essay about hindu

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By: History.com Editors

Updated: November 16, 2023 | Original: October 6, 2017

Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion, according to many scholars, with roots and customs dating back more than 4,000 years. Today, with more than 1 billion followers , Hinduism is the third-largest religion worldwide, after Christianity and Islam . Roughly 94 percent of the world’s Hindus live in India. Because the religion has no specific founder, it’s difficult to trace its origins and history. Hinduism is unique in that it’s not a single religion but a compilation of many traditions and philosophies: Hindus worship a number of different gods and minor deities, honor a range of symbols, respect several different holy books and celebrate with a wide variety of traditions, holidays and customs. Though the development of the caste system in India was influenced by Hindu concepts , it has been shaped throughout history by political as well as religious movements, and today is much less rigidly enforced. Today there are four major sects of Hinduism: Shaivism, Vaishnava, Shaktism and Smarta, as well as a number of smaller sects with their own religious practices.

Hinduism Beliefs, Symbols

Some basic Hindu concepts include:

• Hinduism embraces many religious ideas. For this reason, it’s sometimes referred to as a “way of life” or a “family of religions,” as opposed to a single, organized religion.
• Most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic, which means they worship a single deity, known as “Brahman,” but still recognize other gods and goddesses. Followers believe there are multiple paths to reaching their god.
• Hindus believe in the doctrines of samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation) and karma (the universal law of cause and effect).
• One of the key thoughts of Hinduism is “atman,” or the belief in soul. This philosophy holds that living creatures have a soul, and they’re all part of the supreme soul. The goal is to achieve “moksha,” or salvation, which ends the cycle of rebirths to become part of the absolute soul.
• One fundamental principle of the religion is the idea that people’s actions and thoughts directly determine their current life and future lives.
• Hindus strive to achieve dharma, which is a code of living that emphasizes good conduct and morality.
• Hindus revere all living creatures and consider the cow a sacred animal.
• Food is an important part of life for Hindus. Most don’t eat beef or pork, and many are vegetarians.
• Hinduism is closely related to other Indian religions, including Buddhism , Sikhism and Jainism.

There are two primary symbols associated with Hinduism, the om and the swastika. The word swastika means "good fortune" or "being happy" in Sanskrit, and the symbol represents good luck . (A hooked, diagonal variation of the swastika later became associated with Germany’s Nazi Party  when they made it their symbol in 1920.)

The om symbol is composed of three Sanskrit letters and represents three sounds (a, u and m), which when combined are considered a sacred sound. The om symbol is often found at family shrines and in Hindu temples.

Hinduism Holy Books

Hindus value many sacred writings as opposed to one holy book.

The primary sacred texts, known as the Vedas, were composed around 1500 B.C. This collection of verses and hymns was written in Sanskrit and contains revelations received by ancient saints and sages.

The Vedas are made up of:

• The Rig Veda
• The Samaveda
• Atharvaveda

Hindus believe that the Vedas transcend all time and don’t have a beginning or an end.

The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, 18 Puranas, Ramayana and Mahabharata are also considered important texts in Hinduism.

Origins of Hinduism

Most scholars believe Hinduism started somewhere between 2300 B.C. and 1500 B.C. in the Indus Valley, near modern-day Pakistan. But many Hindus argue that their faith is timeless and has always existed.

Unlike other religions, Hinduism has no one founder but is instead a fusion of various beliefs.

Around 1500 B.C., the Indo-Aryan people migrated to the Indus Valley, and their language and culture blended with that of the indigenous people living in the region. There’s some debate over who influenced whom more during this time.

The period when the Vedas were composed became known as the “Vedic Period” and lasted from about 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C. Rituals, such as sacrifices and chanting, were common in the Vedic Period.

The Epic, Puranic and Classic Periods took place between 500 B.C. and A.D. 500. Hindus began to emphasize the worship of deities, especially Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.

The concept of dharma was introduced in new texts, and other faiths, such as Buddhism and Jainism, spread rapidly.

Hinduism vs. Buddhism

Hinduism and Buddhism have many similarities. Buddhism, in fact, arose out of Hinduism, and both believe in reincarnation, karma and that a life of devotion and honor is a path to salvation and enlightenment. 

But some key differences exist between the two religions: Many strains of Buddhism reject the caste system, and do away with many of the rituals, the priesthood, and the gods that are integral to Hindu faith.

Medieval and Modern Hindu History

The Medieval Period of Hinduism lasted from about A.D. 500 to 1500. New texts emerged, and poet-saints recorded their spiritual sentiments during this time.

In the 7th century, Muslim Arabs began invading areas in India. During parts of the Muslim Period, which lasted from about 1200 to 1757, Islamic rulers prevented Hindus from worshipping their deities, and some temples were destroyed.

Mahatma Gandhi

Between 1757 and 1947, the British controlled India. At first, the new rulers allowed Hindus to practice their religion without interference, but the British soon attempted to exploit aspects of Indian culture as leverage points for political control, in some cases exacerbating Hindu caste divisions even as they promoted westernized, Christian approaches.

Many reformers emerged during the British Period. The well-known politician and peace activist, Mahatma Gandhi , led a movement that pushed for India’s independence.

The partition of India occurred in 1947, and Gandhi was assassinated in 1948. British India was split into what are now the independent nations of India and Pakistan , and Hinduism became the major religion of India.

Starting in the 1960s, many Hindus migrated to North America and Britain, spreading their faith and philosophies to the western world.

Hindus worship many gods and goddesses in addition to Brahman, who is believed to be the supreme God force present in all things.

Some of the most prominent deities include:

• Brahma: the god responsible for the creation of the world and all living things
• Vishnu: the god that preserves and protects the universe
• Shiva: the god that destroys the universe in order to recreate it
• Devi: the goddess that fights to restore dharma
• Krishna: the god of compassion, tenderness and love
• Lakshmi: the goddess of wealth and purity
• Saraswati: the goddess of learning

Places of Worship

Hindu worship, which is known as “puja,” typically takes place in the Mandir (temple). Followers of Hinduism can visit the Mandir any time they please.

Hindus can also worship at home, and many have a special shrine dedicated to certain gods and goddesses.

The giving of offerings is an important part of Hindu worship. It’s a common practice to present gifts, such as flowers or oils, to a god or goddess.

Additionally, many Hindus take pilgrimages to temples and other sacred sites in India.

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Hinduism Sects

Hinduism has many sects, and the following are often considered the four major denominations.

Shaivism is one of the largest denominations of Hinduism, and its followers worship Shiva, sometimes known as “The Destroyer,” as their supreme deity.

Shaivism spread from southern India into Southeast Asia and is practiced in Vietnam, Cambodia and Indonesia as well as India. Like the other major sects of Hinduism, Shaivism considers the Vedas and the Upanishads to be sacred texts.

Vaishnavism is considered the largest Hindu sect, with an estimated 640 million followers, and is practiced worldwide. It includes sub-sects that are familiar to many non-Hindus, including Ramaism and Krishnaism.

Vaishnavism recognizes many deities, including Vishnu, Lakshmi, Krishna and Rama, and the religious practices of Vaishnavism vary from region to region across the Indian subcontinent.

Shaktism is somewhat unique among the four major traditions of Hinduism in that its followers worship a female deity, the goddess Shakti (also known as Devi).

Shaktism is sometimes practiced as a monotheistic religion, while other followers of this tradition worship a number of goddesses. This female-centered denomination is sometimes considered complementary to Shaivism, which recognizes a male deity as supreme.

The Smarta or Smartism tradition of Hinduism is somewhat more orthodox and restrictive than the other four mainstream denominations. It tends to draw its followers from the Brahman upper caste of Indian society.

Smartism followers worship five deities: Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, Ganesh and Surya. Their temple at Sringeri is generally recognized as the center of worship for the denomination.

Some Hindus elevate the Hindu trinity, which consists of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Others believe that all the deities are a manifestation of one.

Hindu Caste System

The caste system is a social hierarchy in India that divides Hindus based on their karma and dharma. Although the word “caste” is of Portuguese origin, it is used to describe aspects of the related Hindu concepts of varna (color or race) and jati (birth). Many scholars believe the system dates back more than 3,000 years.

The four main castes (in order of prominence) include:

• Brahmin: the intellectual and spiritual leaders
• Kshatriyas: the protectors and public servants of society
• Vaisyas: the skillful producers
• Shudras: the unskilled laborers

Many subcategories also exist within each caste. The “Untouchables” are a class of citizens that are outside the caste system and considered to be in the lowest level of the social hierarchy.

For centuries, the caste system determined most aspect of a person’s social, professional and religious status in India.

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When India became an independent nation, its constitution banned discrimination based on caste.

Today, the caste system still exists in India but is loosely followed. Many of the old customs are overlooked, but some traditions, such as only marrying within a specific caste, are still embraced.

Hindus observe numerous sacred days, holidays and festivals.

Some of the most well-known include:

• Diwali : the festival of lights
• Navaratri: a celebration of fertility and harvest
• Holi: a spring festival
• Krishna Janmashtami: a tribute to Krishna’s birthday
• Raksha Bandhan: a celebration of the bond between brother and sister
• Maha Shivaratri: the great festival of Shiva

Hinduism Facts. Sects of Hinduism . Hindu American Foundation. Hinduism Basics . History of Hinduism, BBC . Hinduism Fast Facts, CNN .

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Essay on Hinduism

Introduction to Hinduism

Hinduism, a complex and vibrant tapestry of beliefs and practices, is among the world’s oldest and most diverse religions. Rooted in the ancient civilizations of the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism encompasses a vast array of philosophies, rituals, and cultural expressions.

Thousands of years ago, sages, scriptures, and mythologies evolved their origins through wisdom and insights. Hinduism’s enduring appeal lies in its multifaceted approach to spirituality, embracing concepts like karma, dharma, and moksha. In this essay, we will delve into the essence of Hinduism and reveal its profound mysteries.

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Origins and Historical Development of Hinduism

The origins of Hinduism are deeply intertwined with the cultural, philosophical, and religious evolution of the Indian subcontinent. While pinpointing its exact inception is challenging, scholars often trace the roots of Hinduism to the ancient civilizations of the Indus Valley , around 2500 BCE. However, the foundations of Hinduism as we know it today began to take shape during the Vedic period, which spanned roughly from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE.

• Early Vedic Period: The Early Vedic Period (circa 1500 BCE – 600 BCE) marks the foundational phase of Hinduism, characterized by the composition of the Rigveda, the oldest of the four Vedas, which contain hymns dedicated to various deities. During this period, pastoral and agricultural communities organized society and rituals centered on offerings to deities for prosperity and well-being. The Vedic literature provides insights into the religious, social, and cultural practices of ancient Indian society, including the reverence for nature and the importance of sacrificial rites.
• Upanishadic Thought: The Upanishads, philosophical texts around 800 BCE to 200 BCE, represent a significant shift in Hindu thought from ritualistic practices to philosophical inquiry. They delve deeply into the essence of existence, the self (Atman), and ultimate reality (Brahman), establishing the framework for important philosophical themes in Hinduism. The Upanishads challenge traditional notions of divinity and offer deeper insights into the nature of reality, consciousness, and liberation (moksha).
• Evolution of Hindu Scriptures: Hindu scriptures include the Vedas, Upanishads, Epics (Mahabharata, Ramayana), and Puranas. The Vedas considered the most authoritative scriptures, contain hymns, rituals, and philosophical discussions. The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana are repositories of moral and ethical teachings, while the Puranas elaborate on cosmology, mythology, and religious practices. These scriptures reflect ancient India’s evolving religious and cultural landscape, integrating diverse traditions, beliefs, and narratives.
• Influence of Key Figures: Revered figures such as rishis (sages), gurus (spiritual teachers), and avatars (divine incarnations) shape Hinduism through their teachings and contributions. Rishis played a crucial role in transmitting sacred knowledge and preserving oral traditions through the ages. Gurus impart spiritual guidance and wisdom to their disciples, fostering spiritual growth and enlightenment. Avatars, divine manifestations of the Supreme Being, descend to Earth to restore cosmic balance and guide humanity towards righteousness and liberation.

Core Beliefs and Philosophical Foundations

In the section on “Core Beliefs and Philosophical Foundations” of Hinduism, we delve into the fundamental tenets and philosophical underpinnings that define the essence of the religion:

Concept of Brahman: The Ultimate Reality

• Definition and Nature: Brahman represents the ultimate, formless, and transcendent reality in Hinduism. It is beyond human comprehension, existing beyond the manifested world.
• Immanence and Transcendence: Brahman is both immanent, permeating the entire cosmos, and transcendent, existing beyond the material world. The duality of immanence and transcendence reflects the multifaceted nature of Brahman.
• Unity in Diversity: Despite the diverse manifestations of the divine in Hinduism, all deities are considered expressions of the underlying unity of Brahman.

Understanding Atman: The Inner Self

• Nature of Atman: Atman is each individual’s eternal, unchanging essence. It is distinct from the physical body and mind, representing the true self.
• Cycle of Rebirth (Samsara) and Karma: The soul goes through a cycle of birth, death, and reincarnation (samsara), which is driven by the law of karma. Karma refers to the consequences of one’s deeds, which affect future life conditions.
• Liberation (Moksha): Moksha is the ultimate goal, signifying liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Achieving moksha involves realizing the oneness of Atman and Brahman through spiritual knowledge and self-realization.

Law of Karma and Reincarnation (Samsara)

• Karma Defined: Karma is the law of cause and effect, determining the consequences of one’s actions. Actions can be categorized as good (punya) or bad (paap), influencing the soul’s journey through samsara.
• Samsara and Reincarnation: Samsara is the continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Reincarnation involves transmigration the soul into a new body based on accumulated karma.
• Breaking the Cycle: Moksha is the liberation from samsara, breaking the cycle of rebirth. Individuals strive to accumulate positive karma and engage in righteous actions to progress towards moksha.

Paths to Liberation

• Karma Yoga: Emphasizes selfless action and performing duties without attachment to the results. Balancing one’s responsibilities while maintaining a detached attitude leads to spiritual growth.
• Bhakti Yoga: Devotion to a personal deity fosters an emotional connection with the divine. Practitioners cultivate love and devotion through prayer, worship, and surrender, transcending ego.
• Jnana Yoga: Focuses on knowledge and wisdom, seeking to understand the nature of reality. Introspection, study of sacred texts, and contemplation lead to realizing the ultimate truth.
• Raja Yoga: Involves the practice of meditation and disciplined control of the mind and body. Through concentration and meditation, individuals attain self-realization and inner peace.

Importance of Dharma: Duty and Moral Order

• Dharma Defined: Dharma refers to one’s duty and righteous conduct according to one’s societal role. It upholds moral and ethical principles that guide individuals in leading a virtuous life .
• Four Pillars of Dharma: Dharma encompasses duties related to personal conduct (Achara), social ethics (vyavahara), personal well-being (svabhava), and spiritual practices (sadhana).
• Dharma and Social Harmony: Upholding Dharma contributes to societal harmony and the well-being of individuals and the community. It serves as the moral compass for ethical decision-making in the personal and social realms.

Deities and Divine Manifestations

In Hinduism, deities and divine manifestations play a crucial role in the religious and spiritual landscape, reflecting the multifaceted nature of the divine. Here’s a concise exploration of this aspect:

• Brahma : The creator deity responsible for manifesting the universe and all beings.
• Vishnu : The preserver deity who maintains cosmic order and incarnates on Earth to restore balance.
• Shiva : The destroyer deity who facilitates transformation and renewal, representing both destruction and regeneration.
• Devi : The supreme goddess, embodying feminine energy and representing the universe’s creative force.
• Lakshmi : The goddess of wealth, prosperity, and abundance, associated with Vishnu as his consort.
• Parvati : The consort of Shiva, embodying power, devotion, and divine energy.
• Ganesha : The elephant-headed god, worshipped as the remover of obstacles, is associated with intelligence, prosperity, and success.
• Hanuman : The monkey deity known for his unwavering devotion to Lord Rama, embodying strength, loyalty, and courage.
• Saraswati : The goddess of knowledge, music, and the arts, associated with wisdom, creativity, and learning.
• Durga : The warrior goddess who combats evil forces and represents the fierce aspect of feminine power.
• Concept of Avatar: The avatar concept involves divine incarnations, where a deity descends to Earth to fulfill a specific purpose or restore cosmic balance. Vishnu’s avatars, such as Rama and Krishna, exemplify this concept.
• Devotion (Bhakti) and Temples: Bhakti, the path of devotion, involves profound love and devotion to a chosen deity. Temples dedicated to various deities are focal points for worship, rituals, and community gatherings.
• Personal Gods and Ishta Devata: Many Hindus choose a personal deity, Ishta Devata, to whom they feel a special connection. This chosen deity becomes a focus of individual worship and devotion.
• Symbolism and Iconography: Artists often depict deities with specific symbols and iconography that convey their attributes and stories. The symbolism aids devotees in contemplating the divine qualities represented by each deity.
• Pan-Hinduism and Local Variations: Hindus universally worship specific deities but encounter regional variations with unique local deities and practices. This diversity reflects the adaptability and inclusivity within the broader framework of Hinduism.

Rituals, Festivals, and Sacred Practices

In Hinduism, rituals, festivals, and sacred practices are central to fostering spiritual growth, community cohesion, and reverence for the divine. Here’s an exploration:

Worship and Rituals:

• Puja : A ritualistic worship conducted by individuals or communities to honor deities and seek their blessings.
• Elements : Puja involves various rituals, such as offering flowers, incense, lamps, and food to the deity.
• Mantras and Prayers : Devotees chant sacred mantras and recite prayers to invoke divine presence and express devotion.  

Importance of Temples and Pilgrimage Sites

• Temples : Serve as sacred spaces dedicated to specific deities, providing a place for worship, meditation, and community gatherings.
• Pilgrimage : Hindus journey to holy sites such as Varanasi, Rishikesh, and Tirupati to seek spiritual purification and divine blessings.

Celebration of Festivals

• Diwali : Another name for the Festival of Lights, Diwali rejoices in the victory of right over wrong and light over darkness. It include eating celebratory meals, exchanging gifts, and lighting fireworks and lamps.
• Holi : The festival of colors commemorates the arrival of spring and celebrates the victory of devotion over ego. Participants engage in playful activities, music, and throwing colored powders.
• Navaratri : A nine-night festival dedicated to worshiping the divine feminine in her various forms, culminating in the celebration of Durga Puja .
• Ganesh Chaturthi : Honors the elephant-headed deity Ganesha , marking his birthday with elaborate rituals, processions, and the immersion of Ganesha idols in water bodies.

Sacraments of Life

• Birth Rituals : Ceremonies such as Namakaran (naming ceremony) and Annaprashan (first feeding of solid food) mark significant milestones in a child’s life.
• Marriage Rituals : Weddings involve elaborate ceremonies, rituals, and vows conducted according to religious scriptures and cultural traditions.
• Death Rituals : Funerary rites such as cremation or burial, along with prayers and offerings, guide the soul’s journey to the afterlife.  

Spiritual Practices

• Meditation : Practiced in various forms, such as mantra meditation, mindfulness, and breath awareness, to cultivate inner peace and spiritual insight.
• Yoga : Includes physical postures (asanas), breathing techniques (pranayama), and meditation aimed at harmonizing body, mind, and spirit.
• Scripture Study : The study of sacred texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Ramayana provides spiritual guidance and philosophical insights.

Hindu Ethics and Social Structure

In Hinduism, religious teachings, cultural norms, and philosophical principles deeply intertwine with ethics and social structure. Here’s an explanation of each point:

• Concept of Ahimsa: Ahimsa, or non-violence, is a foundational principle in Hindu ethics, emphasizing compassion, kindness, and harmlessness towards all living beings. It extends beyond physical harm to mental and emotional well-being, promoting peace and harmony in thought, word, and action. Ahimsa is embodied in the lives of spiritual leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and forms the basis for vegetarianism and animal welfare practices among Hindus.
• Caste System: The caste system, rooted in ancient Indian society, classifies individuals into hierarchical social groups based on birth, occupation, and social status. Traditionally, the caste system comprised four main varnas: Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and farmers), and Shudras (laborers). While individuals have made efforts to eradicate caste discrimination and promote social equality, challenges persist, including caste-based discrimination, social exclusion, and disparities in access to education and opportunities.
• Importance of Family, Community, and Guru-Disciple Relationship: Hindu society considers the family (kutumb) as the cornerstone, providing emotional support, moral guidance, and continuity of cultural traditions. The community (sangha) plays a vital role in fostering social cohesion, collective worship, and mutual assistance among its members. In Hinduism, disciples revere the guru-disciple relationship, with spiritual teachers (gurus) guiding them on self-discovery, moral conduct, and spiritual realization.
• Stewardship of Nature: Hinduism reveres nature as sacred and emphasizes the interconnectedness of all living beings with the environment. The concept of vasudhaiva kutumbakam (the world is one family) underscores the need for responsible stewardship and sustainable living practices. Environmental ethics in Hinduism advocate reverence for rivers, mountains, plants, and animals, promoting ecological balance and preserving natural resources.

Influence of Hinduism on Indian Culture and Beyond

The influence of Hinduism on Indian culture and beyond is profound, touching every aspect of life, including spirituality, art, philosophy, literature, and societal norms. Here’s an exploration of its impact:

• Spirituality and Philosophy: Hinduism has shaped the spiritual landscape of India, providing a diverse array of philosophical perspectives and spiritual practices. Concepts such as karma, dharma, moksha, and reincarnation have permeated Indian thought and influenced the understanding of life, death, and the purpose of existence.
• Art and Architecture: With their intricate carvings, majestic spires, and sacred sculptures, Hindu temples serve as architectural marvels and centers of spiritual worship. Iconography and symbolism in Hindu art reflect divine narratives, mythological stories, and spiritual teachings, conveying deeper philosophical truths to devotees and visitors alike.
• Literature and Epics: The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, along with other ancient texts like the Vedas and Upanishads, form the literary backbone of Hinduism. These narratives contain moral lessons, ethical dilemmas, and profound insights into human nature, shaping cultural identity and values across generations.
• Philosophical Traditions: Hindu philosophy encompasses diverse schools of thought, including Advaita Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, and Vaisheshika, offering unique metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology perspectives. These philosophical traditions have influenced not only Indian thought but also global philosophical discourse, fostering dialogue and exchange across cultural boundaries.
• Social Customs and Traditions: Hindu rituals, festivals, and social customs are deeply ingrained in Indian society, fostering a sense of community, continuity, and spiritual connection. Practices such as puja (worship), samskaras (life-cycle rituals), and sankirtan (devotional singing) serve as avenues for cultural expression and spiritual devotion.
• Cultural Expressions and Performing Arts: Indian classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, and Kuchipudi are infused with Hindu mythology and spirituality themes, serving as mediums for storytelling, expression, and devotion. Hindu themes, symbols, and metaphors have enriched music, poetry, and literature in Sanskrit, Tamil, Hindi, and Bengali languages.
• Diaspora Communities and Global Influence: Hinduism has transcended geographical boundaries, with millions of adherents forming vibrant diaspora communities worldwide. The spread of yoga, meditation, Ayurveda, and vegetarianism reflects the global influence of Hindu spirituality and holistic wellness practices.

Contemporary Challenges and Responses

In the contemporary context, Hinduism faces various challenges that necessitate thoughtful responses from practitioners, scholars, and leaders. Here are some of the key challenges and potential responses:

1. Secularism and Religious Pluralism

• Challenge: In pluralistic societies, maintaining the principles of secularism while preserving Hinduism’s cultural and religious identity can be challenging.
• Response: Emphasize the inclusive and pluralistic nature of Hinduism, promoting dialogue, understanding, and respect for diverse religious beliefs and practices.

2. Hinduism in the Modern World

• Challenge: The rapid pace of globalization , technological advancements, and societal changes present new opportunities and challenges for Hindu communities worldwide.
• Response: Adapt traditional teachings and practices to address contemporary issues such as environmental sustainability, social justice , and ethical dilemmas posed by technological advancements.

3. Addressing Social Issues

• Challenge: Persistent social issues such as caste discrimination, gender inequality , poverty, and social injustice continue to affect Hindu society.
• Response: Advocate for social reforms, education, and awareness programs that promote equality, social justice, and empowerment of marginalized communities within Hinduism.

4. Interfaith Dialogue and Harmony

• Challenge: Interfaith tensions and conflicts between religious communities can arise due to misunderstandings, stereotypes, and historical grievances.
• Response: Engage in interfaith dialogue, collaborative initiatives, and mutual respect to promote understanding, cooperation, and peaceful coexistence among diverse religious groups.

5. Preservation of Cultural Heritage

• Challenge: Rapid urbanization, modernization, and globalization threaten the preservation of Hindu cultural heritage, sacred sites, and traditional practices.
• Response: Undertake efforts to document, preserve, and promote Hindu cultural heritage, including ancient temples, art forms, rituals, and languages , through education, advocacy, and conservation initiatives.

6. Promoting Ethics and Values

• Challenge: Ethical dilemmas, moral relativism, and materialistic values challenge Hinduism’s ethical foundations and moral teachings.
• Response: Emphasize the ethical teachings of Hindu scriptures, including principles of ahimsa (non-violence), dharma (duty), karma (action), and seva (selfless service), to guide individuals in making ethical choices and leading virtuous lives.

7. Role of Hinduism in Promoting Peace

• Challenge: Political conflicts, religious extremism, and communal tensions threaten peace and stability in various regions with Hindu populations.
• Response: Advocate for peacebuilding, reconciliation, and conflict resolution efforts rooted in the principles of compassion, tolerance, and non-violence espoused by Hinduism.

With its ancient roots and profound teachings, Hinduism continues to guide cultural, spiritual, and ethical landscapes. Despite facing contemporary challenges, such as social issues and the need for adaptation to a rapidly changing world, Hinduism offers a resilient framework. Through introspection, dialogue, and an emphasis on timeless values, Hindu communities can contribute to global harmony, peace, and understanding. The enduring wisdom of Hindu philosophy serves as a beacon, inspiring individuals to navigate the complexities of the modern era while upholding the timeless principles of compassion, righteousness, and spiritual enlightenment.

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Hinduism for Beginners

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Hinduism is the world's oldest extant religion, and with more than a billion followers, it is also the world's third largest religion . Hinduism is a conglomeration of religious, philosophical, and cultural ideals and practices that originated in India thousands of years before the birth of Christ. Hinduism remains the dominant faith practiced in India and Nepal today.

A Definition of Hinduism

Unlike other religions, Hindus view their faith as an all-encompassing way of life with a complex system that comprises beliefs and traditions, an advanced system of ethics, meaningful rituals, philosophy, and theology. Hinduism is characterized by belief in reincarnation, called Samsara ; one absolute being with multiple manifestations and related deities; the law of cause and effect, called Karma ; a call to follow the path of righteousness by engaging in spiritual practices ( yogas )   and prayers ( bhakti ); and the desire for liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth. 

Unlike Islam or Christianity, Hinduism's origins cannot be traced to any one individual. The earliest of the Hindu scriptures, the Rig Veda , was composed well before 6500 B.C., and the roots of the faith can be traced as far back as 10,000 B.C. The word "Hinduism" is not to be found anywhere in the scriptures, and the term "Hindu" was introduced by foreigners referring to people living across the River Indus or Sindhu, in the north of India, around which the Vedic religion is believed to have originated. 

Watch Now: 20 Facts About Hinduism

Basic tenets.

At its core, Hinduism teaches four  Purusarthas,  or goals of human life:

• Dharma (ethics and duties)
• Artha (work and prosperity)
• Kama (passion and desires)
• Moksha (liberation from the cycle of samsara)

Of these beliefs, Dharma is most important in day-to-day life because it is what will lead to Moksha and the end. If Dharma is neglected in favor of the more material pursuits of Artha and Kama, then life becomes chaotic, and Moksha cannot be attained.

Key Scriptures

The basic scriptures of Hinduism, which are collectively referred to as Shastras,  are essentially a collection of spiritual laws discovered by different saints and sages at different points in its long history. Two types of sacred writings comprise the Hindu scriptures: Shruti (heard) and Smriti (memorized). They were passed on from generation to generation orally for centuries before they were written down, mostly in the Sanskrit language. The major and most popular Hindu texts include the Bhagavad Gita , the Upanishads , and the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata . 

Major Deities

Adherents to Hinduism believe that there is only one supreme Absolute, called Brahman . However, Hinduism does not advocate the worship of any one particular deity. The gods and goddesses of Hinduism number in the thousands or even millions, all representing the many aspects of Brahman. Therefore, this faith is characterized by the multiplicity of deities. The most fundamental of Hindu deities is the divine trinity of Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva (the destroyer). Hindus also worship spirits, trees, animals, and planets. 

Hindu Festivals

The Hindu calendar is lunisolar, based on the cycles of the sun and moon. Like the Gregorian calendar, there are 12 months in the Hindu year, and a number of festivals and holidays are associated with the faith throughout the year. Many of these holy days celebrate the many Hindu deities, such as  Maha Shivaratri , which honors Shiva and the triumph of wisdom over ignorance. Other festivals celebrate aspects of life that are important to Hindus, such as family bonds. One of the most auspicious events is  Raksha Bandhan , when brothers and sisters celebrate their relationship as siblings.

Practicing Hinduism

Unlike other religions like Christianity, which have elaborate rituals for joining the faith, Hinduism does not have any such prerequisites. Being a Hindu means practicing the tenets of the religion, following the  Purusarthas,  and conducting one's life in accordance with the faith's philosophies through compassion, honesty, prayer, and self-restraint.

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• Introduction
• The term Hinduism
• General nature of Hinduism
• Veda, Brahmans, and issues of religious authority
• Doctrine of atman - brahman
• Karma, samsara, and moksha
• Dharma and the three paths
• Ashrama s: the four stages of life

Indo-European sources

• Other sources: the process of “Sanskritization”
• Indigenous prehistoric religion
• Religion in the Indus valley civilization
• Survival of archaic religious practices
• The Vedic period (2nd millennium–7th century bce )
• Challenges to Brahmanism (6th–2nd century bce )
• The rise of the major sects: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism
• The development of temples
• The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific
• Questions of influence on the Mediterranean world
• The rise of devotional Hinduism (4th–11th century)
• The challenge of Islam and popular religion
• Temple complexes
• Sectarian movements
• Bhakti movements
• Brahmo Samaj
• Ramakrishna Mission
• Theosophical Society
• Aurobindo Ashram
• Other reform movements
• Mahatma Gandhi
• The religious situation after independence
• Hinduism outside India
• Importance of the Vedas
• The components of the Vedas
• The Rigveda
• The Yajurveda and Samaveda
• The Atharvaveda
• The Brahmanas and Aranyakas
• Cosmogony and cosmology
• Ethical and social doctrines
• The sacred: nature, humanity, and God
• Vedic and Brahmanic rites
• The Upanishads
• The Vedangas
• Dharma-sutras and Dharma-shastras
• Smriti texts
• The Ramayana
• The Mahabharata
• The Bhagavadgita
• Myths of time and eternity
• Stories of the gods
• Vaishnavism
• Narratives of culture heroes
• Myths of holy rivers and holy places
• Philosophical sutras and the rise of the Six Schools of philosophy
• Shaiva Agamas
• Vaishnava Samhitas
• Shakta Tantras
• Nature of Tantric tradition
• Tantric and Shakta views of nature, humanity, and the sacred
• Tantric ritual and magical practices
• Tantric and Shakta ethical and social doctrines
• Vernacular literatures
• Divination, spirit possession, and healing
• Women’s religious practices
• Samskara s: rites of passage
• Daily offerings
• Other private rites
• Temple worship
• Shaiva rites
• Vaishnava rites
• Sacred times and festivals
• Social structure
• Social protest
• Renunciants and the rejection of social order
• Sectarian symbols
• Yantra and mandala
• Lingam and yoni
• Visual theology in icons
• Religious principles in sculpture and painting
• Religious organization of sacred architecture
• Theater and dance
• Hinduism and religions of Indian origin
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• Diasporic Hinduism

The history of Hinduism

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• Table Of Contents

The history of Hinduism in India can be traced to about 1500 bce . Evidence of Hinduism’s early antecedents is derived from archaeology, comparative philology , and comparative religion .

Sources of Hinduism

The earliest literary source for the history of Hinduism is the Rigveda , consisting of hymns that were composed chiefly during the last two or three centuries of the 2nd millennium bce . The religious life reflected in this text is not that of contemporary Hinduism but of an earlier sacrificial religious system, referred to by scholars as Brahmanism or Vedism , which developed in India among Indo-European -speaking peoples. Scholars from the period of British colonial rule postulated that this branch of a related group of nomadic and seminomadic tribal peoples, originally inhabiting the steppe country of southern Russia and Central Asia , brought with them the horse and chariot and the Sanskrit language . These scholars further averred that other branches of these peoples penetrated into Europe, bringing with them the Indo-European languages that developed into the chief language groups now spoken there. These theories have been disputed, however, and the historical homeland of the Indo-Europeans continues to be a matter of academic and political controversy.

The Vedic people were in close contact with the ancestors of the Iranians, as evidenced by similarities between Sanskrit and the earliest surviving Iranian languages . Thus, the religion of the Rigveda contains elements from three strata: an element common to most of the Indo-European groups, an element held in common with the early Iranians, and an element appearing only in the Indian subcontinent . Hinduism arose from multiple sources and from the geniuses of individual reformers in all periods.

Present-day Hinduism contains few direct survivals from its Indo-European heritage . Some of the elements of the Hindu wedding ceremony, notably the circumambulation of the sacred fire and the cult of the domestic fire itself, are rooted in the remote Indo-European past. The same is probably true of some aspects of the ancestor cult. The Rigveda contains many other Indo-European elements, such as ritual sacrifices and the worship of male sky gods, including the old sky god Dyaus , whose name is cognate with those of Zeus of ancient Greece and Jupiter of Rome (“Father Jove”). The Vedic heaven , the “world of the fathers,” resembles the Germanic Valhalla and seems also to be an Indo-European inheritance .

The Indo-Iranian element in later Hinduism is chiefly found in the ceremony of initiation, or “second birth” ( upanayana ), a rite also found in Zoroastrianism . Performed by boys of the three “twice-born” upper classes, it involves the tying of a sacred cord. Another example of the common Indo-Iranian heritage is the Vedic god Varuna . Although now an unimportant sea god, Varuna, as portrayed in the Rigveda, possesses many features of the Zoroastrian supreme deity Ahura Mazdā (“Wise Lord”). A third example can be seen in the sacred drink soma , which corresponds to the sacred haoma of Zoroastrianism.

Even in the earlier parts of the Rigveda, however, the religion displays numerous Indian features that are not evident in Indo-Iranian traditions. Some of the chief gods, for example, have no clear Indo-European or Indo-Iranian counterparts. Although some of these features may have evolved entirely within the Vedic framework, it is generally presumed that many of them stem from the influence of inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent who had no connection with Indo-European peoples. For example, some scholars attribute non-Vedic features of Hinduism to a people who are often vaguely and incorrectly called “Dravidian,” a term that refers to a family of languages and not an ethnic group . Some scholars have further argued that the ruling classes of the Indus civilization , also called the Harappa culture ( c. 2500–1700 bce ), spoke a Dravidian language and have tentatively identified their script with that of a Dravidian language. But there is little supporting evidence for this claim, and the presence of Dravidian speakers throughout the whole subcontinent at any time in history is not attested.

Other sources: the process of “ Sanskritization ”

The development of Hinduism can be interpreted as a constant interaction between the religion of the upper social groups, represented by the Brahmans, and the religion of other groups. From the time of the Vedas ( c. 1500 bce ), people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms. This development resulted from the desire of lower-class groups to rise on the social ladder by adopting the ways and beliefs of the higher castes. Further, many local deities were identified with the gods and goddesses of the Puranas .

The process, sometimes called “Sanskritization,” began in Vedic times and was probably the principal method by which the Hinduism of the Sanskrit texts spread through the subcontinent and into Southeast Asia . Sanskritization still continues in the form of the conversion of tribal groups, and it is reflected in the persistence of the tendency among some Hindus to identify rural and local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts. Sanskritization also refers to the process by which some Hindus try to raise their status by adopting high-caste customs, such as wearing the sacred cord and becoming vegetarians .

If Sanskritization has been the main means of connecting the various local traditions throughout the subcontinent, the converse process, which has no convenient label, has been one of the means whereby Hinduism has changed and developed over the centuries. Many features of Hindu mythology and several popular gods—such as Ganesha , an elephant-headed god, and Hanuman , the monkey god—were incorporated into Hinduism and assimilated into the appropriate Vedic gods by this means. Similarly, the worship of many goddesses who are now regarded as the consorts of the great male Hindu gods, as well as the worship of individual unmarried goddesses, may have arisen from the worship of non-Vedic local goddesses. Thus, the history of Hinduism can be interpreted as the interplay between orthoprax custom and the practices of wider ranges of people and, complementarily, as the survival of features of local traditions that gained strength steadily until they were adapted by the Brahmans.

Essays on Hinduism

Hinduism is one of the most sublime religions of the world. The world is slow to recognize its importance in the development of human thought and acknowledge its contribution in the progress of our civilization. Only in recent times, it has been gaining the attention of intellectuals and educated people in various parts of the world. The popularity of yoga, migration of educated middleclass Indians, the teachings of many spiritual teachers who travel the world and the growth of internet are largely responsible for this. The following essays cover a wide range of subjects explaining the beliefs, philosophy and practices of Hinduism. However, these are not the only essays on Hinduism available at Hinduwebsite.com. Please check other links in the menu above and the links in the right column.

The Six Enemies on the Path of Liberation

The Roots of Atheism in Hinduism

Prana and its Connection with Karma and Dharma

The True Meaning and Practice of Ahimsa or Nonviolence

Sat and Asat, What is the Difference?

Four Unique Facts About Hinduism

How Old is Hinduism?

The Four Stages of Creation or Manifestation

Why Material Things Are Shunned by Spiritual People?

Consciousness According to Hinduism and Buddhism

Idealism and Pragmatism in Hinduism

Tantra in the Early Vedic Tradition

Attaining Oneness With Shiva

The Vaishesika Theory of Nonexistence

Four Paths to Practice Dharma in Hinduism

Buddhism Vs. Hinduism Compared and Contrasted

Rape and Sexual Violence in Hinduism

How Reality Manifests in Creation

Samasta Lokah Sukhino Bhavantu

Gods and Humans: The Right Way to Worship Our Gods

The Meaning of Vedanta and Siddhanta Explained

The Nature of Spiritual Experience

Is God in Hinduism Male or Female?

God and Creation in Hinduism

Idealism in Hinduism An Overview

Holographic Principle and Advaita Vedanta

Ten Signs That a Guru Is a Fraud or a Fake

Parinama Vada or the Law of Causation in Hinduism

Essential Guide to Fasting For Hindus

Emotions and Equanimity

Karma Doctrine in Hinduism and Buddhism

The importance of food in Hindu Worship

Some thoughts on Image Worship or Idol Worship in Hinduism

Hinduism or Sanatana Dharma?

Fifty Shades of Karma

A Pledge For Hindus to Uphold Sanatana Dharma

Why Idol Worship or Image Worship is Justified in Hinduism?

The Self or Soul As Pure Consciousness

Life’s Lessons from Mother Nature

The Complexity of Knowing Hinduism

The Duality of Shakti, the Two Faces of Creation

The Four Virtues of Varnashrama Dharma

The Difficulties of Spiritual Life

Svadhyaya or Self-Study in Hinduism

How to Prepare for the Difficulties of Spiritual Life

Me, Myself and Maya

Who is the Dwarf in the Cosmic Dance of Shiva?

The Sacred Animals of Hinduism

Hinduism and Numerology

Ten Incredible Reasons Why Hinduism is an Amazing Religion

How To Find Peace Within Yourself

The Mathematical Basis of Life As a Play of Numbers and Equations

The Amazing Power of Manasa Puja or Mental Worship

Human Worship in Hinduism

The Nature of Consciousness

Theism and Atheism in Hinduism

What is the Color of God?

What is Hindu Dharma?

Symbolism of Ganga As the Purifier and Liberator

Kaivalya, the State of Aloneness

Can Downloading Mind Into a Computer Help Humans to Reconnect to Their Past Lives?

Are You Stuck Between Being and Becoming?

The Symbolism of Mahishasura Mardini

Does God Take Birth?

What is Your Notion of God?

The Meaning and Significance of Heart in Hinduism

Do You Have Any Plans For Your Rebirth or Reincarnation?

Does God Control Your Life?

The Origin and Significance of the Epic Mahabharata

Letting your God live in You - The True Essence of the Hindu Way of Life

Maslow's Hierarchy Of Needs From The Perspective Of Hinduism

Significance of Happiness in Hinduism

Why Hinduism is a Preferred Choice for Educated Hindus

The Construction of Hinduism

Three Myths about Hinduism

Significance of Death in Hinduism

Self-knowledge, Difficulties in Knowing Yourself

Lessons from the Dance of Kali, the Mother Nature

Hinduism and Diversity

Creation in Hinduism As a Transformative Evolutionary Process

Devotion and Meditation in Hinduism

Advaita For Practical People

The Role of Archakas, Temple Priests, in Hinduism

Will Hinduism Take Over Christianity?

The True Meaning of Bhakti or Devotion

Morality in Hinduism

Hinduism - The Death of a Child

The Ego and the Myth of Me and Mine

Hinduism - Sex and Gurus

The Coming Age of Darkness - A Prophecy

The Amazing Abilities of the Mind

Living in the Present is True Living

Hinduism and Creation of Life By Extraterrestrial Aliens

What is Sanatana Dharma?

The Wisdom of the Bhagavadgita

Your Natural State of Mind

Treatment of Animals in Hinduism

Ascetic Traditions and Practices in Hinduism

Aspects, Emanations, Incarnations and Forms of God Vishnu

Caste System and the Varnasrama Dharma in Hinduism

Shedding Light on Atman, the True Self

Om, Aum, Pranava or Nada in Mantra and Yoga traditions

Gender Bias in Hinduism

Brahmacharya or Celibacy in Hinduism

Brahman According to Advaita and Dvaita in Hinduism

Brahman As The Priest of the Creation Sacrifice

Breath or Prana in the Upanishads

Atheism and Materialism in Ancient India

Solving the Hindu Caste System

How To Choose Your Spiritual Guru?

Origin and History of Hinduism and Hinduism Related Words

Why is Hinduism Called Sanatana Dharma?

Hinduism and Homosexuality

Hinduism and Same-sex Marriage

Wealth and Duty in Hinduism

Fate And Free Will In Hinduism

Four Types of Intelligence

Science and the Future of Hinduism

The Bhagavadgita on Bhakti or Devotion

The Bhagavadgita on Who is a True Yogi

The Bhagavadgita on Brahman and Liberation

The Bhagavadgita on the Influence of Gunas

The Bhagavadgita on the Qualities A Jnana Yogi

The Bhagavadgita on Faith or Sraddha

The Bhagavadgita on Perfection in Duty

The Bhagavadgita on How God Answers Your Prayers

The Bhagavadgita on Truth, Bliss and Stability

The Bhagavadgita on Worshipping gods and ancestors

Symbolism in the Bhagavadgita

Why do we need God? A Lesson From the Mahabharata

The Vedic Symbolism of Gods and Demons

The Body as an Abode of Gods

Hinduism - The Faith Eternal

Understanding Death and Impermanance

Worship of one God, Monotheism in Hinduism

Is Islam a Copy of Hinduism?

Jivanmukti, the state of Liberation

Vidya and Avidya in Vedanta

The Concept of Liberation, Moksha or Nirvana

Hinduism - Upanishads - Mahavakyas

prajnanam brahma - Brahman is Intelligence

Who am I? Aham Brahmasmi

Who are You? Tat Tvamasi

Marriages in Hinduism

The Defintion and Concept of Maya in Hinduism

Maya in the Bhagavadgita

Dhyana or Meditation In Hindu Tradition

The Bhagavadgita in Management Practice

Should we call Hinduism Sanatana Dharma?

The Meaning of Nirvana

Sanskrit word play in Beggar's opera

Panca Darsana - A New Theory of Knowledge

Yoga Sutras of Patanajali

History of Hinduism - Tribal Traditions

What is the Purpose of Human Life?

An Example Of Racisim Against Indians

Shiva in the English Nursery Poem, Ring around the Rosy

Sadhana Chatushtayam - Way to Salvation

Famous Saints of Hinduism From Maharashtra

The Eternal and Temporal Aspects of Hinduism

English words that are actually Sanskrit-like

English words from Sanskrit

A Critical Study of the Chronology of Siddhas

Ashtavakra Gita on Tattvajna - Liberated Person

Polytheism and Monotheism in Hinduism

Transcending All Barriers of Individuality

Vedanta Definition, Purpose and Importance

Vedic Sacrifice

Wealth According to the Beliefs of Hinduism

What is Truth?

Benefits of Yoga on Life and Longevity

Yoga Exercises and Techniques

Yoga's Best Kept Secrets

Yoga Sutras - A Brief Summary

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Hinduism: What Is Its Essence and Uniqueness? Essay

Introduction, list of references.

Hinduism which is the third largest religion in the world is practiced by a large number of people living in Asia, particularly India and Nepal. This religion is also practiced among large populations living in other continents with over nine million followers all over the world. A census in Britain showed that 1% of the populations are Hindus. It is believed that Hinduism is the oldest religion on earth (started in 563 B.C) and still it cannot be easily defined. The reason for this is because of the almost infinite range of practices and beliefs encompassed in it. “This religious conviction is again intimately linked conceptually and traditionally with other Indian beliefs i.e. Buddhism and Sikhism (Michaela, 2005).

Unlike other religions in the world today, Hinduism (Sanata Dharma or the eternal law) does not have one founder. Again it does not have one script or a common teaching set to be followed. “Throughout its extensive history, there have been many key figures teaching different philosophies and writing numerous holy books. Because of this, authors often refer to Hinduism as a way of life or a family of religions rather than one religion” (Michaela, 2005).

As shown by Michaela (2005), by 15 th centaury Hinduism was not widely spread. It was only used as differentiating factor between Hindus and other religions (especially Muslims in Kashmir). The addition of ‘ism’ was done by colonialists from Britain together with some missionaries. Therefore this paper is going to focus on the religion of Hinduism. The paper will show the essence of Hinduism, explain what makes it different from other religions, show what makes it unique and finally conclude by highlighting on what Hinduism really is.

Hinduism and its essence majorly lie in 3 supreme demonstrations. These are “the manifestation creation and the creator, the manifestation of survival and protection and the manifestation of extinction and transformation. Hindus believe that the cosmos and the galaxy revolve around these concepts together with recycles of birth and reincarnations” (Rajaram, 2010).

Hindus recognize “Lord Brahma as the creator, lord Vishnu as the protector and lord Shiva as the destroyer. The three mentioned gods again form the essence of Hinduism’ (Rajaram, 2010). A variety of postulates and myths in deferent times illustrate that there was a split between the followers of lords Shiva and Vishnu.

The Shaivites and Vaishnavites become different distinct cults at one point waging war against each other. “Untrue myths cropped up at one particular time showing that lord Shiva was a Dravidian god and Vishnu an Aryan god. In general though, the followers of lord Shiva dwell in the mountains while those who worship Vishnu are plain dwellers” (Rajaram, 2010).

All through the surge of the Jains and Buddhists this religion was cut down to area predilections and territories in which kings had policies with regard to religious convictions. After this, there came the pagan and naga who followed Kali. Subsequently, the Bakhti movement followed where Adishankara combined the trinity of this religion and Shakthi worship. This connected Hindu gods showing that they are related. So the essence of Hinduism can be grasped in the following way; “Shiva the cosmic force and master of metaphysics, inner energy, vitality and reproduction, Vishnu the master of health and material benefits, human joys and sorrows then Brahma the god of creativity. The three gods are the essence of Hinduism” (Rajaram, 2010).

On the other hand as shown by (Ankush, 2006), Hinduism encompasses a wide range philosophies starting from theism that is pluralistic to complete monism. Hinduism has again changed with researchers and philosophers adding information to the knowledge already build up over so many years. This religion is the only one in the world which doesn’t have a single teacher, a single faith or a single book to go by. According to (Ankush, 2006), the diversity of this religion promotes a great culture. The different institutions teaching Hindu philosophies contribute to the huge tradition of traditions and belief. They trust in “Karma, Dharma, reincarnation, all-pervasive divinity, temple worship, sacraments, manifold deities, the yoga, the guru-sishya tradition and reliance on the Vedas as scriptural authority” (Ankush, 2006).

Hinduism is completely different from other religions in various ways. First of all, there is no particular individual who has been accredited to have been the founder of this religion as compared to Christianity or Islam. There’s also no religious book that governs the followers of this religion. Another aspect of difference is that, it has no form of association or central organization such as a church or mosque. It has also been known to incorporate varied thoughts and values into its structure while complying with other religions. This is because it has a variety of trails to salvation and does not support organized efforts to proselytize people (Ravi, 2000). Hinduism has also been changing through time from one stage to another therefore it is not static as compared to other religions. The restructuring has been via internal reforms as a way of response to the intimidation posed by other religious convictions.

Being the oldest religion in the world, Hinduism is unique in its own way in the sense that it has no known source or origin but is a tradition that has been in existence for centuries. In other words, it is a culture of the Hindu people and therefore a dynamic way of life where by no known doctrine is strictly followed or obeyed. Consequently, various religious thoughts, doctrines, practices and different views are incorporated into this complex theology.

Hinduism is also unique in that it has never been static but went on evolving from stage to stage. “In the process it transformed itself due to contributions made by selfless scholars, seers, kings and emperors over a vast period of time” (Ravi, 2010). In the process again, it has grown in strength making it survive the onslaught of foreign religions at the same time making it hard for foreigners to take up the practices. The way in which the natives follow their religious practices is again unique in that there’s freedom for one to follow his/her own path in life. All in all it is true that, Hinduism practices have the identical principles and provide intelligibility of deliberations in spiritual matters.

In a synopsis we can say Hinduism is practiced by over 80 percent of Indians who consider subsequent incarnations to be depended on how early life was lived. The followers again “believe in a supreme God whose qualities and forms are represented by the multitude of deities which emanate from him, they believe that the existence is a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth governed by Karma” (Michaela, 2005).

Ankush, S. (2006). Hindu religion . Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Michaela, R. (2005). Hinduism . London. McGraw hill.

Rajaram, N. (2010). The essence of Hinduism . Rawat publishers.

Ravi, N. (2000). Hindu doctrines. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

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What Does “Hindu” Mean?

A Context for Diversity

Many Gods and One

Agni: The Fire Altar

Veda: Scripture and Authority

Brahman and Atman: That Art Thou

Vedanta: The Way of Wisdom

Bhakti: The Way of Devotion

Karma: The Way of Action

Dharma: The Social Order

Abodes of God: Temple and Image

The Hindu Diaspora

Trade and Transcendentalism

Vivekananda at the Parliament

The Vedanta Society

Yogananda and American Yoga

The Rush of Gurus

The New Hindu Immigrants

The Temple Builders

American Hinduism

Building a Temple

Consecration: Kumbhabhishekam

Murti: The Image of God

Lamp Offerings: Hindu Worship

Ganesha: the Lord of Beginnings

Balaji: Vishnu in America

Rama, Sita, Hanuman

The Great Night of Shiva

Krishna’s Chariot Festival

Many Ma’s: Goddess in America

Ashram: The Forest Retreat

Upanayana: The Sacred Thread

The Future of Temples?

Many Traditions, Many Peoples

What is Hinduism?

Hindu Summer Camps

Yoga, Health, the New Age

Serving the Dying

Hindu Revival on Campus

Image Gallery

New York’s India Day Parade will not remove controversial Hindu tribute

Us advocacy groups raise awareness for plight of bangladeshi hindus, online schools bridge the gap between yoga mat and ph.d..

• Devi, Sarada
• Ramakrishna Mission
• rajagopuram
• Swami, Pramukh

Hinduism Timeline

0a5d7dfe9c44534ec205d6c50f7d7c01, hinduism in the world (text), c. 2500-1500 bce indus valley civilization.

Around 2500 BCE, a sophisticated urban society emerged from the agrarian village culture of the Indus River Valley and declined, for unknown reasons, within a thousand years. The remains of the two cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa reveal aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization that may have influenced the later Hindu tradition: bathing tanks, “goddess” worship, yoga-like meditation, and a Shiva-like figure.

c. 1500-1000 BCE Aryan migration

The highly mobile warrior tribes of the Aryans moved into Northwest India in successive waves between 1500-1000 BCE, encountering the remnants of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Aryans brought their own religious tradition, termed Vedism, which featured a pantheon of deities, fire offerings, and a rudimentary social hierarchy system.

c. 1400-900 BCE Composition of the Vedas

The earliest sacred literature of what came to be called Hinduism, the four Vedas, were composed orally in Sanskrit, the language of the Indo-European Aryans. The oldest of the Vedas, the Rig Veda, is a collection of hymns to the Vedic deities. The Sama Veda and Yajur Veda contain melodies for chanting the hymns and ritual formulas. The Atharva Veda is a more miscellaneous compilation, a large part of which is magical charms.

c. 1000-600 BCE Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Early Upanishads Composed

Throughout the early half of the first millennium BCE, each of the four Vedas accumulated a tradition of secondary scriptures: the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. The Brahmanas elaborated on the sacrificial rites, while the Aranyakas and the Upanishads took up the philosophical questioning first seen in the Vedas. The world-renouncer ideal also emerged in these texts.

c. 600-200 BCE Composition of the Later Upanishads

The later Upanishads were composed between 600-200 BCE. They continued to explore philosophical questions, the practice of renunciation, and knowledge of the identity of ultimate reality (Brahman) with the self (Atman). Some of these Upanishads also emphasized devotion to a personal god (theism) and the practice of yoga rather than renunciation.

500 BCE-500 CE The Consolidation of the Indic Traditions

Empires alternately rose and fell in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent between 500 BCE - 500 CE. During this time, the Buddhist and Jain traditions emerged and Hindu traditions of thought, ethics, ritual, and theism became more distinctly formulated. The epics, early puranas, law codes, and philosophical systems such as Vedanta all stem from this period.

500 BCE- 300 CE Mahabharata Legend and Epic

India’s great epic, the Mahabharata, began as a mythico-historical poem of a great war. Over centuries of oral retellings and elaborations, the Sanskrit poem grew into a vast, encyclopedic work, said to be 100,000 verses long and encompassing all of Hindu religious life. The poem is generally attributed to Vyasa, and as the Mahabharata says of itself, “Whatever is written here, may also be found elsewhere; but what is not found here, will not be found anywhere.”

500 BCE-200 CE Ramayana Legend and Epic

Although much shorter and more unified than the Mahabharata, India’s second epic, the Ramayana, is also an old story, told in brief within the Mahabharata. It underwent the same process of a lengthy period of composition (between 500 BCE - 200 CE) in which it was reworked several times. Therefore, like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana contains a wealth of Hindu lore. It is generally attributed to the poet Valmiki, and has received numerous vernacular retellings over the centuries.

c. 300-100 BCE First Evidence of Temple Worship

Inscriptions and literary sources dating from the third to first centuries BCE indicate that temples to Krishna, Vishnu, and other deities existed by this time.

c. 200 BCE-100 CE Composition of the Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita is often considered the most famous of Hindu texts and is part of the longer epic, the Mahabharata. It is Krishna’s teaching to the warrior Arjuna at the edge of the battlefield. The teaching is a synthesis of different strands of Hindu religiosity: the wisdom of the Upanishadic tradition, the ethics of the kshatriya (warrior) tradition, and the emerging devotion to God of the bhakti tradition.

c. 100-500 CE Expansion to Southeast Asia

The Hindu tradition spread to Southeast Asia throughout the 2nd-6th centuries CE, through trade, conquest, and colonization. Hindu communities began to develop in the areas that are today Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Burma, Malaysia, and Thailand.

c. 400 CE The Rise of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shakta Traditions

The three major theistic traditions have beginnings during this time and emerge in subsequent centuries. The Vaishnava tradition focused on devotion to Vishnu, especially Krishna. The Shaiva tradition focused on devotion to Shiva, and the Shakta tradition held the Goddess as the focus of devotion. Tantrism also began to emerge during this time in Bengal, Assam, Andhra, and the Northwest.

c. 500-1300 CE Bhakti Movement and Temple Building in South India

In South India, the Nayanmars, Tamil poet-saints (6th - 8th centuries), addressed their devotions to Shiva and their work became part of the Shaiva Siddhanta canon. The Alvars (8th-9th centuries) addressed their songs and devotions to Vishnu that were collected in the Divya Prabhandam. This period marked the rise and spread of the bhakti movement in South India and temples became important as religious centers, conceived of as the dwelling places of the gods on earth.

c. 788-820 CE Adi Shankara

Shankara, an Indian philosopher, sought to unify and revive Hinduism in the face of challenges from Buddhism and Jainism from without and divisiveness from within. Propounding the Advaita (non-dualist) interpretation of the Upanishads, Shankara traveled throughout India setting up monasteries at the four compass points and establishing the lineage of Shankaracharyas at each location.

c. 848-1279 CE Chola Dynasty in Tamilnadu

The Cholas established a kingdom in Tamilnadu, which was later extended to Kerala and Sri Lanka. The Chola period saw the art of bronze casting reach its peak, leaving many beautiful temple images as a legacy. Many monuments of Hindu temple architecture were built under the Cholas.

c. 1056-1137 CE Ramanuja

Ramanuja, an Indian philosopher and social reformer, developed the Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualist/monist) Vedanta. A Shri Vaishnava acharya and resident head of the temple and monastery at Srirangam in South India, Ramanuja was the most influential of the Vaishnava teachers.

1336-1646 CE Vijayanagara Empire

The last Hindu empire in India had its capital at today’s Hampi in northern Karnataka. Its holdings extended as far as Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. After a major defeat in 1565 CE to the Deccan sultanates, the empire declined until 1646.

1300s-1500s Bhakti Movement in North India

Following the spread of bhakti from South India through the western and central regions, the fourteenth through sixteenth centuries CE saw the flowering of Hindi and Bengali devotional poetry in North India. Poet-saints such as Kabir, Surdas, and Mirabai became the songsters of new Vaishnava devotional movements, while Nanak’s songs became foundational to the emergent Sikh tradition.

1479-1531 CE Vallabha and Pushtimarga

Vallabha founded the Pushtimarga, or Way of Grace, emphasizing that devotion to God is an end in itself and not a means to something else. The child Krishna is primarily the focus of devotion and service; the ascetic life is rejected in favor of the householder whose pure devotion is a path to salvation.

1500s CE Portuguese in India

In the decade that Columbus sailed West to the “Indies,” the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama sailed around the horn of Africa to India, landing on Malabar coast of India in 1498 CE. This was the beginning of Portuguese presence in India. The colonization of Goa began with Alfonso de Albuquerque in 1510. St. Francis Xavier, the founder of the Jesuit order, arrived in Goa in 1542.

1486-1533 CE Chaitanya

Chaitanya revitalized Krishna worship in Bengal, spurring the Gaudiya Vaishnava movement. He popularized the practice of public kirtan, or chanting in praise to Krishna. Through the agency of the Gosvami clan, he also revitalized Krishna worship in Vrindavan. Some saw him as an incarnation of Krishna and his beloved Radha in a single body.

c. 1532-1623 CE Tulsidas

Tulsidas, a Benarsi Brahman, authored the Ramcharitmanas, the famous and beloved Hindi-language epic on the life of Rama. This Hindi poetry is known and memorized far and wide in North India and the story of the Ramayana of Tulsidas is enacted each fall at the Ram Lila in Banaras and in the compound of the King of Kashi across the Ganga.

1100 - 1900 CE Islamic Kingdoms in India

Various Islamic ventures into India from Central Asia and Afghanistan. Beginning with Mahmud or Ghazni and Mahmud of Ghor and then the Delhi Sultanate, followed by the Lodi Kings, then the Mughals. The Mughal period from the 16th to the 18th centuries was a high water mark of north India’s art, architecture, and culture. Muslim and Hindu relations were varied, from extreme tension to forms of Sufi mysticism that were cousins to some of the Hindu songster saints.

1500 - 1600s CE British in India

While British colonies were being established in New England and Virginia, British trading posts were also being established in India. In 1608, the first British ship landed at Surat on India’s west coast. Fort St. George, which would become the city of Madras, was established on the southeastern coast in 1644. Fort William, which would become Calcutta, was established on the Bay of Bengal in 1696.

1765-1947 CE British Raj

In Bengal in 1765, the mercantile East India Company was the defacto ruler of its large trading centers in India. It began collecting revenues, ruling the territories under British control on behalf of the Crown until 1858. In that year, the British crown took over direct rule of India, which it held until 1947.

1772-1833 CE Ram Mohan Roy

The first of the leading modern Hindu reformers, Ram Mohan Roy ushered in the Hindu Renaissance. Fluent in Sanskrit, Persian, and English he articulated a perspective which blended Hindu teachings and those of other monotheistic faiths. He was a champion of modernization and Western scientific and educational methods.

1830s CE Indian Emigration

In the wake of the abolition of slavery in the British Empire (1833), Indians emigrated throughout the empire, many as indentured laborers. The process accelerated in the 1870s as India faced population pressures and rising poverty. Indian settlements grew up in Mauritius, Fiji, Malaysia, Burma, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, South Africa, Jamaica, Trinidad, and British Guyana.

1836-1886 CE Ramakrishna of Bengal

A reclusive priest at the Dakshineswar Temple near Kolkata, Ramakrishna was a devotee of Kali and recognized as an enlightened saint by Bengalis. He was sought by hundreds for his advice and blessings and was guru to a circle of disciples. After his death, his disciple Vivekananda launched the Ramakrishna Mission, advocating social reforms and religious programs, establishing schools, and building hospitals.

1869-1948 CE Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

Employing the forms of active nonviolent resistance that he had honed in the Indian civil rights campaign in South Africa, Gandhi led the struggle in India to gain independence from British rule. He also worked to eliminate untouchability, to develop economic self-sufficiency, and to reconcile Hindus and Muslims. His faithful adherence to ahimsa, or “non-violence,” and his dedication to serving others have earned him the name “Mahatma,” or “great soul.”

1861-1941 CE Rabindranath Tagore

A Bengali poet, novelist, and playwright, Tagore won the 1913 Nobel Prize in Literature for his Gitanjali, a collection of religious poems. He began a school at Shantiniketan in Bengal and he lectured tirelessly on the dangers of chauvinistic nationalism he observed in the West.

1893 CE Swami Vivekananda at the World Parliament of Religions

Sent by his guru, Ramakrishna, to address the Parliament of the World’s Religions in 1893, Swami Vivekananda offered speeches that electrified the Chicago audience. Following the Parliament, Vivekananda spent two years traveling the U.S.,speaking and establishing Vedanta societies. He promoted nonsectarian Hinduism and religious universalism, seeking to spread Hindu values in the West but also welcoming expressions of other religions and cultures in the Vedanta centers. He returned to India with a sense of social mission, establishing the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 to work for social uplift through relief organizations, hospitals, and schools.

1947 CE India’s Independence and Partition

The Indian freedom movement was unable to reconcile the competing claims of the secular Indian National Congress and the Muslim League. As independence from Britain was secured, India was partitioned into India and Pakistan.

1896-1977 CE Swami A.C. Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada

Swami A.C. Bhaktivedanta initiated a mission to spread Gaudiya Vaishnavism in India and throughout the world. Sent by his teacher to bring Krishna worship to the West, Bhaktivedanta arrived in New York in 1965 and quickly established a storefront Krishna temple in Manhattan. The subsequent movement became The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON).

1960s CE Indian Gurus to the West

In the 1960s and 1970s, many gurus came to the U.S. to attract Western students. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Swami Bhaktivedanta, Swami Satchidananda, and Swami Muktananda are some examples. Soon some Americans, students of Indian gurus, became gurus in their own right.

1964 CE Vishwa Hindu Parishad

The Vishwa Hindu Parishad, or “World Hindu Organization,” was organized in 1964. It intended to promote consciousness and knowledge of the Hindu tradition among Hindus and to strengthen Hindu society. It also aimed to cultivate contacts with Hindus living outside India, especially in the West. In 1966, the organization held the first of what would become a series of World Hindu Conferences. In the 1980s and 1990s, the VHP became associated with “Hindu nationalist” politics in India.

1970s CE Hindus Begin Constructing Temples in the U.S.

Following a change in American immigration policy, South Asian students and professionals began coming to the U.S. in the late 1960s and 1970s. As they became settled in American cities and towns, the new immigrants began to construct temples. The first Hindu temples built in the U.S. were in Queens, New York and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in the 1970s.

1993 CE Vivekananda Centennial

In 1993, Hindus throughout the world observed the centennial of Vivekananda’s journey to the West. Hindu leaders from both India and America attended the centennial of the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago.

1998 CE BJP Elected to Lead India’s National Government

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), or Indian People’s Party, the major opposition to the Indian National Congress, soared to political prominence with the 1998 election of Atal Bihari Vajpayee as Prime Minister of India, a position he maintained until 2004. The BJP is generally considered to be a right-wing conservative party, with a political platform that tends to support and advocate for the Hindu nationalist cause.

2007 CE Debate on Yoga in Indian Public Schools

In India, a debate was sparked in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh over the constitutionality of teaching yoga at public schools. Advocates noted the health benefits, while some suggested that only the chanting was problematic, and critics opposed yoga education as a whole in public school settings because of its Hindu origins. In the U.S., similar debates would be taken up in later years.

2012 CE World Hindu Economic Forum

The first World Hindu Economic Forum (WHEF) was held in Hong Kong in 2012. Its mission entails striving to “make society prosperous through the generation of surplus wealth and sharing of such material wealth” by promoting development and by addressing some of the world’s larger economic challenges. The first international WHEF conference spearheaded what will include regular regional, national, and international events and research initiatives.

Today, Hinduism is the world’s third-largest faith tradition. With over 1.25 billion practitioners, Hindu communities exist all across the globe. Hindu life in the contemporary world is vibrant and includes an enormous diversity of philosophies, practices, texts, rituals, art, and other cultural expressions.

Hinduism in America (text)

1780s ce trade between india and america.

Trade between India and America began in 1784 when a ship arrived in Pondicherry from Salem, Massachusetts. In the decades that followed, Indian goods became available in Salem, Boston, and Providence.

1810-20 CE Unitarian Interest in Hindu Reform Movements

The American Unitarians became interested in Hindu thought through the work of the Bengali reformer Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833). Roy founded the reformist Brahmo Samaj which affirmed Hindu monotheism and rejected idolatry. The Brahmo Samaj, with its universalist ideas, attracted the attention of Unitarians in England and North America.

1840s CE New England Transcendentalists

The Transcendentalist movement inspired by Emerson and Thoreau included philosopher Bronson Alcott and learned preacher Theodore Parker. They took Hindu thought seriously and incorporated many Hindu ideas in their work. Thoreau’s classic, Walden, makes clear that the Bhagavad Gita accompanied Thoreau to Walden, as he embraced aspects of Hindu thought in his own life. Hindu ideas are also present in books written by Transcendentalists James Freeman Clarke (Ten Great Religions) and Samuel Johnson (The Religion of Asia).

1851 CE Salem’s Fourth of July

Trade with India increased slowly but steadily in the 19th century. In 1851, a half dozen Asian Indians marched in the East India Marine Society contingent of the Fourth of July parade in Salem.

1880-90s CE Theosophy Emerges in America

Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, in their efforts to create a universal religion based on ancient scriptures, helped disseminate Hindu thought in the U.S. They believed that the Eastern traditions contained the purest kernels of this “universal religion.” Blavatsky and Olcott traveled to India and Ceylon where their movement grew considerably.

1893 CE Hindus at the World’s Parliament of Religions

At the Chicago World’s Parliament of Religions in 1893, Hindu leaders presented their teachings to American audiences for the first time. Hindus at the Parliament included Protap Chundar Mozoomdar and B. B. Nagarkar (both of the Brahmo Samaj), Narasima Chari and S. Parthacarathy Arjangar (both Vaishnavites), Mohun Dev, Manilal N. Dvivedi, and Swami Vivekananda. The powerful oratory of Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) preaching the tolerance of Hinduism drew a phenomenal response from the audience.

1893 CE Swami Vivekananda Tours America

Immediately following the 1893 Parliament of World’s Religions, Swami Vivekandanda’s speaking tour took him to such places as Madison, Minneapolis, Des Moines, Detroit, and Memphis. Everywhere he challenged audiences with a positive, universal Hindu message.

1894 CE Vivekananda Founds Vedanta Society

Swami Vivekananda founded the first Vedanta Society in New York in 1894. His teachings focused on three main themes: the essentials of Vedanta philosophy, the unjust criticism of Hinduism by Christian missionaries in India, and the need for understanding between the East and the West. Vivekananda returned to India in 1897.

1902 CE Baba Premanand Bharati, Krishna Devotee

Baba Premanand Bharati, a Bengali follower of Krishna-devotee and saint Sri Caitanya, came to the U.S. in 1902 and founded the Krishna Samaj. He lectured in New York, Boston, and Los Angeles, where he is said to have built a Hindu temple. The Krishna Samaj was the first bhakti-oriented form of Hinduism to reach American soil, a precursor to the Hare Krishnas of the 1960s.

1906 CE First Major Hindu Temple

The first Hindu temple in North America was erected in San Francisco in 1906 by the San Francisco Vedanta Society. The temple quickly became a San Francisco landmark. It is a remarkably eclectic building, incorporating elements from a Hindu temple, a Christian church, a Muslim mosque, and an American residence.

1917 CE Asian Exclusion extended to Indians

The Asian Exclusion Act of 1917 cut off almost all immigration from India. Until 1965 when the immigration laws changed, the transmission of Hinduism to America was reduced to a trickle.

1920 CE Paramahamsa Yogananda and Self Realization Fellowship

In India in 1917, Paramahamsa Yogananda (1893-1952) founded Yogoda-Satsang. He brought it to America in 1920 when he came to Boston to attend the Pilgrim Tercentenary Anniversary International Congress of Religious Liberals, sponsored by the Unitarian Church. After the conference, Swami Yogananda stayed on, becoming the first Hindu Vedanta and Yoga teacher to settle in the United States. By 1930, he had established twelve Yogoda centers in cities across America. His movement continues today as the Self Realization Fellowship. Until 1965 when significant numbers of immigrants from India began to arrive, this movement was the largest and most extensive Hindu organization in the U.S.

1930s CE Growth of Vedanta Centers and Self Realization Fellowship

The Vedanta Society experienced a growth spurt in the 1930s and 1940s. New centers opened in Portland, Hollywood, Providence, Chicago, New York, St. Louis, and Seattle. Membership tripled in the 1930s and grew steadily until the 1950s when it leveled off again. The Self Realization Fellowship also flourished in this era. A November 1936 Literary Digest article, “Oriental Solace: Hindu Ritual of Peace and Tolerance Gains U.S. Devotees,” estimated that Swami Yogananda’s followers numbered over 25,000 during this time.

1932 CE Meher Baba to America

Meher Baba was a spiritual teacher who was born a Parsi, but became a mystic who transcended the confines of any tradition. He was seen by his followers in India and the West as an avatara or divine “descent” of God. He visited America several times during his life. While he traveled widely, his primary retreat centre was the Meher Spiritual Center at Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. For decades from the 1920s to his death in 1969, Meher Baba maintained silence and taught primarily through his writings and presence.

1937 CE World Spiritual University

Dada Lekh Raj, also called Sri Prajapita Brahma, spiritual leader of the Brahma Kumari movement in India, founded the Brahma Kumari’s World Spiritual University in India in 1937. The Brahma Kumari movement created branches of the World Spiritual University in many places, including New York. This movement is now led by the female disciples of Sri Prajapita Brahma.

1941 CE Centers Split from Vedanta Society

The Ananda Ashram in California and the Vedanta retreat center in Boston split away from the Vedanta Society and continued under the name of the Order of Ramakrishna Brahmavadin, which they carry to this day. These communities both had women lieutenants of Paramananda as their leaders, including Gayatri Devi and Sister Daya. Upon Paramananda’s death, the Ramakrishna Mission in India refused to name them as the new leaders of their respective centers, insisting that the leaders of Vedanta centers be monks trained in Calcutta.

1941 CE Christopher Isherwood Becomes a Vedantin

In 1941, the writer Christopher Isherwood joined the Hollywood Ramakrishna Vedanta Society at the age of 35 and became a lifelong student of Swami Prabhavananda. They collaborated on an English translation of the Bhagavad Gita published in 1943.

1949 CE Saiva Siddhanta in America

The Saiva Siddhanta Church was founded in 1949 when Siva Yogaswami (1872-1964) passed the mantle of spiritual succession for his lineage to Gurudeva Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, an American disciple. Subramuniyaswami returned to the U.S., practiced intense meditation, and began his active teaching in 1957 when he founded the Saiva Siddhanta Yoga Order and established the Palaniswami Temple in San Francisco, the first Hindu temple in North America performing traditional deity worship. The temple moved to Concord, California in 1989. The headquarters to Hawaii where Subramuniyaswami created a temple-monastery complex on the island of Kauai.

1950 CE Lake Shrine Opened in Los Angeles

On August 20, 1950 the Self-Realization Fellowship of Swami Yogananda formally opened its new international headquarters, “The Lake Shrine,” in Pacific Palisades, California. This 13-acre center has grown over the years to house life-size statues of Jesus and the Buddha, an artificial lake and windmill, and a gilded brass chest said to contain some of Gandhi’s ashes.

1950s CE Popularization of Yoga

Hatha Yoga, the physical yoga of breathing and postures, became popular in the U.S. in the 1950s. Yoga teachers demonstrated postures on television and bookstores carried books on yoga techniques. Hatha yoga was embraced by many people of various religious backgrounds, who sometimes had little interest in or knowledge of the spiritual underpinnings of yoga.

1952 CE Swami Yogananda Dies

The death of Swami Yogananda in 1952 attracted considerable media attention due to the attested incorruptibility of his physical body for twenty days after he died. After Yogananda’s death, several of his followers founded new organizations, including the Self-Revelation Church of Absolute Monism in Washington D.C., the Prema Dharmasala in Virginia, the Temple of Kriya Yoga in Chicago, and the Ananda Church of God-Realization.

1959 CE Maharishi Mahesh Yogi

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi arrived in America in 1959 with a simple technique of yoga meditation for popular use called Transcendental Meditation (TM). During the next ten years, he established the Spiritual Regeneration Movement in Los Angeles and branches of the Students International Meditation Society (SIMS) on hundreds of college campuses. The Beatles and Mia Farrow brought popular attention to TM.

1965 CE Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

The Immigration Act of 1965 abolished the national origins formulae that discriminated against Asian immigrants. Now preference would be given to visa applicants whose skills were needed in the U.S. and those with professional qualifications. As a result, immigration from India and elsewhere in Asia rose dramatically and a highly educated and affluent Hindu immigrant population began to grow in the U.S.

1965 CE Bhaktivedanta and Hare Krishna (ISKCON)

A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (1896-1977) arrived in America in 1965 and founded the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), otherwise known as the Hare Krishna movement. Bhaktivedanta’s movement of devotion to Lord Krishna grew within a few years to include dozens of ISKCON centers. The Rukmini Dwarakadish Temple in Los Angeles, established in 1969, became the North American headquarters and flagship temple for the ISKCON movement.

1966 CE Swami Satchidananda to the U.S.

Swami Satchidananda, a disciple of Swami Sivananda in India, attracted many seekers to the discipline of yoga. He spoke to the multitudes at Woodstock in August of 1969. Satchidananda later founded the headquarters of the Integral Yoga Institute in the U.S., at Yogaville in Virginia.

1968 CE New Vrindavan Established

In 1968, ISKCON established the rural New Vrindavan community in the hills of West Virginia. Named after the popular childhood home of Krishna in India, New Vrindavan became a popular place of pilgrimage for American Hindus.

1970s CE The “Secularization” of Transcendental Meditation

In the 1970s, Transcendental Meditation (TM) began moving away from its ‘pop’ appeal and toward a scientifically verifiable means to creativity and peace of mind that was attractive to professionals. TM was billed as a technique of practice not necessarily linked to Hinduism or any other religion. The World Plan Executive Council (WPEC) was founded in 1972 to guide the spread of TM across the globe.

1970 CE Swami Muktananda and Siddha Yoga Meditation

Siddha Yoga Meditation was brought to America in 1970 by Swami Muktananda Paramahamsa (1908-1982). His ashram in Ganeshpuri, India drew many American devotees. With this two-month visit to the U.S., the movement began to grow in North America as well. Muktananda passed away in 1982 and he was succeeded by a woman disciple, Gurumayi Chivilasananda.

1970 CE Sri Chinmoy at UN

Sri Chinmoy, a disciple of Sri Aurobindo and an athlete, artist, and spiritual teacher, began to lead meditations for world peace at the United Nations in 1970. Sri Chinmoy continues to be known in the U.S. and throughout the world for his many initiatives for world peace.

1970 CE Hindu Temple Society of North America

The Hindu Temple Society of North America was incorporated in Flushing, Queens in 1970. It was the first in a new wave of American Hindu associations formed for the creation of temples. The Society worked toward the building of a temple for Lord Ganesha in Queens, consecrated in 1977.

1974 CE The Maharishi International University

The Maharishi International University was established in Fairfield, Iowa in 1974 as a degree-granting university under the auspices of the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. The school offers bachelor’s and master’s degrees and enrolls about 700 undergraduate and graduate students.

1975 CE Chinmaya Mission West Founded

Swami Chinmayananda, a disciple of Swami Sivananda, brought his Chinmaya Mission to America in 1975. Swami Chinmayanada traveled widely, gave lectures, and sponsored summer youth camps and family camps in America until his death in 1993. Today, there are Chinmaya Mission centers in many American cities.

1977 CE Consecration of America’s First Temples

The Sri Venkateswara Temple in Penn Hills outside of Pittsburgh was consecrated with rites of Kumbhabhisekam on June 8, 1977. Its presiding deity is the form of Vishnu known as Venkatesvara, whose shrine at Tirupati in south India is a popular place of pilgrimage. Similarly, the “S.V.” temple in Pittsburgh has become an American pilgrimage place for Hindus. In the same year, the Hindu Temple Society of North America in Flushing, Queens established the Ganesha temple, which was consecrated with the rites of Kumbhabhishekam on July 4, 1977. Ganesha is the “remover of obstacles” and the guardian of the doorway or threshold.

1975-79 CE Growth of Hindu Temple Societies

During the mid- to late- 1970s, Hindu Temple Societies were formed in many cities: the Bharatiya Temple (Troy, Michigan), the Capital District Hindu Temple (Albany, New York), the Sri Meenakshi Temple (Houston), the Hindu Temple Society of Southern California (Calabasas), the Hindu Temple of Greater Chicago, the New England Hindu Temple Incorporated (Boston), and the Connecticut Valley Hindu Temple Society (Middletown). All were incorporated between 1975 and 1979 and began working toward temple construction.

1976 CE Kashi Ashram in Roseland, Florida

Kashi Ashram was established in1976 by Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati, a Brooklyn-born guru whose spiritual journey was guided by Christ, Swami Nityananda, and her guru Neem Karoli Baba. The ashram, named for the sacred city of Kashi (Banaras or Varanasi) in India, has grown into an interfaith religious community of service built around its own “Ganges” in Florida.

1977 CE First Swaminarayan Temple

The first Swaminarayan temple in America was consecrated on August 3, 1977 in Flushing, New York. This movement of Gujarati immigrant Hindus follows the teacher Pramukh Swami, considered to be embodiment of the perfect devotee of Krishna. The movement grew rapidly with new Gujarati immigration, and within twenty-five years had over 50 centers and 8 temples.

1979 CE Vedic Heritage, Inc.

Vedic Heritage Inc. was formed by the teacher Guru Maa, who began teaching in Forest Hills, New York. By the mid-1980s she and her community had created America’s largest Hanuman Temple, located in Hempstead, Long Island.

1980s CE Rapid Growth of Asian Indian Population

In 1980 the U.S. Census first used the category “Asian Indian,” and in that year, 361,544 people chose that designation. Asian Indian immigration to the U.S. continued at a steady rate throughout the 1980s.

1985 CE Hindu Federation of America

The Hindu Federation of America was launched by Swami Premananda in the San Francisco Bay area in 1985, with its headquarters in Fremont. Its mission was to educate non-Hindus about Hinduism and promote peace among religions.

1986 CE LOTUS Temple in Virginia

In 1986, LOTUS, the Light of Truth Universal Shrine, opened at Yogaville in Buckingham, Virginia, under the spiritual leadership of Swami Satchidananda. The pink-glass lotus-shaped shrine upholds light as the universal symbol of Reality for all faiths.

1987 CE The Mahabharata on Stage and Screen

Director Peter Brook’s nine-hour rendition of the Mahabharata was staged in Brooklyn in 1987 and was later made into a film.

1987 CE The Path of Grace Comes to America

The Pushti Marga is a devotional movement emphasizing the grace and love of Lord Krishna and especially honoring Krishna as the divine child. In the late 1980s, Pushti Margya Samaj of North America started temples in New York, Pennsylvania, and Houston.

1990s CE New Hindu Temple Societies

In the 1990s, even more new Hindu Temple Societies were formed to build temples. For example, the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society of USA was established in central New Jersey and bought a large former church building in Bridgewater. The temple community grew quickly and broke ground in 1995 for a new Sri Venkateswara Temple on the site.

1991 CE Cultural Festival of India

The Cultural Festival of India, a thirty-day celebration of Indian culture, was organized by the Bochasanwasi Swaminarayan Sanstha (BSS). It took place in the summer of 1991 on the grounds of Middlesex County College in Edison, New Jersey. The festival attracted some 40,000 people every weekend for a month.

1993 CE Ashwamedha Yajna in Los Angeles

In August 1993, the Gayatri Pariwar in India sponsored a three-day “1008 Kundi Ashwamedha Yagna” in a huge parking lot of Cerritos College in Norwalk, California. 1008 sacred fires were kindled as the individuals, couples, and families sponsoring the event made offerings into the fire pits or kundis.

1993 CE Global Vision 2000

As many as 10,000 American Hindus gathered in Washington D.C. in 1993 to celebrate the centennial of Swami Vivekananda’s coming to the U.S. The gala convention hosted by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad of America (VHP) took its vision from the Sanskrit Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, “the entire creation is one family.”

1993 CE Parliament of the World’s Religions

The Chicago-based Hindu host committee for the 1993 Parliament of the World’s Religions was active in preparations for the centennial. Hindu teachers and speakers at the Parliament included: Swami Chidananda of the Divine Life Mission; Swami Satchidananda of Yogaville, Virginia; Satguru Sivaya Subramuniswami of Hawaii; Sadguru Keshavdas of the Temple of Cosmic Religion, California; and Mother Amritanandamayi of Castro Valley, California.

1993 CE Navaratri in New Jersey

Fall Navaratri celebrations of the “Nine Nights” of the Goddess were celebrated in a huge tent in Edison, New Jersey. 10,000 people came each weekend of the event for Ras Garba dances.

1995 CE Murugan Temple of North America

Construction of a large South Indian temple dedicated to Murugan, also known as Karttikeya, began on Princess Garden Parkway in Lanham, Maryland, not far from the already thriving Siva-Vishnu Temple.

1995 CE Ashwamedha Yajna at Soldier’s Field, Chicago

On a hot weekend in the summer of 1995, more than 3000 Hindus participated in the ritual event of Ashwamedha Yajna at Soldier’s Field in Chicago. There were hundreds of fire-altars, kindled to honor the gods through the Gayatri, the most sacred of Hindu ritual mantras. The huge event was sponsored by the Gayatri Pariwar in India.

1996 CE Hinduism Today Magazine

Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami upgraded the popular newspaper Hinduism Today, which he had launched in 1979, to a quarterly magazine. The magazine was published from Hawaii, where Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami had created a temple- ashram. It is currently available in digital form.

1997 CE American Hindus Against Defamation

The American Hindus Against Defamation organization was founded in 1997. Over the years the group would go on to be active in protesting what they believed desecrated the Hindu tradition, such as sandals with the image of the Hindu deity Ganesha on them in 2003.

1999 CE Southern Baptist Church Prayer Guide Controversy

In 1999 just before the Hindu festival of lights, Diwali, thirty thousand copies of a prayer guide for converting Hindus were distributed by members of the Southern Baptist Church. This incident elicited national controversy and protest. On November 7th at Second Baptist Church in Houston, Texas, more than one hundred people participated in a rally that was organized by the Hindus of Greater Houston.

2000 CE Hindu Prayer in Congress

Venkatachalapathi Samuldrala, a priest belonging to the Shiva Vishnu Hindu Temple in Parma, Ohio, became the first Hindu to open a joint session of the US Congress with a Hindu invocation prayer on September 14th, 2000. Following the prayer India’s Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee addressed the Congress.

2000 CE Hindu University of America Campus

Seven years after its founding, the Hindu University of America received its very own campus in Orlando, Florida, which consisted of a 9.7 acre property with two academic buildings.

2001 CE Ramayana Recitation in Pomona

Every day for over a week in June, hundreds of Hindus came to the Fairplex in Pomona, California to listen to Ramesh Oza tell the story of the ancient Hindu epic, the Ramayana.

2001 CE Aftermath of 9/11

After the tragic events of September 11th, many perpetrators of hate crimes targeted Hindus across America. For example, during the week following the attacks, two Hindu temples, one in Medinah, Illinois and the other in Matawan, New Jersey, and a convenience store owned by a Hindu man from Gujarat, India in Somerset, Massachusetts, were all firebombed.

2003 CE The Hindu American Foundation

The Hindu American Foundation (HAF), an advocacy group for Hindu Americans, was founded in 2003. The group stated that, “HAF seeks to serve Hindu Americans across all sampradayas (Hindu religious traditions) regardless of race, color, national origin, citizenship, caste, gender, sexual orientation, age and/or disability.” The following year, the HAF went on to spearhead a friend of the court brief with the United States Supreme Court in a case asking for the removal of a Ten Commandments monument from Texas State Capitol grounds.

2003 CE First White House Diwali Celebration

In 2003, the White House hosted the Hindu festival of lights, Diwali, for the first time with political advisor Karl Rove standing in for President George W Bush. Seventy members of the Indian community attended, including Dr. Sudhir M Parikh, vice-president of Indian American Forum for Political Education (IAFPE) and Gopal Khanna, CIO of Peace Corps. The event included an elaborate Indian feast and a classical Indian dance performance.

2005 CE California Textbook Controversy

In 2005, the Texas-based Vedic Foundation (VF) and the American Hindu Education Foundation (HEF) approached California’s Curriculum Commission. They asserted that the depictions of Indian history and the Hindu tradition in sixth-grade textbooks were biased against Hindus and they proposed various edits. Later that year, more Hindu organizations joined in voicing their opposition to these textbooks. Discussions with opposing scholars ensued. In 2006, a five-member Board of Education subcommittee from the California Department of Education all voted to adopt the recommendations for edits and corrections in the textbooks proposed by VF and HEF.

2009 CE Inauguration of President Barack Obama

During his inaugural address on January 20th, 2009, President Barack Obama stated, “We are a nation of Christians and Muslims, Jews and Hindus, and nonbelievers,” thus being the first president to mention America’s Hindu community in his inaugural address. The next day at the customary national prayer service at the Washington National Cathedral, Uma Mysorekar, the president of the Hindu Temple Society of North America, participated in the ceremony.

2009 CE President Obama Lights Diwali Lamp in White House

On October 15th, 2009, President Barack Obama became the first president to attend the White House Diwali celebration. He lit a ceremonial Diwali diya lamp during the half-hour event, which included a Hindi a cappella performance and a Sanskrit invocation by a local Hindu priest.

2009 CE Friendly’s Converted to Hindu Temple

Braj Mandir Temple in Holbrook, Massachusetts was dedicated on October 25th, 2009. Braj Mandir is affiliated with the Vrindavana Preservation Society (VPS), and serves 1,800 VPS members in the Quincy area. After four years of searching for a space that could accommodate its growing number of members, VPS came across a closing Friendly’s restaurant in 2006. During the next three years the old restaurant was renovated and Braj Mandir emerged, a temple devoted to Radha, the beloved of Krishna.

2011 CE First Hindu Military Chaplain

In 2011, the U.S. Department of Defense established the first Hindu Military Chaplain program in American history. Army Captain Pratima Dharm served as the first Hindu chaplain.

2012 CE First Hindu American Elected to Congress

Following her election in November 2012, Representative Tulsi Gabbard was sworn in as the first Hindu member of Congress in January 2013, taking her oath on the Bhagavad Gita.

2019 CE First Hindu American Candidate for President

In 2019, Rep. Tulsi Gabbard became the first Hindu American to run for President of the United States. Though she did not ultimately win her party’s nomination, she was a contender in the Democratic presidential primaries.

Selected Publications & Links

Richman, Paula, (ed.) . Many Ramayanas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.

Doniger, Wendy . On Hinduism . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.

Hay, Stephen N. “ Rabindranath Tagore in America .” American Quarterly 14, no. Fall (1962): 439-63.

Back to Godhead

Barsana dham, bochasanwasi shree akshar purushottam swaminarayan sanstha (baps), chinmaya mission west, chitra: center for the study of hindu traditions, explore hinduism in greater boston.

When immigrants from South Asia first came to Greater Boston, they worshipped and celebrated festivals in homes and rented halls, but eventually saw the need for temples to institutionalize and preserve their religious and cultural heritage. Today, there are close to forty Hindu religious centers in Greater Boston, including the Sri Lakshmi Temple in Ashland, which serves as a major religious pilgrimage site for a diverse community of Hindus from throughout New England.

The Origins of Hinduism: Tracing its Roots and Historical Development

This essay about Hinduism explores its origins and evolution, tracing its development from ancient times to the modern era. It examines Hinduism’s beginnings with the Indus Valley Civilization, progresses through the Vedic and philosophical Upanishadic periods, and covers the epic narratives of the Ramayana and the Bhagavad Gita. The text also discusses the growth of different sects, the impact of the Gupta dynasty, the Bhakti movement, challenges during colonial times, and the faith’s adaptation in today’s globalized world, underscoring its enduring appeal and transformative power.

How it works

Hinduism, often likened to a grand tapestry of diverse beliefs and practices, presents a journey through the annals of time, inviting us to explore its ancient roots. Its beginnings are as mysterious as they are profound, resembling the decoding of a forgotten script, each character reverberating with the memories of bygone eras. As we traverse through the meandering paths of history, archaeological findings stand as mute testimonials to the emergence of spiritual awareness, hinting at the mysterious birth of this venerable faith.

The roots of Hinduism stretch deep into the prehistoric times, intertwining with the lifeblood of ancient civilizations that prospered by the revered rivers. The remnants of the Indus Valley Civilization whisper secrets of early spiritual practices, suggesting a rich heritage of religiosity that predates recorded history. These ancient murmurs carry the latent beginnings of what would evolve into Hinduism, poised for the awakening of a new epoch.

Emerging from the shadows of history, the Vedic period heralds with its sacred chants as seers offer hymns to a pantheon of celestial beings. The Rigveda, the earliest of the Vedas, weaves myths and rituals into a rich mosaic reflecting the spiritual aspirations of its people. Amidst sacrificial fires, the Vedic priests connect with the divine through sacred chants, creating ethereal links between the human and the celestial.

In secluded forest hermitages, the philosophers of the Upanishads delve into profound metaphysical explorations, seeking truths beyond mere ritual. These ancient texts introduce the concept of Brahman, the ultimate reality underlying all existence, and the principle of karma, which intricately ties actions to their cosmic consequences, perpetuating the cycle of rebirth.

Ancient India also serves as the stage for epic narratives that stitch together themes of valor, devotion, and divine intervention. The Ramayana recounts Prince Rama’s saga of exile and redemption, symbolizing the victory of righteousness. Concurrently, the Bhagavad Gita from the Mahabharata imparts Lord Krishna’s wisdom to the conflicted warrior Arjuna, offering guidance amid the chaos of battle.

As centuries pass, Hinduism’s complexity deepens with the flourishing of sects like Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism, each celebrating different divine aspects. These traditions enrich the spiritual landscape, each adding vibrant colors to the broad spectrum of Hindu devotion through theological discourse and scholarly debate.

During the classical era, marked by the Gupta dynasty, Hinduism permeates the fabric of society, influencing royal courts and ancient academies alike. Magnificent temples epitomize architectural grandeur, while scholars compile the Puranas, which breathe life into the myriad deities of Hindu lore.

The Bhakti movement marks a profound devotional revival, as saints and poets across India inspire a spiritual renaissance transcending societal divisions. The heartfelt verses of Kabir, Mirabai, and Tulsidas resonate among the common folk, fostering a personal, intimate connection with the divine.

The advent of European colonization introduces new trials. The British Raj reshapes the sociopolitical landscape, and Christian missionaries challenge local faiths. In response, Hindu thinkers and leaders advocate for revival and reform, reaffirming a sense of cultural identity and spiritual integrity.

In contemporary times, Hinduism continues to adapt, manifesting in new forms of artistic, literary, and spiritual expression. From bustling cities to serene ashrams, it remains a guiding force for millions, encouraging the pursuit of self-realization and enlightenment. In the digital era, this ancient wisdom transcends physical borders, connecting global seekers through virtual communities.

In essence, Hinduism’s journey from its cryptic origins in ancient civilizations to its dynamic presence in today’s global landscape showcases its enduring appeal and transformative capacity, continually guiding humanity in its quest for deeper truth and transcendental meaning.

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Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology

Overview Essay

Hinduism: Devotional Love of the World

David L. Haberman, Indiana University

Originally published in the Routledge Handbook of Religion and Ecology

There is an outright assault on virtually every aspect of Earth’s ecosystems these days: rivers are severely polluted, forests are razed at alarming rates, and mountains are demolished for a variety of industrial purposes.  Enormous damage has already been done to meet the ever-increasing demands of a rapidly growing globalized consumer culture.  We are now gearing up to inflict even greater damage as we prepare to harvest all remaining resources and to squeeze every last drop of fossil fuel from the planet.  At the same time, there seems to be a new planetary awakening that seeks ways beyond our current unsustainable predicament to a healthier human presence on Earth, and religious traditions worldwide are increasingly contributing to this movement.  How do people within the Hindu religious cultures of India regard and struggle with these challenges?  Relatedly, how are natural entities such as rivers, trees, and mountains conceived within these cultures, and what kinds of practices are found within them that might serve to address the unprecedented environmental degradation of our day?

The term Hinduism is a complex one.  Originally used by Persians to denote the religious ways of people who lived on the other side of the Indus River, today it is the accepted designation of a vast array of religious beliefs and practices of the majority of the Indian population.  As in the case of every world religion, it is more accurate to speak not of a single Hinduism, but rather of a rich multiplicity of Hinduisms.  Past overviews of Hinduism and ecology have tended to focus on the philosophical texts and practices of the ascetic traditions. [1]   The notable work of Christopher Chapple, for example, highlights the contributions that the Hindu renouncer values of minimal consumption might make toward an environmentally friendly ethic (Chapple 1998).  While these values are significant in considering ecological possibilities within Hinduism, I find myself in agreement with Vasudha Narayanan who has pressed for a shift away from an emphasis on the ascetic traditions in our understanding of Hinduism and ecology to the bhakti devotional texts and rituals, since “devotional ( bhakti ) exercises seem to be the greatest potential resource for ecological activists in India” (Narayanan 2001, 202). I propose to take up this recommendation with a presentation of a popular mode of Hinduism and ecology that has received little academic attention in general works on religion and ecology.  This essay is not intended to be a survey, but rather a representation of a fairly widespread form of religiously informed ecological activism that I have encountered both explicitly and implicitly in my explorations of Hinduism and ecology (Haberman 2006, 2013).

Before examining some contemporary instances of Hindu ecological engagement, I briefly take up the question, “Is Hinduism eco-friendly?”  We would be justified in rejecting this question altogether, for it is a simplistic and misleading formulation that both reduces a complex tradition and calls for an answer never intended by any tradition.  Like all world religious traditions, Hinduism is a multifaceted cultural phenomenon that consists of many varied and sometimes contradictory voices.  There is evidence for what could be identified as ecologically damaging views and practices within Hinduism, and there is evidence for what could be identified as ecologically friendly views and practices within Hinduism.  Questioning the concept of the “oriental ecologist,” Ole Bruun and Arne Kalland have argued that Asian philosophies have done little to prevent environmental disasters in a number of Asian societies (Bruun and Kalland 1995, 2-3).  Nonetheless, while acknowledging some aspects of Hinduism have been detrimental to the environment, a number of writers have maintained that Hinduism has much to contribute to addressing the environmental crisis.  Rita Dasgupta Sherma, for example, insists, “In the case of Hinduism, resources exist for the development of a vision that could promote ecological action” (Sherma 1998, 89-90).

We must keep in mind, however, that the current scope of the environmental crisis is a drastically new experience that demands new responses; no religious tradition in its present form is fully prepared to address the current problems.  Poul Pedersen reminds us, “No Buddhist, Hindu, or Islamic scriptures contain concepts like ‘environmental crisis,’ ‘ecosystems,’ or ‘sustainable development,’ or concepts corresponding to them.  To insist that they do is to deny the immense cultural distance that separates traditional religious conceptions of the environment from modern ecological knowledge” (Pedersen 1995, 226). [2]   Religious traditions are always changing in the face of new historical circumstances, and one of the greatest challenges today is the environmental crisis, which is already reshaping religious traditions worldwide.  With these precautions in mind, we can proceed to examine an emerging ecological development within Hindu India and those dimensions of the tradition that might serve as resources for those who employ a Hindu cultural perspective in their struggle with the environmental crisis.

Past representations of Hinduism that were heavily dependent on the ascetic philosophy of Shankaracharya’s Advaita Vedanta often ignored Hinduism’s most common aspect: the devotional cultures of India that focus on interaction with embodied forms of divinity and generally promote a very positive view of the world. To explore what this theistic Hinduism means for environmental thought and action, it would be useful to examine the views expressed in the Bhagavad Gita.  This popular text gives representative expression to concepts that inform much theistic Hinduism.  The Bhagavad Gita has also been important for many involved in early environmental movements in India, especially those influenced by Gandhi who used it for daily meditations. [3] Well-known environmental activists in India, such as the Himalayan forest defenders, have organized readings of the Bhagavad Gita as part of their strategy for environmental protection, and some have used it to articulate a specifically Hindu ecological philosophy. [4]   One can even find examples of such use of the Bhagavad Gita in science-based environmental publications such as Down to Earth , a periodical published by the Centre for Science and Environment in New Delhi. [5]   Most importantly for our considerations, the Bhagavad Gita provides a theological framework for understanding the religious thought that informs much devotionally based environmentalism within Hinduism. [6]

Like Narayanan, I too have found a preeminence of bhakti rituals and devotional texts in my studies of Hinduism, nature and ecology; my comments, therefore, focus on certain devotional beliefs and practices that relate to environmental conceptions, concerns, and practices.  One of the major debates between the ascetic and devotional traditions relates to the status of the world we experience with our senses.  While many of the ascetic traditions teach that the phenomenal world is ultimately an illusion to be transcended, the devotional traditions have tended to affirm the reality of the world, often honored as a divine manifestation.  The position of the Bhagavad Gita is relevant.  Narayanan explains that, “central to the Bhagavadgita is the vision of the universe as the body of Krishna” (Narayanan 2001, 185).  

To introduce a common way of thinking about Hinduism and environmentalism in present-day practice, I highlight four Sanskrit terms prevalent in discourse about conceptualizations of and interaction with natural entities. Since all four terms begin with an “ s ,” I refer to them as the four “ s ”s.  Although all of these terms are drawn from the Bhagavad Gita, they are used generally in Hindu discussions about ecology and the natural environment and come up frequently during conversations about environmental activism in India.  The form of environmental activism represented by these terms is not well known outside of India; nonetheless it is quite popular within India, as it is firmly rooted in the devotional practices that center on worshipful interaction with embodied forms of divinity.  The first term, sarvatma-bhava , has to do with the worldview that informs much environmental activism within Hindu culture; the second, svarupa , relates to the devotional object of environmental activism; the third, seva , is increasingly used to denote environmental activism itself; and the fourth, sambandha , identifies the desired outcome of the action.

Among the four terms sarvatma-bhava is perhaps the least utilized in everyday language, but the notion it signifies is prevalent within Hinduism.  It is a technical compound word that proclaims that everything is part of a unified and radically interconnected reality, called alternatively Atman or Brahman, and refers to the largely accepted viewpoint that all is sacred.  In common parlance, this is often expressed theologically as God is everything and everything is God.  This is a concept with deep roots in many Hindu scriptures.  The highly influential Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, for example, declares, “the whole world is Brahman” (1.4).  Granted most Hindus do not have detailed knowledge of Upanishadic texts, but this is an idea that is expressed repeatedly in many later texts and everyday discussions about religion. The better-known Bhagavad Gita states this notion most succinctly in the concise declaration: “Vasudeva (Krishna) is the entire world” (7.19).  Without necessarily referencing texts such as these, many people articulate a similar notion while discussing the relationship between the world and Krishna.  “Everything in this world is a part of Krishna and therefore worthy of reverence ( pujaniya ),” a man explained to me while discussing the natural landscape.

Early foundational texts, such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, also asserted that there are two aspects of ultimate reality or Brahman: one is identified with all forms ( murta ), and the other is identified with the realm of the formless ( amurta ) (2.3).  Brahman as all forms is everything that is manifest and transitory, whereas Brahman as the formless is unmanifest and unchanging.  These are not two separate realities, but rather different modes of the same unified reality.  Although most people are not directly familiar with the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, they are conversant with this principle.  A Hindi-speaking woman expressed this concept theologically: “Some people think of God as with form ( sakar ), and others think of God as formless ( nirakar ).  These are just different ways of thinking of God, but God is one ( Bhagavan ek hi hai. ).”  

The Bhagavad Gita confirms these two aspects of ultimate reality, and adds a third that encompasses and surpasses both: the divine personality called Purushottama.  Devotional traditions aim to establish a relationship with this supreme form.  Although these three dimensions of reality are regarded in a hierarchical fashion, it is important to remember that all three are aspects of divinity, in this instance Krishna.  That is, while it is assumed to be only a portion of a much vaster and unmanifest reality, the entire manifest world of multiple forms that we perceive with our senses is fully divine.  While manifestly diverse, the sense of reality denoted by sarvatma - bhava is that everything is also simultaneously interconnected and unified; in short, the entire world is divine.  The tripartite conception of reality is at the very core of many Hindu schools of thought, and is considered to be the vital foundation for all spiritual development and productive work in the world.  It is also important for understanding specific forms of devotional environmentalism in India.   

Though the whole world is divine, human beings are not good at connecting with abstract universalities.  We are embodied beings designed to connect with concrete particularities.  Universal love is a noble sentiment, for example, but it cannot begin to compare to the passionate engagement of the intimate love of a particular person.  Acknowledging this feature of human emotions and perception leads to the next “ s ”: svarupa .  The term svarupa has an expedient double meaning.  It literally means “own-form,” and in theological contexts frequently refers to the deity’s own form or an essential manifestation of God, and is understood to refer to a full presence of divinity.  An aspect of the highest reality, it comes to mean a specific embodied form divinity takes in the world.  Divinity within Hinduism is typically understood to be infinite and all pervasive, but assumes particular concrete forms; accordingly, although unified at the unmanifest level, it manifests as a multitude of individual entities.  The second meaning of the term svarupa is the worshiper’s own form of divinity.  The divine unified reality of Brahman is everywhere and everything, but one’s svarupa is a personal and approachable concrete “handle” on the infinite; it is that distinct, intimate form of divinity to which one is especially attracted.  That is, among the countless multitude of forms, this is the particular one to which a person is drawn and develops a special relationship. The particular physical forms of divinity that are svarupa s importantly include many natural phenomena, such as rivers, ponds, rocks, mountains, trees and forests.  Everything in the world is understood to be a potential svarupa , but there are natural entities that are favored through cultural selection. Specific examples would include rivers, such as the Yamuna, Ganges, and Narmada; sacred trees such as neem, pipal, and banyan; and mountains such as Govardhan and Arunachal.  And all svarupa s are comprised of the three interrelated dimensions of reality.  The form dimension of the Yamuna, for example, is the physical water of the river, the formless is the all-pervasive spiritual dimension, and the divine personality is the goddess Yamuna Devi. The form dimension of Mount Govardhan is the concrete rocky hill, the formless is the all-pervasive undifferentiated dimension, and the divine personality is Krishna in the form of Shri Govardhana Natha-ji.

Recognized as a special form of divine vitality, awareness of the full nature of the svarupa is considered by many to be a key component to beneficial environmental attitudes and actions.  The physical svarupa of a neem tree, for example, is connected with her goddess identity.  A woman who worships a particular neem tree everyday in Varanasi told me: “Ma’s powerful presence is in this tree.  This tree is her svarupa .  I worship her here everyday and now have a special relationship with this tree” (Haberman 2013, 144).  Accordingly, she – as well as many others who share her understanding – would never think of harming or cutting a neem tree.  The svarupa of the Yamuna River too is associated with her divine identity.  A man who lives in a town located on the shore of this river links an awareness of this identity to current environmental concerns: “The people who are not aware of the svarupa are polluting her.  If we could get people to see the goddess in the river, they would worship her and stop polluting her.  People who don't understand the svarupa of Yamuna-ji are polluting her.  We must make them understand the real nature of Yamuna-ji, and then they will stop polluting” (Haberman 2006, 187).  I observed a group of villagers living at the base of Mount Govardhan stop a man from even putting a shovel into the soil of the mountain to plant a tree, so great was their concern for the sensitive personality of the mountain.

How does one connect with a svarupa ?   This question leads to another of the four “ s ”s: seva , a term that means concrete acts of “loving service” or simply “acts of love.” In the context of the religious culture associated with natural sacred entities a few decades ago, the word seva would have referred almost exclusively to ritual acts of honorific worship, such as offering flowers, hymns, and incense.  However, in this age of pollution this term is increasingly being used to designate acts that would in the West be labeled “environmental activism.”  For example, previously it was assumed that Yamuna was a powerful and protective Mother who cared for her human children, but now there is a growing conviction that her children need to care for her.  The term used for this care is seva, loving actions that now take a variety of forms – from picking garbage out of the river to political and legal action aimed to protect it. 

In these bhakti traditions, love has two aspects: feelings and actions, and these two are significantly interconnected.  Feelings set actions in motion, and actions engender further feelings.  Since feelings are more difficult to access than actions, actions are the entryway into an ever-expanding circle of love.  Moreover, the specialness of a being is revealed in the presence of love; while we shrink back into a protective shell when confronted with hostility, we come out and expose ourselves more fully in the presence of love.  Likewise, the deep sacrality of the world reveals itself only in the face of love.  Awareness of the true nature ( svarupa ) of something generates love for it, and that love enables one to see that true nature more clearly.  Loving acts toward a being generate loving feelings toward that being – rivers, trees, and mountains included – which motivate more loving acts.  This point was driven home to me one day while watching a young man perform acts of worshipful seva to the Yamuna River.  He told me about the transformation in his own life that led him to become a daily worshiper of Yamuna.  “I used to see Yamuna-ji as an ordinary polluted river.  I used to wear my sandals down to her bank (He now views this as a grave insult.).  But then I met my guru, and he told me to start worshipping Yamuna-ji.  At first I was a little resistant, but I did what he said.  Soon, I began to see her svarupa (true form) and realized how wonderful she really is.  So now I worship her everyday with love.  The main benefit of worshipping Yamuna-ji is an ever-expanding love” (Haberman 2006, 185).

Most importantly for ecological considerations, those who reflect on the environmental crisis from this viewpoint say that this deep perspective is the one most needed to restore a healthy relationship with the world.  For the devotees of Yamuna immersed in this perspective, this means opening oneself to the river to the point where one can perceive the svarupa of Yamuna.  Once this occurs, polluting the river becomes as impossible as dumping garbage on the face of one’s lover.  Worshipful acts, then, are the very doorway into an inner world of realization; they are concrete levers for opening up new perspectives that lead to environmental awareness and activism.  While environmental degradation, I was told again and again, is the result of a very limited perspective on the world, many devotees stressed that a positive and ecologically healthy relationship with the natural world depends on a loving awareness of its true nature, or svarupa , which is realized through loving acts of seva .  An awareness of the true nature of reality leads one into a world of divine love wherein destruction and pollution become unthinkable.

Love, therefore, is both a means and an end.  The Hindu eco-theologian Shrivatsa Goswami maintains that, “Love is the key to all sustainability” (Haberman 2006, 157).  Many environmental activists I spoke with in India articulated their actions as expressions of love. The environmental activist Sunderlal Bahuguna, who worked many years attempting to stop the Tehri Dam on a major Himalayan branch of the Ganges River, told me that his work was motivated by devotional love: “I love rivers because they are God; they are our Mother.  In our philosophy we see God in all nature: mountains, rivers, springs, and other natural forms” (Haberman 2006, 71).  And love for Mount Arunachal as an essential form of Shiva led Ramana Maharshi and his followers to protect the sacred hill from developmental plans and to initiate its reforestation.

The love generated in seva , then, leads not only to a joyful realization of the true form of the “object” of that seva , but also to a deep concern for it. Because of his sentiments toward Yamuna, a pilgrimage priest who resides near the Yamuna River in Mathura experienced much pain while confronting the massive pollution of the river.  “When people come to Mathura and see the condition of the Yamuna,” he reports, “it hurts them and they leave with a broken heart.”  This man’s anguish spurred him into environmental action aimed at cleansing the river.  “When Mother is sick,” he explained, “one cannot throw her out of the house.  We must help her.  Therefore, I do Yamuna seva ” (Haberman 2006, 144).   Seva , or loving service, was a word I heard many times in conversations with environmental activists working to restore the Yamuna to health.  This activist priest, who organized demonstrations to raise awareness of the plight of the Yamuna and was the primary instigator of a successful court case that imposed a ban on the release of untreated domestic sewage and industrial effluents into the Yamuna in the Mathura District, represents his environmental activism with this religious term, as do many others in India. For him, restoring the river is a deeply religious act, performed not primarily for the benefit of humans, but for the river herself.

The culminating result of this divine love affair is a firm “connection” or “relationship” with some aspect of the sacred world. This relationship is called sambandha – the final “ s ”. Worshipful acts of seva designed to honor a particular being have the additional effect of stimulating a deeper loving connection – sambandha – with that being.  As a recipient of loving acts of seva , natural entities such as rivers, trees, and stones from sacred mountains are typically personified and sometimes even adorned in an anthropomorphic manner.  The Yamuna River is draped from shore to shore with a long decorative cloth made from 108 colorful saris on her birthday and other special occasions.  Neem trees in Varanasi are wrapped with ornate cloth and humanlike facemasks are attached to the trunks at eye level.  Faces with prominent eyes are also added to stones from Mount Govardhan, which are then adorned with clothing and jewelry.  Worshipers of these natural entities report that this seva practice is more than a way of honoring the natural entity; they also do this to develop and enhance an intimate relationship with the svarupa . 

A neem tree worshiper told me: “The face makes darshan (sight) of the goddess easier.  The tree is the goddess, but it is easier to have a relationship with the goddess if a face is there.  It is easier to see the goddess in the tree, or the tree as the goddess with a face on it” (Haberman 2013, 154).  Many tree worshipers report that the face helps them recognize and better bond with the goddess of the neem tree: “When I look into the face of the goddess on the tree,” one woman explained, “I feel a strong connection ( sambandha ) with this tree” (Haberman 2013, 154).  Worshipers who add faces to stones from Mount Govardhan, which are understood to be naturally embodied forms of Krishna, express similar notions. One told me that this practice “makes it easier to perceive the svarupa , to see the stone as Krishna.”   Another said: “When you put eyes and face on a Govardhan stone you feel it is a person.  It is easier to see the stone as a person with the face and clothing added.  Putting eyes and other ornamentations on the stone makes its personality more perceptible.  This makes a loving relationship with the svarupa more possible.” 

In this context, anthropomorphism seems to function as an intentional cultural means of connecting positively with the nonhuman world.  Current research by social psychologists seems to corroborate the notion that anthropomorphism can function as a means of establishing connection with some nonhuman entity, and that this connection leads to a greater concern for the anthropomorphized agent’s well-being (Epley 2008).  This claim has been confirmed by a group of Hong Kong based psychological researchers who have published a study which demonstrates that anthropomorphizing enhances connectedness to natural entities, and that this results in a stronger commitment to conservation behavior (Tam 2013).

Those who see the Yamuna as a divine goddess are less prone to polluting the river and more committed to restoring it; those who see trees as divine personalities avoid harming them and oversee their protection; and devotees of Mount Govardhan don’t dig into the mountain and some have worked to safeguard it from extractive exploitation.  But how relevant is the concern for a single natural entity toward the larger ethical concern for all such entities?  The possibility of this mode of devotional environmentalism opening out to a more universal ethic was highlighted for me during an instructive conversation.  One day I visited a large pipal tree shrine in Varanasi and there met a sadhvi , a female practitioner who had renounced ordinary domestic life to devote herself to spiritual pursuits.  At one point in our conversation she explained what she thought was the real value of worshiping a tree.  “From the heartfelt worship of a single tree one can see the divinity in that tree and feel love for it.  After some time, with knowledge one can then see the divinity in all trees.  Really, in all life.  All life is sacred because God is everywhere and in everything.  This tree is a svarupa of Vasudeva (Krishna).  As it says in the Bhagavad Gita, from devotion to a svarupa (one’s own particular form of God) comes awareness of the vishvarupa (universal form of God)” (Haberman 2013, 197).  In brief, this knowledgeable woman was advancing the idea that the worship of a particular has the possibility of expanding to a more reverent attitude toward the universal.  Regarding trees, her point was that the worship of a particular tree could lead to the realization of the sacrality of all trees – and by extension, of everything. 

With the comprehension of the universal via the particular we return full circle to the notion of sarvatma-bhava , the idea that everything is sacred. What first began as a proposition is now directly realized in experience.  Many within Hindu religious traditions maintain that it is precisely a reawakening to this deep sacred quality of all life that is the foundation for establishing a more sustainable human presence on the planet. The notions related to the Bhagavad Gita’s four “ s ’s” are deeply embedded in Hindu devotionalism.  Here, then, is a potential resource that is already in place within popular Hindu culture for an emerging environmental practice and ethic that can extend loving care to all of life.

Ahmed K., Kashyap S., and Sinha S. (2000) “Pollution of Hinduism” Down to Earth Science and Environment Fortnightly published by Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi (February 15 th edition) 27-37.  Also now available online at: http://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/pollution-of-hinduisim-17622 .

Bruun O. and Kalland A. (1995) “Images of nature: an introduction to the study of man-environment relations in Asia” in Bruun O. and Kalland A. eds. Asian perceptions of nature Curzon Press, Richmond, UK 1-24.

Chapple C. (1998) “Toward an indigenous Indian environmentalism” in Nelson L. ed. Purifying the earthly body of God: religion and ecology in Hindu India State University of New York Press, Albany 13-37.

Chapple C. and Tucker M. eds. (2000) Hinduism and ecology Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Epley N., Waytz A., Akalis S., and Cacioppo J. (2008) “When we need a human: motivational determinants of anthropomorphism” Social Cognition 26:2, 143-55.

Gadgil M. and Guha R. (1995) Ecology and equity Penguin Books, New Delhi.

Guha R. (1998) “Mahatma Gandhi and the environmental movement in India” in Kalland A. and Persoon G. eds. Environmental movements in Asia Curzon Press, Richmond, UK 65-82.

Guha R. (1999) The unquiet woods: Ecological change and peasant resistance in the Himalaya Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Haberman D. (2006) River of love in an age of pollution: The Yamuna River of northern India University of California Press, Berkeley.

Haberman D. (2013) People trees: Worship of trees in northern India Oxford University Press, New York.

Jacobsen K. (1996) “Bhagavadgita, Ecosophy T, and deep ecology” Inquiry 39:2, 219-38.

Naess A. (1995) “Self-Realization: an ecological approach to being in the world” in Drengson A. and Yuichi I. eds. The Deep Ecology Movement: An introductory anthology North Atlantic Books, Berkeley 13-30.

Narayanan V. (2001) “Water, wood, and wisdom: ecological perspectives from the Hindu tradition” Daedalus 130:4, 179-206.

Nelson L. ed. (1998) Purifying the earthly body of God: Religion and ecology in Hindu India State University of New York Press, Albany.

Nelson L. (2000) “Reading the Bhagavadgita from an ecological perspective” in Chapple C. and Tucker M. eds. Hinduism and ecology Harvard University Press, Cambridge 127-64.

Pedersen P. (1995) “Nature, religion, and cultural identity: the religious environmental paradigm in Asia” in Bruun O. and Kalland A. eds. Asian perceptions of nature Curzon Press, Richmond, UK 258-76.

Sherma R. (1998) “Sacred immanence: reflections on ecofeminism in Hindu Tantra” in Nelson L. ed. Purifying the earthly body of God: Religion and ecology in Hindu India State University of New York Press, Albany 89-131.

Tam K., Lee S., and Chao M. (2013) “Saving Mr. Nature: Anthropomorphism enhances connectedness to and protectiveness toward nature” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 49:3 514-21.

Tomalin E. (2004) “Bio-divinity and biodiversity: Perspectives on religion and environmental conservation in India” Numen 51:3 265-95. 

Tomalin E. (2009) Biodivinity and biodiversity: The limits to religious environmentalism Ashgate, Farnham, UK.

[1] In addition to numerous articles and several monographs, former studies of Hinduism and ecology include two useful volumes of essays written by various scholars (Chapple and Tucker 2000, Nelson 1998).

[2] More recently Emma Tomalin has argued for a distinction between what she calls bio-divinity and environmental concerns.  Bio-divinity refers to the notion that nature is infused with divinity.  This is an idea that has been current in India for a long time; the environmental crisis, however, is relatively new, as are the concerns related to it.  Tomalin insists, therefore, that “there is an immense difference between the priorities and concerns of the modern environmentalist and the world-views of much earlier Hindu sages, poets, and philosophers” (Tomalin, 2004, 267).  This does not mean, however, that aspects of Hinduism cannot be interpreted to support contemporary environmental thinking and action. As Tomalin recognizes, “Religious traditions constantly re-invent themselves precisely through making claims about the past in order to accommodate new ideas” (268). Sacred views of nature in India might indeed now be very useful as a resource to promote the protection and care of the environment.  In fact, this is precisely what is currently taking place.  Tomalin has also published a book expanding on this subject (2009).

[3] Ramachandra Guha maintains that “it is probably fair to say that the life and practice of Gandhi have been the single most important influence on the Indian environmental movement” (1998, 65-66).  The Norwegian philosopher and founder of deep ecology, Arne Naess, was greatly influenced by Gandhi; he took the conceptually central term “Self-Realization” from Gandhi, who in turn took it from the Bhagavad Gita (Naess 1995).

[4] See Guha (1999, 162).  The environmental activist and Chipko spokesperson Sunderlal Bahuguna frequently quotes from the Bhagavad Gita to support his own ecological theology.  The Chipko Movement and Bahuguna have been key sources for the Indian environmental movement. “Indeed, the origins of the Indian environmental movement can be fairly ascribed to that most celebrated of forest conflicts, the Chipko movement of the central Himalaya” (Gadgil and Guha 1995, 84).

[5] “Conserve ecology or perish – this in short, is one of the messages of the Gita , one of the most important scriptures of the Vedic way of life now known as Hinduism” (Ahmed, Kashyap, and Sinha 2000, 28).

[6] Two recent publications based on Shankaracharaya’s reading of the Bhagavad Gita challenge the validity of this position of the Bhagavad Gita (Jabobsen 1996, Nelson 2000).   See my own critical assessment of these articles (Haberman 2006, 29-37).

Header photo credit: ©Chris Chapple, Floral ceremonial offerings, Haridwar, India

Indian Culture and Tradition Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on indian culture and tradition.

India has a rich culture and that has become our identity. Be it in religion, art, intellectual achievements, or performing arts, it has made us a colorful, rich, and diverse nation. The Indian culture and tradition essay is a guideline to the vibrant cultures and traditions followed in India. 

India was home to many invasions and thus it only added to the present variety. Today, India stands as a powerful and multi-cultured society as it has absorbed many cultures and moved on. People here have followed various religion , traditions, and customs.

Although people are turning modern today, hold on to the moral values and celebrates the festivals according to customs. So, we are still living and learning epic lessons from Ramayana and Mahabharata. Also, people still throng Gurudwaras, temples, churches, and mosques. 

The culture in India is everything from people’s living, rituals, values, beliefs, habits, care, knowledge, etc. Also, India is considered as the oldest civilization where people still follows their old habits of care and humanity.

Additionally, culture is a way through which we behave with others, how softly we react to different things, our understanding of ethics, values, and beliefs.

People from the old generation pass their beliefs and cultures to the upcoming generation. Thus, every child that behaves well with others has already learned about their culture from grandparents and parents.

Also, here we can see culture in everything like fashion , music , dance , social norms, foods, etc. Thus, India is one big melting pot for having behaviors and beliefs which gave birth to different cultures. 

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Indian Culture and Religion

There are many religions that have found their origin in age-old methods that are five thousand years old. Also, it is considered because Hinduism was originated from Vedas.

Thus, all the Hindu scriptures that are considered holy have been scripted in the Sanskrit language. Also, it is believed that Jainism has ancient origin and existence in the Indus valley. Buddhism is the other religion that was originated in the country through the teachings of Gautam Buddha. 

There are many different eras that have come and gone but no era was very powerful to change the influence of the real culture. So, the culture of younger generations is still connected to the older generations. Also, our ethnic culture always teaches us to respect elders, behave well, care for helpless people, and help needy and poor people.

Additionally, there is a great culture in our country that we should always welcome guest like gods. That is why we have a famous saying like ‘Atithi Devo Bhava’. So, the basic roots in our culture are spiritual practices and humanity. 

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A History of Hinduism

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• Essay on Hinduism

Essay On Hinduism

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Hinduism , Religion , Community , India , Democracy , Ethics , Life , Belief

Words: 1000

Published: 11/14/2019

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Introduction

Hinduism is one of the most prime and indigenous religion of the Hindus. It stands as one of the oldest and distinctive religious traditions owing to the fact that its origins are not founded on prophetic ways compared to religions such as Christianity, Islam and Buddhism (Flood 23). In addition, the distinctiveness of Hinduism is based on the fact that its teachings of a particular prophet or any dogmas that were preached by a given people, implying that it is a religion that is free from devotion. This essay attempts to analyze the religion of Hinduism by putting into consideration the characteristics that are common to all religious traditions.

Hinduism embraces the aspect of sacrifices as a form of thanksgiving through the Yagna, which is beseeched by priests who are qualified, as a form of worship whereby the offerings are made to the various goddesses in a prearranged and methodical manner. The priests usually serve to assist the worshipper to achieve some certain desired life outcomes, which may be the welfare of the individual, the society as a whole or a particular group of people. Yagna can take various forms with the simplest being the lighting of a sacred fire, after which offerings are poured to the sacred fire. Sacrifices are in the form of selected food substances and animals that are selected by the qualified priests. The fundament belief of Hinduism is that the religion believes in the value of sacrifice and the aspect of merit, which are attained after the undertaking of charity works in order to reduce suffering during the afterlife (Knott 89).

The second aspect of Hinduism is that it is entails various rituals, which are conducted depending on the objective such as, worship and thanksgiving among many other reasons. A significant characteristic of Hinduism religion is the distinction between purity and pollution. An important aspect of Hinduism is that the practitioner of the rituals must neutralize his impurities before undertaking any form of ritualistic practices. Just like many religions, purification in Hinduism is often done using water. Some of the forms of rituals practiced in Hinduism include meditation, the chanting of mantras, reciting scripts from religious scriptures, and so many others (Senker 120).

Beliefs also form an integral element of Hinduism. Beliefs can be defined as particular concepts that the members of a religious group uphold to foster their well being and a sensitivity of security. With respect to Hinduism, its practitioners hold the view that it evolved organically by use of intrinsic innovation and incorporation of external traditions into the Hindu way of life. The outcome of this is that the religion spread its wings into the entire sub continent of India. An important belief in Hinduism is that it guarantees total freedom of worship. According to Hinduism, the world is perceived as a single family that adores the single truth; as a result, Hinduism embraces all other forms of beliefs, and ignores other religious beliefs that attempt to divide the one identity (Narayanan 89). Some of the most common beliefs in Hinduism include the Dharma, which specifies the ethics and duties; the Karma, which specifies the actions and their respective reactions; the Yogas, which identifies various paths and many more beliefs.

Ethical codes are another integral characteristic of Hinduism, whereby the religion principally focuses on ethical discipline at various levels. Ethical codes are the fundamental building blocks of the various religious philosophies of the Hindu religion. According to Hinduism, ethics helps a religious practitioner in the progress of religious path. For example, the Moshka presupposes that any individual who upholds a religious life achieves freedom (Knott 100).

Hinduism also offers explanation for various supernatural and natural phenomenons that the religion holds on to. For instance, a fundamental explanation for its existence bases on the concept of organic evolution and the spread into the sub continent of India, which resulted to the embracement of religious diversity (Flood 58). Basing on the fact that Hinduism is based on the concept of total freedom of worship; the religion provides an explanation for almost all the religious aspects and the being of their deity’s.

Spirituality is also an important aspect of Hinduism, as evident by their religious beliefs regarding the distinction between the physical life and after life. Hinduism approach to after life is based on the perception that peace during after life is achieved by undertaking good deeds in the physical life. Hinduism teachings have a clear distinction of the relationship that exists between the physical world and the human soul, owing to the fact that the development of the afterlife is determined by the deeds that a person undertakes in the physical world (Senker 74).

With respect to the explanation of the purpose of human existence in Hinduism, the objectives of human life are divided into four fundamental stages, which are Dharma, which a stage of righteousness; Artha, which is a stage of wealth and livelihood; Kama, which is a stage of sensual pleasure; and Moksa, which is a stage of liberation and freedom. The goal of life in Hinduism is usually determined by the paths outlined in the Yoga. A mythical perspective towards Hinduism is also an important characteristic in the religion. Hinduism has its own creation story, just like other religions (Narayanan 89).

Despite the vast differences with other religions in terms of the characteristics that are common to all religions, an important aspect of Hinduism is its concept of total freedom of religion, in the sense that it embraces all other religious forms that encourage unity in divinity and dismisses religious beliefs that are out to seek division in the cause of divinity.

Works cited

Flood, Gavin. An introduction to Hinduism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Knott, Kim. Hinduism: a very short introduction. Oxford : University Press, 2000. Narayanan, Vasudha. Hinduism. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, , 2009. Senker, Cath. Hinduism: Signs, Symbols, and Stories. New York : The Rosen Publishing Group, 2009.

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• School Life

Ratan Tata Essay in Hindi: रतन टाटा पर पढ़े छोटे और बड़े निबंध।

Ratan tata essay in hindi:  रतन टाटा प्रेरणा निबंध: भारत के सबसे सम्मानित और प्रभावशाली व्यवसायिक नेताओं में से एक रतन नवल टाटा पर एक प्रेरणादायक निबंध के लिए इस लेख को देखें। यहाँ संक्षिप्त और विस्तृत निबंध उपलब्ध हैं।.

रतन टाटा (1937-2024): भारत के सबसे बड़े औद्योगिक समूह, टाटा संस के पूर्व अध्यक्ष, रतन टाटा का बुधवार को 86 वर्ष की आयु में निधन हो गया। वे गंभीर स्थिति में इलाज करा रहे थे और पिछले कुछ दिनों से गहन चिकित्सा में थे। टाटा एक प्रतिष्ठित व्यवसायी और समाजसेवी थे, जिन्होंने भारत और विश्व में महत्वपूर्ण योगदान दिया।

रतन टाटा के बारे में

रतन टाटा highlights.

रतन टाटा: प्रारंभिक जीवन और शिक्षा

रतन टाटा, प्रसिद्ध उद्योगपति और समाजसेवी, का जन्म 28 दिसंबर 1937 को मुंबई, भारत में हुआ। वह टाटा परिवार से थे, जिसमें औद्योगिक नेतृत्व की एक लंबी परंपरा रही है। उनके पिता, नवल टाटा, जे.आर.डी. टाटा के छोटे भाई थे, जिन्होंने आधुनिक भारत की विमानन उद्योग की स्थापना की।

रतन टाटा: एक समझदार व्यवसायी

अपनी शिक्षा पूरी करने के बाद, उन्होंने 1961 में टाटा समूह में शामिल हुए। उनके शुरुआती कार्य विभिन्न टाटा कंपनियों में थे, जहां उन्होंने विभिन्न क्षेत्रों में अनुभव प्राप्त किया। बाद में, उन्होंने 1991 में जे.आर.डी. टाटा के रिटायरमेंट के बाद टाटा सन्स के अध्यक्ष के रूप में कार्यभार संभाला। उस समय, भारतीय अर्थव्यवस्था महत्वपूर्ण उदारीकरण की प्रक्रिया से गुजर रही थी, जो भारतीय व्यवसायों के लिए कई अवसर और चुनौतियाँ प्रस्तुत कर रही थी। रतन टाटा के नेतृत्व में, टाटा समूह ने इन अवसरों का लाभ उठाया और तेज़ी से विकास और विविधीकरण की दिशा में बढ़ा।

रतन टाटा की सबसे उल्लेखनीय उपलब्धियों में से एक 2008 में फोर्ड मोटर कंपनी से जगुआर लैंड रोवर का अधिग्रहण था। यह साहसिक कदम टाटा समूह को एक वैश्विक ऑटोमोबाइल खिलाड़ी के रूप में बदलने में मदद किया, जिससे इसकी पहुंच लग्जरी कार बाजार में बढ़ी। एक अन्य बड़ी उपलब्धि ब्रिटिश कंपनियों जैसे टेटली टी और कोरस स्टील का अधिग्रहण था, जिसने टाटा समूह को वैश्विक स्तर पर पहचान दिलाई।

रतन टाटा की व्यक्तित्व

अपने व्यावसायिक उपलब्धियों के अलावा, रतन टाटा को उनकी सरलता और विनम्र व्यक्तित्व के लिए भी जाना जाता था। अपनी विशाल संपत्ति और प्रभाव के बावजूद, उन्हें एक विनम्र और निजी व्यक्ति माना जाता था, जो हमेशा दूसरों के कल्याण को व्यक्तिगत लाभ से पहले रखते थे। यह विनम्रता, उनके व्यावसायिक कौशल के साथ मिलकर, उन्हें दुनिया भर के लोगों का सम्मान और प्रशंसा दिलाने में सफल रही है।

रतन टाटा के भारतीय उद्योग और समाज में योगदान को व्यापक रूप से मान्यता मिली, और उन्हें कई पुरस्कार मिले। इनमें से कुछ सबसे प्रतिष्ठित पुरस्कारों में 2000 में मिला पद्म भूषण और 2008 में मिला पद्म विभूषण शामिल हैं, जो भारत के सबसे उच्च नागरिक सम्मान हैं। 2012 में टाटा समूह के अध्यक्ष के रूप में रिटायर होने के बाद भी, रतन टाटा विभिन्न परोपकारी और उद्यमशीलता संबंधी पहलों में सक्रिय बने हुए हैं, जिसमें स्टार्टअप में निवेश करना और युवा उद्यमियों को मार्गदर्शन देना शामिल है।

अंत में, रतन टाटा केवल एक व्यवसायिक नेता नहीं थे; वे नैतिक नेतृत्व और सामाजिक जिम्मेदारी के लिए एक आदर्श बने। उनकी दृष्टि, ईमानदारी और विनम्रता ने भारत के कॉर्पोरेट परिदृश्य पर अमिट छाप छोड़ी है। उन्हें हमेशा याद किया जाएगा जैसे किसी ने टाटा समूह को एक वैश्विक शक्ति में बदल दिया, जबकि उन्होंने ईमानदारी और करुणा के मूल्यों के प्रति अपनी प्रतिबद्धता बनाए रखी। टाटा समूह के नेतृत्व और सामाजिक कारणों के प्रति उनकी प्रतिबद्धता को आने वाले वर्षों तक याद किया जाएगा।

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