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The Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA) is extending an invitation for research proposals pertaining to the theme of 'Electric Vehicles in ASEAN: Total Cost of Ownership, Externalities, and Sustainable Strategies'. The selected research proposals will be funded by the ERIA research project on the very theme in fiscal year 2023-2024.

ERIA, an international organization established by the 16 member countries of the East Asia Summit (EAS), aims to contribute intellectually to the regional endeavors of ASEAN Community building and East Asia economic integration. Its primary role involves offering policy analyses and recommendations to Leaders and Ministers during key regional meetings, including the ASEAN Economic Ministers Meeting, EAS Energy Ministers Meeting (EMM), ASEAN Summit, and the EAS.

Research teams, groups, institutions, or individual researchers, hereafter to be called “Contractors”, are invited to submit their research proposals via email to Alloysius Joko Purwanto ( [email protected] ) no later than Monday, 7 August 2023.  Early submission is strongly encouraged.

Authors will receive notification regarding the decision on proposal selection no later than 18 August 2023.

1. Subject of Research 

Electric Vehicles in ASEAN: Total Cost of Ownership, Externalities, and Sustainable Strategies

2. Background and Objective of the Research

Electric vehicles are growingly believed to be one of the silver bullets to remedy many issues in ASEAN, e.g., energy security, climate change, environmental, as well as economic downturn, whilst there are still so many issues to discuss.

Suehiro and Purwanto (2019 and 2021) stated that unless the power generation mix in ASEAN Member States does not experience significant penetration of renewables, then massive penetration of EVs would contribute nothing to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon footprints of manufacturing EVs and their batteries are also problematic. Manufacturing of electric vehicles in China emits about 13 metric tons (MT) of carbon dioxide (CO2), including  battery manufacturing, compared to 10.5 MT CO2 emitted by internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle manufacturing (Qiao, et al., 2019). Not to mention lithium mining in the other parts of the world that has clear environmental downside, laterite nickel mined in Indonesia, for example, needs an energy intensive process of high-pressure acid leach (HPAL) to be transformed into an intermediate product before further used as cathode material in batteries. Furthermore, the end-of-life of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries raise not-yet-answered environmental issues.

The supply chain of EVs and their batteries are not simple. A big investment is haunted by a failure risk in one of the chains.

Currently, Indonesia and Viet Nam have started to manufacture and sell electric powered-2- wheelers but none of the ASEAN member states has started to produce electric cars at commercial level. Conventional car manufacturers start to invest in Indonesia and Thailand to build their electric car plants as well as some private companies who are building consortium to manufacture them.

In the meantime, Indonesia and Thailand have a plan to establish battery manufacturing plants in a short-term horizon to primarily support their to-be-born EV industry. Now, most EV battery production in Asia is dominated by China who procures most of the needed critical minerals domestically, except for nickel (from Indonesia), cobalt (from Congo) and some parts of lithium (from Russia).

Finally, the penetration of EVs will need deployment of charging infrastructures. The number and distribution of these infrastructures require well-defined strategy and plan with a clear objective which is bargain between the cost minimization of constructing and running the infrastructures and the cost minimization from the user point of view, i.e., distance to the charging and the queueing time at the infrastructure.

This study aims at assessing the following aspects of EV in ASEAN: (i) total costs of ownership, (ii) global warming potential, (iii) potential environmental impacts, (iv) strategies for a sustainable EV ecosystem, and (v) the development of production networks.

The study shall cover not only the electric vehicle operation, fueling, its fabrication, and scrapping, but also charging installation deployment, battery fabrication including critical mineral mining extraction, processing, until recycling or repurposing or waste management of those batteries when they reached their end-of-life and propose a working framework to build strategies for a sustainable EV ecosystem. The study shall cover the Association of Southeast Asia Countries (ASEAN) region and deal with electric cars and powered electric two wheelers (e- motorbikes).

3. Topics of research 

To support the study, ERIA decides to release 4 (four) topics of research in this Call for Proposal where Contractors can choose to build their and submit their research proposal:

3.1.  Total costs of ownership (TCO) analysis of Electric Vehicles in ASEAN

TCO analysis should provide a set of estimates of the TCO of the different EV types consisting of electric cars and electric powered-2-wheelers differentiated into different classes or categories in the different ASEAN countries. TCO should include capital and operational costs of the vehicles. The capital costs include the price to acquire the vehicle, as well as all fees and taxes related to the acquisition of the vehicles. Operational costs must include electricity costs, maintenance & repair costs, and all fees & taxes related to the operation. The estimate of the TCO should be calculated for all the electric vehicles acquired from 2018 to 2022 in each ASEAN country, considering the estimated average yearly mileage, average vehicle lifetime, and reasonable discount rate. While focus is given to the electric vehicles, the same estimated variables from the comparable internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles categories and classes must be given as benchmarks or references of the analysis.

3.2.  Potential global warming potential and environmental impacts of electric  vehicles and batteries in ASEAN

This study should provide an estimate of global warming and environmental impacts of electric vehicles in ASEAN using life-cycle analysis (LCA) which cover all potential impacts since the mining of the material, the fabrication of the vehicle, the use of the vehicles, and the waste impacts of the scrapped vehicles. The study must cover the different EV types consisting of electric cars and electric powered-2-wheelers differentiated into different classes or categories.

This study should also provide an estimate of global warming and environmental impacts of electric vehicle batteries in ASEAN using life-cycle analysis (LCA) which cover all potential impacts since the mining and processing of the material, e.g., HPAL process’ toxic production waste in Indonesia’s nickel processing, the fabrication of the batteries, the use of the vehicles, and the waste impacts of the scrapped batteries. The study must cover the different EV battery types distinguished into the different cathode chemistry types, capacity, and use (such as fixed versus swab batteries).

3.3.   Power and charging infrastructure investment requirements for adopting EV in  ASEAN

EV charging poses a substantial challenge to the power infrastructure of ASEAN countries. This can be further decomposed into the issue of infrastructure investment required, business model, financing, grid reliability and safety, policy options, standards harmonization among ASEAN member countries, and so on. The study is expected to identify the most challenging issues in this regard in the ASEAN context, provide analytical results with models, and derive policy implications accordingly.

3.4.  Strategies for sustainable nickel mining and processing in ASEAN

The combination of a series of nickel ore export bans and foreign domestic investment in building nickel mining and processing industry are the key elements of Indonesia’s current success in developing its nickel industry to play an important role in the world EV ecosystem. Apart from Indonesia, the Philippines is another ASEAN countries that has important reserve of nickel. The study aims at first, analyzing and assessing this current Indonesia’s model from the economic and sustainability perspective, second, based on Indonesia’s case and the Philippines’s potential, elaborating strategies for sustainable nickel mining and processing in ASEAN.

4. Proposals

ERIA calls for detailed research proposals for each of the above-listed parts, i.e. one proposal for one topic of the above points 3.1 to 3.4 . For each topic there will be only one selected Contractor. However, a Contractor can submit proposals to more than one topic and can be selected to perform research on more than one topic.

A Term of Reference (ToR), as part of the contract, will be developed based on the proposal should the proposal be selected and accepted.

Each Contractor will get a budget of not more than USD 9,000 *  to conduct the study using the following possible methods: (i) bibliography studies, (ii) data collection, (iii) quantitative analysis, and (iv) surveys and interviews.

*Please note that as an international organization, ERIA is exempt from value added tax (VAT).

Submitted research proposals should be about 5 to 8 pages long and each proposal that must contain the following parts:

• Research question(s);
• Objective and background;
• Brief literature review;
• Description of data and methodology;
• Expected value added;
• Policy relevance;
• References.

5. Originality and Publication

The research should be an original one. The final report will be included in an edited project report which will be submitted to ERIA. Some of the completed research papers may be posted as working papers for the ERIA Discussion Paper series. As an outcome, a handbook / special journal issue on energy policies related to electric vehicle topics could be published.

6. Research Project Leader

The study will be coordinated by:

• Shigeru Kimura, ERIA Special Advisor on Energy Affairs, as project supervisor and advisor
• Alloysius Joko Purwanto, ERIA Energy Economist, as project coordinator
• Yanfei Li, ERIA Research fellow, as academic leader
• Citra Endah Nur Setyawati and Ryan Wiratama Bhaskara, both ERIA Research Associates, as project research associates

7. Expected Timeline

8. References 

Suehiro S. and A. J. Purwanto, 2019,’ Study on Electric Vehicle Penetrations’ Influence on 3Es in ASEAN’, ERIA Research Project 2018 no. 06, Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, Jakarta,  https://www.eria.org/publications/study-on-electric-vehicle-penetrations-influence-on-3es-in-asean/   (as accessed 4 July 2023)

Suehiro S. and A. J. Purwanto, 2020, ‘The Influence on Energy and the Economy of Electrified Vehicle Penetration in ASEAN’, ERIA Research Project 2020 no. 14, Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, Jakarta, https://www.eria.org/publications/the-influence-on-energy- and-the-economy-of-electrified-vehicle-penetration-in-asean/ (as accessed 4 July 2023)

Qiao, Q., F. Zhao, Z. Liu, X. He, H. Hao, 2019, ‘Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of Electric Vehicles in China: Combining the vehicle cycle and fuel cycle’, Energy, Volume 177, 2019, Pages 222-233, ISSN 0360-5442, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.04.080 (as accessed 4 July 2023)

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Electric vehicle adoption: a comprehensive systematic review of technological, environmental, organizational and policy impacts.

1. Introduction

2. methodology.

• Literature Retrieval: We conducted a comprehensive search in the Scopus database using a specific set of keywords to identify publications relevant to EV adoption. The search, adhering to PRISMA 2020 guidelines, was completed in August 2024. The search strategy was designed to cover the literature on EV adoption comprehensively, using a targeted query in the Scopus database. Our search string was: (“electric vehicle*” OR “EV” OR “EVs”) AND (“fleet electrification” OR “fleet management” OR “fleet operations” OR “Emission Reductions” OR “Adoption of EVs”) AND (“sustainability” OR “organizational performance” OR “Key Performance Indicators” OR “KPI” OR “energy consumption” OR “cost savings” OR “renewable energy utilization”). We restricted our search to English-language, peer-reviewed journal articles published from 2019 to 2024, ensuring a focus on the most recent and relevant research. The keywords were carefully selected to cover the complex dimensions of EV adoption research. “Electric vehicle*” and its variants broadly define the scope, while terms like “fleet electrification”, “management”, and “operations” delve into organizational impacts. Environmental effects are captured by “Emission Reductions” and “sustainability”, whereas “Organizational performance”, “KPI”, and similar phrases focus on the technological and performance-related aspects essential for understanding EV adoption’s broader implications. We chose Scopus as our primary database due to its comprehensive coverage across diverse research fields such as engineering, environmental science, and business. This strategy led to the retrieval of 802 papers, reflecting current trends and significant interest in the multifaceted impacts of EV adoption.
• Literature Screening: Adhering to PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we meticulously reviewed the retrieved literature to ensure relevance and quality. Initial filtering based on publication year (2019–2024) reduced the pool to 498 papers, reflecting a surge in EV adoption research. Further refinement to include only English-language journal articles narrowed it down to 312 papers. Next, we reviewed the titles and abstracts of the remaining papers, narrowing our selection to 130 studies closely aligned with our focus on the integration of EVs with sustainability and organizational strategy. We applied strict exclusion criteria to ensure the included studies comprehensively addressed the impact of EV adoption on organizational performance, technological innovation, and sustainable infrastructure, excluding those that solely focused on the technical aspects of EVs without considering these broader impacts. The flow diagram of the search and selection process is shown in Figure 3 .

2.1. Selection Process

2.2. data collection process, 2.3. data items and outcomes sought.

• Environment: Focus on GHG emissions, air quality improvements, and lifecycle environmental impacts.
• Organizations: Examination of economic viability, energy efficiency, and market dynamics affected by EV adoption.
• Technology: Analysis of advancements in battery technologies, energy storage solutions, and smart charging strategies.
• Policy: Assessment of policy frameworks, regulatory impacts, and strategic recommendations to encourage EV adoption.
• Participant Characteristics: Information about the organizations and sectors involved in adopting EVs, focusing on the scope of adoption and types of fleets, such as public transport and commercial fleets.
• Intervention Characteristics: Details concerning technological and operational interventions, including the use of specific EV models, charging infrastructures, and battery management strategies.
• Geographical Distribution: Analysis of regional data to understand the geographical spread and contextual impacts of EV adoption.
• Data Completeness: The bibliometric data from Scopus were assumed to be complete and accurate.
• Software Reliability: VOSviewer software was assumed to be reliable in producing precise visualization maps and identifying key terms.
• Impact of Missing Data: Missing or unclear information was assumed not to significantly affect the overall analysis, with efforts made to clarify or supplement such data as needed.

3. Bibliometric Analysis

3.1. co-occurrence map based on text data, 3.2. co-occurrences map based on keywords, 3.3. co-occurrence map based on country of co-authorship, 3.4. co-occurrence map based on authorship, 3.5. data analysis on article sources, 4. content analysis, 4.1. impacts of ev adoption on energy, economy, and market dynamics, 4.1.1. energy efficiency and consumption, 4.1.2. analysis of energy efficiency and consumption.

• Impact of Power Generation Mix: The environmental benefits of EVs, particularly in terms of CO 2 emissions, are significantly influenced by the electricity generation mix. For instance, BEVs in regions with a high proportion of renewable energy sources exhibit lower lifecycle CO 2 (LCCO 2 ) emissions compared to ICEVs. In Norway, where the electricity is predominantly generated from hydropower, BEVs have much lower LCCO 2 emissions than ICEVs [ 35 ]. Conversely, in China, where coal is a major source of electricity, BEVs may have higher LCCO 2 emissions than efficient ICEVs like the Honda Insight [ 36 ]. Table 7 presents an illustrative example of LCCO 2 emissions by region and vehicle type.
• Analysis of Energy Savings and CO 2 Reduction: BEVs with an energy consumption rate (ECR) of 10 kWh/100 km can meet the EU 2020 CO 2 regulations if the power generation mix LCCO 2 is around 900 g/kWh. For BEVs with an ECR of 20 kWh/100 km, the power generation mix must have LCCO 2 below 460 g/kWh to meet the same regulations [ 37 ]. Moreover, BEVs in high-mileage applications, such as ride-hailing fleets, could require 1–1.5 battery replacements over a 12-year vehicle life, impacting their overall environmental performance [ 38 ].

4.1.3. Impact of EVs on the Economy

4.1.4. strategic insights and market dynamics in ev adoption, 4.2. impact of electric transportation on the energy sector: focus on the petroleum industry, 4.3. environmental impact of ev adoption, 4.3.1. overview of carbon emissions reduction in vehicle types and technologies, 4.3.2. regional and global impacts of ev adoption, 4.3.3. analysis of carbon emissions reduction in vehicle types and technologies, 4.3.4. lifecycle environmental impacts, 4.3.5. contribution of co 2 and energy consumption in recycling ev batteries, 4.3.6. impact of tires on carbon footprint in evs.

• Carbon Black vs. Silica: LCAs reveal that silica-based tires emit approximately 11,639.36 kg CO 2 eq per ton, which is a reduction of 526.78 kg CO 2 eq compared to all-carbon black systems. This transition not only reduces the Global Warming Potential (GWP) by about 4.3% but also enhances the performance of tires in terms of lower rolling resistance and better wet grip [ 120 ].
• Cumulative Energy Demand (CED): Traditional tires exhibit higher energy consumption due to inefficient material use. Conversely, ecological tires made with silica have a lower energy demand, benefiting from more sustainable manufacturing processes that further contribute to reducing the carbon footprint of EVs [ 121 ].
• Carbon Black vs. Graphene: Integrating graphene into tire production can decrease carbon emissions by up to 23.46% when graphene fully replaces carbon black. This potential reduction is pivotal, considering that the raw material stage of production, where carbon black is heavily used, contributes most significantly to the overall emissions. By substituting carbon black with 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% graphene, the emissions can be reduced by 5.92%, 11.62%, 17.76%, and 23.46%, respectively. Remarkably, graphene can reduce the emissions of the carbon black component itself by up to 98.81% [ 122 ].
• Tire Emission Control: Advanced control strategies have been developed to reduce tire emissions in EVs effectively. For instance, the implementation of tire particle control strategies can decrease particulate emissions by over 90% while ensuring ride comfort. This reduction is critical for mitigating microplastic pollution and reducing the indirect environmental impacts of EVs [ 123 ].

4.4. Technological and Operational Challenges in EV Integration

4.4.1. battery technologies and energy storage solutions, 4.4.2. strategies for recycling batteries and recovering cobalt and lithium, 4.4.3. ev charging strategies and technologies, 4.4.4. managing and optimizing ev charging infrastructure, 4.4.5. software solutions for ev fleet management, 4.5. policy recommendations and future directions, 4.5.1. comprehensive policy frameworks, 4.5.2. specific policy studies, 4.5.3. systemic and regulatory impacts, 4.5.4. summary of research, 5. conclusions and future research, 5.1. key findings.

• Technological Advancements: EV technology is advancing steadily. Improvements in battery life, charging infrastructure, and energy efficiency are driving adoption rates. However, ongoing innovation and investment are crucial to address challenges like limited battery range and the need for more robust charging networks.
• Policy and Regulatory Frameworks: Strong policy support is crucial for accelerating EV adoption. Effective strategies include incentives, subsidies, and clear regulatory frameworks. While these approaches have successfully stimulated market expansion in various regions, their varying effectiveness underscores the need for tailored policies that consider local market conditions and technological maturity.
• Economic and Organizational Impacts: Despite higher upfront costs compared to traditional vehicles, EVs offer potential lifecycle cost savings. Organizations, especially those with large fleets, can benefit from these cost efficiencies, improved fleet management capabilities, and a more sustainable corporate image.
• Environmental Benefits: The shift to EVs, especially when coupled with a transition to renewable energy sources, significantly reduces GHG emissions. Additionally, EVs contribute to improved urban air quality and noise reduction, creating a healthier urban environment.
• Challenges and Barriers: Despite clear advantages, challenges remain that impede broader EV adoption. These include the high initial cost of EVs, limitations in battery technology and charging infrastructure, and the cultural and behavioral changes needed to adapt to electric mobility.

5.2. Future Research Directions

• Long-term Sustainability Assessments: Comprehensive LCAs considering the environmental impact of battery production and disposal are crucial for understanding EVs’ long-term sustainability.
• Technological Integration: Research is needed to explore how EV technology can seamlessly integrate with smart grids and renewable energy systems. Focusing on technological integration can enhance overall sustainability and energy efficiency.
• Economic Analyses: Detailed cost-benefit analyses comparing EVs with traditional vehicles across various operational scenarios and market conditions are necessary. These studies can inform economic forecasts and support the development of robust business models for EV adoption.
• Behavioral Studies: Insights into consumer behavior and organizational change management can assist in designing effective policies and business strategies. Understanding these factors can help stakeholders create incentives and approaches that encourage broader EV adoption.
• Policy Evolution: As the market for EVs evolves, so must the policies that support their adoption. Continuous monitoring and evaluation of existing policies, along with the development of new strategies to address emerging challenges, are crucial for maintaining momentum and overcoming future hurdles.
• Global Comparative Studies: Expanding research to include more comparative studies across different countries and regions can provide deeper insights into the global landscape of EV adoption. Examining variables that influence adoption rates in diverse contexts can inform the development of universally applicable strategies.

5.3. Limitations

5.4. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Zaino, R.; Ahmed, V.; Alhammadi, A.M.; Alghoush, M. Electric Vehicle Adoption: A Comprehensive Systematic Review of Technological, Environmental, Organizational and Policy Impacts. World Electr. Veh. J. 2024 , 15 , 375. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15080375

Zaino R, Ahmed V, Alhammadi AM, Alghoush M. Electric Vehicle Adoption: A Comprehensive Systematic Review of Technological, Environmental, Organizational and Policy Impacts. World Electric Vehicle Journal . 2024; 15(8):375. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15080375

Zaino, Rami, Vian Ahmed, Ahmed Mohamed Alhammadi, and Mohamad Alghoush. 2024. "Electric Vehicle Adoption: A Comprehensive Systematic Review of Technological, Environmental, Organizational and Policy Impacts" World Electric Vehicle Journal 15, no. 8: 375. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15080375

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Towards Equitable Electric Vehicle (EV) Adoption: A Structural Framework and Empirical Analysis

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Transportation plays a crucial role in people's daily lives, but the heavy reliance on fossil fuel-based transportation systems has resulted in an enormous amount of greenhouse gas emissions. These emissions are major contributors to climate change, resulting in environmental degradation and posing significant health and well-being risks, particularly for low-income populations, underrepresented communities, and communities of color. Recognizing the urgency of addressing this issue, the global society has placed a high priority on decarbonizing various sectors, with transportation being a critical focus area. To achieve this goal, it is imperative to transition from gas-powered vehicles to zero-emission vehicles, represented by electric vehicles (EVs). However, the widespread adoption of EVs is hindered by factors such as the high cost of ownership, limited charging infrastructure, and disparity in incentives and accessibility. Existing literature reviews revealed that policies and regulations aimed at promoting EV adoption have primarily focused on specific target consumers, leaving other communities with limited access. Additionally, the equity aspects surrounding the EV ecosystem and the interrelationship between various equity indicators have received limited attention so far and require further consideration. To fill this void, this thesis proposes to identify key EV equity indicators and their corresponding factors from various sources and develop an equity relationship framework to evaluate EV equity. Further, by matching the electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) data to the US census data, we run numerical analyses to assess the availability and accessibility of EV charging facilities in different communities in space. Numerous managerial and policy recommendations related to EV infrastructure and programs in the field are reviewed for their feasibility, efficiency, effectiveness for the disadvantaged populations. Finally, we point out the limitations in the current practices for promoting equitable EV adoption and provide suggestions for future work.

• PANDA, BHAGYASHREE
• EV policy and Incentives
• Charging accessibility
• Electric vehicles
• Transportation equity
• Master's Thesis
• In Copyright
• Civil & Environmental Engineering
• Xu, Zhengtian Dr
• Manzari, Majid Dr.
• Hamdar, Samer Dr.
•  https://scholarspace.library.gwu.edu/etd/h989r4170

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Lafayette Formula Electric Vehicle 2017

Ece 492 – spring 2017, research proposal.

Below is the paper and presentation for the research proposal conducted this semester, which proposed a senior design project topic to be considered in future years.

Research Proposal Paper ( pdf ) ( docx )

Research Proposal Presentation ( pdf ) ( pptx )

Poster ( pptx )