Executive membership comes with one giant perk -- 2% cash back on your purchases. And when you shop at Costco as much as I do, getting the higher-cost membership is an easy call.

I do a Costco run almost every week, and I usually spend at least $100. That's just what it costs to feed a family of five and get enough necessary supplies like paper towels, tissues, and cleaning products. 

I also tend to turn to Costco for certain one-off purchases, whether it's new fall jackets for my kids or gift baskets for my children's teachers during the holidays. This extra spending, coupled with my regular weekly spending, makes it easy to recoup the cost of my Executive membership upgrade and come out with extra cash back in my pocket.

Right now, it takes $3,000 in annual Costco spending to make back the cost of the Executive membership upgrade. Once the store's fee hikes take effect, it'll take $3,250 to reach that break-even point. 

Since my annual Costco spending typically comes to over $5,000, there's no question that the Executive membership makes financial sense for me. At $5,000 in spending, I'm looking at $100 cash back. That gives me my $65 upgrade fee back and leaves me with extra money.

I'll keep the Executive membership even if my Costco spending declines

There may come a point when I'm not going to Costco every week for groceries and supplies. But even then, keeping the Executive membership makes sense for one big reason -- you're guaranteed not to lose money on it.

If you buy the upgraded membership and don't earn enough cash back to recoup the extra cost, Costco will allow you to downgrade your membership and refund you the difference. In other words, let's say you buy the more expensive membership, but only earn $52 in cash back when you paid $65 for the upgrade. If you downgrade to a basic membership for the next year, Costco will give you back the $13 of your upgrade fee you didn't recoup.

For this reason, I refuse to give up my Executive membership. And you may want to reconsider if you've been sticking to a basic one. Rather than assume you won't make back your upgrade fee, evaluate your yearly Costco spending. You may be surprised at the total.

Also, don't rush to dump your Executive membership if your household situation changes. You might spend less on groceries once you're an empty nester. But you might also spend more at Costco on other things. 

It pays to keep the upgraded membership and see what happens. Either way, you're guaranteed not to lose any money.

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Maurie Backman is a personal finance writer covering topics ranging from Social Security to credit cards to mortgages. She also has an editing background and has hosted personal finance podcasts.

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