representation history meaning

berghahn New York · Oxford

• By Author (A-Z) | By Title (A-Z)
• General Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Applied Anthropology
• Food & Nutrition
• Medical Anthropology
• Political & Economic Anthropology
• Theory & Methodology
• Heritage Studies
• Museum Studies
• Literary Studies
• Media Studies
• Performance Studies
• Urban Studies
• Colonial History
• Genocide History
• Jewish Studies
• Memory Studies
• Medieval/Early Modern
• 18th-/19th-Century
• 20th Century to Present
• Refugee & Migration Studies
• Transport Studies
• Travel & Tourism
• Asia-Pacific
• Middle East/Israel
• Circumpolar
• North America
• Latin America
• Northern Europe
• Southern Europe
• Central/Eastern Europe

View Table of Contents

Making Sense of History

See related, email newsletters.

Sign up for our email newsletters to get customized updates on new Berghahn publications.

Click here to select your preferences

Meaning and Representation in History

Edited by jörn rüsen.

292 pages, illus., index, bibliog.

ISBN  978-1-57181-776-1 $135.00/£99.00 / Hb / Published (August 2006)

ISBN  978-1-84545-262-9 $34.95/£27.95 / Pb / Published (December 2007)

eISBN 978-0-85745-555-0 eBook

https://doi.org/10.3167/9781571817761

Description

History has always been more than just the past. It involves a relationship between past and present, perceived, on the one hand, as a temporal chain of events and, on the other, symbolically as an interpretation that gives meaning to these events through varying cultural orientations, charging it with norms and values, hopes and fears. And it is memory that links the present to the past and therefore has to be seen as the most fundamental procedure of the human mind that constitutes history: memory and historical thinking are the door of the human mind to experience. At the same time, it transforms the past into a meaningful and sense bearing part of the present and beyond. It is these complex interrelationships that are the focus of the contributors to this volume, among them such distinguished scholars as Paul Ricoeur, Johan Galtung, Eberhard Lämmert, and James E. Young. Full of profound insights into human society pat and present it is a book that not only historians but also philosophers and social scientists should engage with.

Jörn Rüsen was Professor of Modern History at the Universities of Bochum and Bielefeld for many years. From 1994 to 1997 he was the Director of the Center for Interdisciplinary Research (ZiF). Since 1997 he has been President of the Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities (Kulturwissenschaftliches Institut), Essen.

Subject: History (General)

LC: D16.9 .M298 2006

BL: YC.2007.a.13675

BISAC: HIS016000 HISTORY/Historiography; HIS000000 HISTORY/General

BIC: HBAH Historiography; HB History

List of Illustrations

Preface to the Series Jörn Rüsen

Introduction: What  does "Making Sense of History" mean? Jörn Rüsen

PART I: MEANING

Chapter 1. Memory - Forgetting - History Paul Ricoeur

Chapter 2. How Meaning Came into the World and What Became of It Günter Dux

Chapter 3. Sense of History: What does it Mean? With an Outlook onto Reason and Senselessness Jörn Rüsen

Chapter 4. "The Meaning of History": A Modern Construction and Notion? Jörn Stückrath

Chapter 5. The Meaning of History: Enacting Sociocultural Code Johan Galtung

Chapter 6. The Three Levels of "Sinnbildung" in Historical Writing Frank R. Ankersmit

Chapter 7. The Reality of History David Carr

Chapter 8. Language and Historical Experience Frank R. Ankdersmit

PART II: REPRESENTATION

Chapter 9. Flights from History: Reinventing Tradition between the 18th and 19th Centuries Aleida Assmann

Chapter 10. Memory and Identity: How Memory is Reconstructed after Catastrophic Events Alessandro Cavalli

Chapter 11. The Material Presence of the Past: Reflections on the Visibility of History Detlef Hoffmann

Chapter 12. Ruins: A Visual Expression of Historical Meaning Moshe Barasch

Chapter 13. Three Versions of Wallentstein: Differences of Meaning Production between Historiography, Biography, and Novel Eberhard Lämmert

Chapter 14. The Arts of Jewish Memory in a Postmodern Age James E. Young

Bibliography Notes on Contributors Index of Names

Back to Top

Of Related Interest

Meaning, Truth, and Reference in Historical Representation by Frank Ankersmit

2013, Journal of the History of Philosophy

Related Papers

Rethinking History

Paul A. Roth

This article proposes to identify the conceptual structure guiding Frank Ankersmit's philosophy of history. We argue that philosophical analysis of history consists in Ankersmit's approach of three different levels: 1) the level of the past itself which is the subject of ontology, 2) the level of description of the past that is studied by epistemol-ogy, and 3) the level of representation of the past which should be analysed primarily by means of aesthetics. In other words, the realm of history is constituted of three aspects: 1) historical experience, 2) historical research, and 3) historical representation. During his whole academic career, Ankersmit has been interested in the first and the third aspects and has tried deliberately to avoid any serious engagement in epistemol-ogy (historical research). Ankersmit's philosophy of history is built on a few fundamental dichotomies that can be considered as a kind of axioms of his thinking: 1) the distinction between historical research and historical writing, and 2) the distinction between description and historical representation. The article offers a critical discussion of Ankersmit's two different approaches to the philosophy of history: cognitivist philosophy of history (analysis of historical representation) and existentialist philoso­ phy of history (analysis of historical experience), and concludes by a short overview of the impact and significance of his historical-philosophical work and of his idea of the uniqueness of history.

Ewa Domańska

This paper analyzes key issues in the work of Frank Ankersmit: narrative, representation and sublime historical experience. It argues that his recent turn to experience marks a shift from an interest in narrative and the textual dimension of the past to an examination of the notion of an experience about the past. It suggests that although Ankersmit is usually associated with postmodernist avangardism in historical theory (narrativism, constructivism), as can be seen in his theory of historical representation, his understanding of the concept of historical experience and the sublime can be seen as regression. Thus, although Ankersmit had pushed historical theory beyond the linguistic turn, his most recent work can be understood as a return to a traditional Romantic view of immediate experience combined with an Enlightenment analysis of it.

Eugen Zeleňák

History and Theory 53 (2014) 277-294

Branko Mitrovic

My purpose in the researching and the writing of this thesis has been to investigate, and to try to explain, Frank Ankersmit's curious shift from his well expressed and firmly held narrativist position of "Narrative Logic", to an arguably contradictory, yet passionately held counter belief in the plausibility of a form of direct (sublime) historical experience - an authentic unmediated relationship with the past. I am, accordingly, presenting here what I believe to be the most adequate explanatory account of/for Ankersmit's intellectual journey. A journey which, in essence, constituted a substitution of his earlier representational, language centred philosophy of history for what might be taken as a new and mystical non-representational theory. This alternative theory of Ankersmit' s (let it be called this for now), lacking cognitive foundations, works on the basis of sensations, moods, feelings and therefore a consciousness deemed to be received directly from ...

Journal of the Philosophy of History

Jonathan Menezes

For some contemporary historical theorists, the postmodernist movement in history and its nearly unilateral orientation towards language or discourse recently became subject to 'the law of diminishing returns', due to philosophers' and theorists' of history shifts in interests at this time. Nevertheless, the contributions left by postmodernism in the Western historical thought are too noticeable to be denied, even by those who have criticized it in the past. Frank Ankersmit is one of the few theorists that has been on both sides; firstly, he swiftly tied his case with postmodernism, and secondly, joined those who, then and now, think that postmodernism was/is just an irresponsible and irretrievable trend. Hence, the aim of this paper is to explore some of the particularities of Ankersmit's affair with postmodernism, taking his metaphor of 'the autumn of historiography' as an example of the limits of this relationship, and its eventual end.

For over 20 years Frank Ankersmit has been one of the leading figures of narrativist philosophy of history. Despite the fact that his work has received considerable attention from other philosophers of history, few authors have attempted to provide a favorable interpretation of the interesting things he says about history. In this article I argue that such an interpretation of his account of historical representation may reveal a very important point he makes concerning the nature of historical work. Following a discussion of theory-ladenness and underdetermination from the general philosophy of science I show that these concepts should be taken into account better to understand Ankersmit's holistic view of historical representation. Although it is possible to find several types of holism in his writings, this article tries to emphasize the significance of one of them. It could be summarized in the so-called new holism thesis claiming that historical representation is a whole produced by the interplay of factual and conceptual elements. Thus, the important lesson to be learnt from Ankersmit's work and deserving further study is that there is not only an empirical but also a conceptual component playing a crucial role in writing history.

Peter P Icke

This essay is not intended as a critique of Ankersmit's theorisations, neither in the general nor in the particular. Rather, it will focus on Ankersmit's concept of the narrative substance at an explanatory level only, expressly in order to advance the arguments herein. To be more precise, I will explore two very significant points which, it appears to me, unquestionably arise out of this specific element of Ankersmit's wider thesis. In doing so I hope to illustrate the inescapable centrality of language in historical theory – a matter which has been pushed to one side, or wholly excluded, following the recent fashionable growth of interest in memory and experience studies.

History and Theory

John Zammito

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Frank Ankersmit's Lost Historical Cause

Mariana Imaz

Palgrave advances in Henry James studies

Gert Buelens

Sami Syrjamaki

Steven Crowell

thounaojam caesar

Michael S Roth

Theories of History

Michael J. Kelly , Andris Mucenieks , Sarah Teasley

Eelco Runia

Frank Ankersmit

Comparative Literature

Anne Coldiron

Richard T Eldridge

Jonathan L Gorman

Blair Hodges

Karsten Harries

Christian Maureira

Zoltán Boldizsár Simon

Adriano Bugliani

J.B. Lethbridge

Joan-Pau Rubiés , Melissa Calaresu

Jonathan Payne

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

• DOI: 10.5860/choice.45-2175
• Corpus ID: 142846471

Meaning and Representation in History

• Published 26 September 2022

26 Citations

The plural history of memory: a polyphonic novel by ángela hernández, communism and the meaning of social memory: towards a critical-interpretive approach, queer history / queer memory: the case of alan turing, remembrance as remaking: memories of the nation revisited, aporias of belonging: jean améry on ‘being a jew without judaism’ and the tradition of conscious pariah, the poetics of remembrance: communal memory and identity in heidegger and ricoeur, a historiography of victory: r.j. rushdoony’s christian philosophy of history as constitutive of his postmillennial theopolitics, remembering as necessary for forgiving.

• Highly Influenced

Translation and its discontents II: a German perspective

Related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

• Architecture and Design
• Asian and Pacific Studies
• Business and Economics
• Classical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies
• Computer Sciences
• Cultural Studies
• Engineering
• General Interest
• Geosciences
• Industrial Chemistry
• Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies
• Jewish Studies
• Library and Information Science, Book Studies
• Life Sciences
• Linguistics and Semiotics
• Literary Studies
• Materials Sciences
• Mathematics
• Social Sciences
• Sports and Recreation
• Theology and Religion
• Publish your article
• The role of authors
• Promoting your article
• Abstracting & indexing
• Publishing Ethics
• Why publish with De Gruyter
• How to publish with De Gruyter
• Our book series
• Our subject areas
• Your digital product at De Gruyter
• Contribute to our reference works
• Product information
• Tools & resources
• Product Information
• Promotional Materials
• Orders and Inquiries
• FAQ for Library Suppliers and Book Sellers
• Repository Policy
• Free access policy
• Open Access agreements
• Database portals
• For Authors
• Customer service
• People + Culture
• Journal Management
• How to join us
• Working at De Gruyter
• Mission & Vision
• De Gruyter Foundation
• De Gruyter Ebound
• Our Responsibility
• Partner publishers

Your purchase has been completed. Your documents are now available to view.

Meaning, Truth, and Reference in Historical Representation

• Frank R. Ankersmit
• X / Twitter

Please login or register with De Gruyter to order this product.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Cornell University Press
• Copyright year: 2012
• Audience: General/trade;
• Main content: 282
• Illustrations: 1
• Other: 1 b&w halftone
• Keywords: philosophical semantics ; philosophy of language ; wilhelm von humbold ; leopold von ranke ; historical writing
• Published: April 24, 2012
• ISBN: 9780801463853

• More from M-W
• To save this word, you'll need to log in. Log In

representation

Definition of representation

Examples of representation in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'representation.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

15th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Phrases Containing representation

• proportional representation
• self - representation

Dictionary Entries Near representation

representant

representationalism

Cite this Entry

“Representation.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/representation. Accessed 14 Aug. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of representation, legal definition, legal definition of representation, more from merriam-webster on representation.

Thesaurus: All synonyms and antonyms for representation

Nglish: Translation of representation for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of representation for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about representation

Subscribe to America's largest dictionary and get thousands more definitions and advanced search—ad free!

Can you solve 4 words at once?

Word of the day.

See Definitions and Examples »

Get Word of the Day daily email!

Popular in Grammar & Usage

Plural and possessive names: a guide, commonly misspelled words, how to use em dashes (—), en dashes (–) , and hyphens (-), absent letters that are heard anyway, how to use accents and diacritical marks, popular in wordplay, 8 words for lesser-known musical instruments, it's a scorcher words for the summer heat, 7 shakespearean insults to make life more interesting, 10 words from taylor swift songs (merriam's version), 9 superb owl words, games & quizzes.

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center

representation

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Political Representation

representation , in government, method or process of enabling the citizenry, or some of them, to participate in the shaping of legislation and governmental policy through deputies chosen by them.

The rationale of representative government is that in large modern countries the people cannot all assemble, as they did in the marketplace of democratic Athens or Rome; and if, therefore, the people are to participate in government, they must select and elect a small number from among themselves to represent and to act for them. In modern polities with large populations, representation in some form is necessary if government is to be based on the consent of the governed. Elected representatives are also less likely to reflect the transitory political passions of the moment than are the people, and thus they provide greater stability and continuity of policy to a government.

Through the course of long historical evolution, various methods and devices have been developed in attempts to solve the many problems that have arisen in connection with representation. These problems include the qualifications of electors ( see suffrage ); the apportionment of constituencies ( see constituency ); apportionment (electoral); the basis of election ( see plurality system ; proportional representation ); methods of nominating candidates ( see primary election ); and means of ascertaining the wishes of electors ( see referendum and initiative ). Because of the need to formulate systematically the demands of citizens, political parties have come to act as intermediaries between the citizens and their representatives. Political debate along party lines has thus become a characteristic feature of most representative systems of government.

How answerable a representative should be to his electors is an issue that has long been debated. The basic alternatives are that the representatives of the people act as delegates carrying out instructions or that they are free agents, acting in accordance with their best ability and understanding.

The representative principle is not limited to government: it is applied in electing executive officers of large social organizations such as trade unions and professional associations.

• Previous Chapter
• Next Chapter
• Download PDF

The concept of representation central in contemporary interpretations of democracy is in many ways dependent also from the juridical, artistic and religious languages, and the meanings it assumes in this field. This polysemic character has animated the history of political thought, where the concept of representation has been viewed in different and loosely related ways. An important turning point for the contemporary development of the scientific (and political) debate has been the formation of a consensus around the meaning of representation within the context of the neo-Schumpeterian view of democracy, in which the adjective representative referred to the influence of citizens’ opinion on policy-making. The seminal work of Hanna Pitkin shifted the focus on the substantive character of political representation conceived as acting in the interests of the represented. Both approaches were built around the concept of responsiveness, and coexisted as standard references for several decades. Around the end of the twentieth century the concept of representation and the related practices were object of a renewed attention both in response to the progress of the academic debate and as a consequence of the changing political reality.

Table of Contents

• [185.80.149.115]
• 185.80.149.115

Character limit 500 /500

• Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• History of Architecture
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• History of Art
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Literature
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Browse content in History
• Environmental History
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Education
• Intellectual History
• Military History
• Political History
• Regional and National History
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Browse content in Literature
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Musicology and Music History
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Moral Philosophy
• Philosophy of Religion
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cultural Studies
• Technology and Society
• Browse content in Law
• Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• History of Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Public International Law
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Biochemistry
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Environmental Geography
• Environmental Science
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Psychology
• Health Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Medical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Ethics
• Business History
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Human Resource Management
• Knowledge Management
• Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Browse content in Economics
• Asian Economics
• Economic History
• Economic Development and Growth
• Public Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• Asian Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Environmental Politics
• European Union
• International Relations
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Economy
• Political Sociology
• Political Theory
• Public Policy
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Browse content in Social Work
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Browse content in Sociology
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Reviews and Awards
• Journals on Oxford Academic
• Books on Oxford Academic

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

3 Interpretation

• Published: April 2012
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

The terms “historical interpretation” and “historical representation” are often used interchangeably. The historical text can alternatively be described as an “interpretation” or as a “representation of the past.” Nevertheless, the two terms do not have quite the same meaning. Interpretation and representation have their own respective domains of preferred application. And this raises the question of where to locate historical writing in the space defined by the two axes of interpretation and representation. This chapter argues that we should distinguish between interpretation and representation and, more specifically, avoid looking at the historical text from the perspective of interpretation only. Representation takes priority over interpretation in the historical text: there can be interpretation only after there has first been a representation and therefore an either real or imaginary reality represented by the text.

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

The Modernity of Political Representation

Its innovative thrust and transnational semantic transfers during the sattelzeit (eighteenth to nineteenth centuries).

• Get Citation Alerts
• Get Permissions
• Download PDF

Representation is a major and multifaceted concept of modern politics. Through open and regular elections, it shields the democratic character of representative governments, compelling politicians to pursue the interests of their constituencies and become responsive to their demands. 1 But since the concept of representation is so embedded in the day-to-day workings of democratic regimes, it has largely lost significant traces of its history that shed light on its political dawn. The instrumentalization of the concept by representative governments in order to assess their democratic legitimacy obfuscates its seminal ambiguities and the history of conflicts about its meaning and institutional functions.

• Representation before/beyond Representative Democracy

Dismissing its origins and institutional complexity, representation is often considered synonymous with elections and elections with democracy. Although this pattern of equivalences makes sense as a legitimizing principle for representative government, it overshadows the plurality of meanings the concept of representation gained over time and its manifold institutional adjustments in democratic regimes. 2 In this regard—though Hanna Pitkin's masterpiece on representation remains a landmark in political theory 3 — little attention has been paid to Hasso Hofmann's conceptual history of the term, 4 a study in line with the research program of the Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe . On the other hand, in recent years, the pattern of equivalences between representation, elections, and democracy has become the target of populist and anti-liberal criticisms claiming that representation distorts true democracy. While this opposition between representation and democracy is far from new and may be linked with the inherent complexity of the term representation , 5 the rise of right-wing populism in Europe makes such rhetoric even more prevalent and disturbing.

This challenge has been addressed by political theorists who show that political representation goes together with citizens’ participation and should thus constitute the basis for any thick conception of democracy. 6 This “democratic turn,” produced since the late 1990s in the theory of political representation, was soon followed, and sometimes rivaled, by a “constructivist turn” that focused on “representative claims,” irrespective of the presence of electoral authorization, which challenged the parallel between representation, elections, and democracy. 7 Indeed, advocates of this constructivist turn emphasized the performative aspects and the potentially democratic role of representative claims not based on elections. While not incompatible with democratic values, constructivist accounts of political representation pose a new challenge for political theory by undermining the normative foundations of representative governments. 8

Both consecutive turns, along with the criticisms of representative government, have put the concept of representation at the top of the agenda of current democracies. Yet to address the political and theoretical challenges of reassessing, and somehow reinventing, democratic representation in a time of crisis is seriously hindered by the vagueness of the knowledge at hand about the historical roots and functional aims of representative democracy. The naturalization of the representative system based on elections as the sole possible democratic institutional arrangement makes it, ironically, an easy target for political adversaries of liberalism and proponents of constructivism alike. Its assumed ahistorical character may have been a strength as a legitimizing principle; it is now a serious flaw that weakens democratic rule itself.

Accordingly, the purpose of this special section is to document with the help of two case studies the semantic and institutional changes of the concept of representation throughout the crucial period of the entrance of Europe into political democratic modernity, Reinhart Koselleck's Sattelzeit , 9 the era from the mid-eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century. The history of representation from its rise as a political concept in the fourteenth- century debates about the relations between temporal and spiritual power to Thomas Hobbes's reformulation against defenders of parliament during and after the English Civil War is well known. 10 Likewise, its uses by the founding fathers of modern representative governments (in France, Great Britain, and the United States) are even better known. 11 However, the more underground and long-term changes of representation through the Sattelzeit are not as often studied. This is especially eloquent when moving from the representation debates in Great Britain or France to other European countries such as the Netherlands or Poland, not to mention the non-European uses of representation that have only recently been explored 12 and whose chronologies provide clues to revise and update the comparative knowledge of political concepts.

The great variety in the semantics of representation 13 may well explain the stimulus to transnational comparative studies, framed within the Sattelzeit , in other European countries and elsewhere since the 1980s, as documented by Contributions to the History of Concepts ; yet it also outlines the linguistic and historiographic challenges a global conceptual history of representation should face. Whereas in English or in French a single signifier, representation or représentation , can refer to several signifieds (incarnation, delegation, mental image, pictorial or theatrical reproduction, and so on), Italian distinguishes between rappresentazione and rappresentanza , German between Repräsentation , Vertretung , Darstellung , and Vorstellung , for example. The picture becomes more complex when we try to assess the cases of non-European languages: sometimes the Western concept of representation was exported and conflicted with previous words, such as daibiao in Chinese in tension with the traditional tianming (mandate of heaven).

• Representation and Political Legitimacy

Yet these purely linguistic limits are not the only reasons why such a conceptual history of representation is a scholarly challenge. Our contention is that it also has to do, paradoxically, with the very success of the vocabulary of representation in modern Europe. Indeed, this flexible concept offered a unique means to legimitimize very diverse governments and institutional arrangements when traditional forms of legitimacy started to lose momentum, initially in Europe 14 and later on in other parts of the world. No wonder central authors of the Aufklärung , Enlightenment, or Lumières movements during the Sattelzeit , such as Montesquieu or Kant, gave political representation a crucial role in their rational redefinition of political legitimacy. Representation effectively placed popular consent at the core of the political system, thus making any other source of legitimacy redundant, without necessarily questioning the existing institutional arrangements, including those of authoritarian regimes.

Through the development of popular unrest in several parts of Europe from the seventeenth century onward, deep political struggles occurred regarding represenation's meaning, with different actors claiming to be the real representatives of the people or the nation. Such uses of the vocabulary of representation to justify or invalidate political actors and institutions became a central feature of revolutionary events, especially in the United States and in France where the question of representation was at the core of both the onset and the later developments of the revolution. 15 Yet the inaugural revolutionary controversy about representation may well have been the English Civil War (1642–1651), during which the concept of representation was called upon to uphold legitimacy claims for both the parliamentarians and their opponents loyal to the king, first of all Hobbes. 16 In turn, Hobbes's Leviathan contributed to giving citizens’ representation a prominent role in legitimating the sovereign, in place of religious, charismatic, or traditional forms of legitimacy—thus reinforcing the importance of controversies about political representation.

The multiple political crises and revolutions that took place during the Sattelzeit —not just in Europe, but also in the United States, the Caribbean, or Latin America—radicalized the antagonisms between different understandings of political representation. On the one hand, defenders of authoritarian rule developed a conception of representation mostly based on incarnation, according to which only a single person could represent the unity of the country and thus rule it. 17 On the other hand, those who contested established institutions wanted to make governments accountable to citizens, relying on regular elections to select the wisest, and often richest, members of society—a system soon to be called representative government. In many countries, this conceptual polarity both influenced and was a result of class conflicts and rivalries between elites, making representation a strongly contested concept.

• Historicizing Representative Democracies

In Europe, conflicts about the meaning of political representation had distinct consequences after the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars. 18 Even if monarchies eventually prevailed, leading to the strengthening of European conservatism at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, it became impossible for any government to neglect middle class citizens’ demands for representation and to restore absolute autocracies. The individual rational bourgeois citizen, already at the center of the public sphere since the eighteenth century, 19 became the ubiquitous legitimizing figure on which any modern government, even a conservative one, should base its power. This move resulted in a partial Europeanization of the struggles about representation and foreshadowed a relative convergence among claims, mottos, and eventually institutions in most European countries. The revolution of 1848, at the very end of the Sattelzeit , thus gave rise to controversies around representation that reached a truly continental scale. 20 In almost every European country, the concepts of citizenship, liberty, representation, and sometimes democracy or even socialism formed a new common intellectual framework for political struggles and debates.

The end of the Sattelzeit saw the advocates of representative government successfully impose their idea of representation. However, their apparent victory in monopolizing the vocabulary of representation was by no means a definitive one. The pattern of equivalences it established between representation, elections, and later on, democracy was continuously resisted by both radical democrats and reactionaries. Moreover, it was questioned by members of the numerous groups that were originally excluded from politics in many countries, such as women, workers, indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans. Those resistances to representative government became an integral part of the concurrent dynamics of both democratization and authoritarian personalization of contemporary politics, leading over time to a much richer and complex form of representation than the one initially tested in the early representative regimes of the nineteenth century in Europe and the United States. The Europeanization of representative controversies gave way to a spread of local, national, and regional political arrangements. Both the centrality and complexity of the concept of representation in contemporary European politics result from the intertwining of these levels and the conceptual circulation that characterized the Sattelzeit .

This makes transnational and global history engaging challenges, as they require dealing with the apparently opposed homogenizing and differentiating forces that took root, making every national situation singular and yet linked with regional and global changes. This section's aim is to provide some preliminary landmarks, focused on European cases, to that account. First, Bert Drejer deals with the critical conflict between local and national forms of representation in the Netherlands, when representative government started to gain momentum in the eighteenth century. Through a careful analysis of the vocabulary used (representation versus depiction), Drejer shows the conceptual scope of this dispute. Then Piotr Kuligowski chronicles the end of the Sattelzeit , on the eve of the 1848 revolution that brutally ended many of the controversies around political concepts. Kuligowski spells out how opposing liberal, democratic, and socialist Polish political organizations conceptualized representation through this momentous period. Both examples shed new light on the transnational understanding of the fascinating conceptual history of representation.

The original idea for this special section was inspired by a CONCEPTA research seminar, Comparing the Concepts of Representation . Convened by both editors, the seminar took place in November 2016 in Paris. Samuel Hayat acknowledges the support of the project (New) Political Representative Claims: A Global View (France, Germany, Brazil, China, India) (ANR-15-FRAL-0010). José María Rosales acknowledges the support of the project Civic Constellation III: Democracy, Constitutionalism, and Anti- Liberalism (Spain's National Research Fund, PGC2018-093573-B-I00). Both editors gratefully acknowledge Jan Ifversen's thoughtful comments on an earlier draft of this introduction.

Heinz Eulau and John C. Wahlke, The Politics of Representation: Continuities in Theory and Research (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1978); Bernard Manin, Adam Przeworski, and Susan C. Stokes, “Elections and Representation,” in Democracy, Accountability, and Representation , ed. Adam Przeworski, Susan C. Stokes, and Bernard Manin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 29–54; Jane Mansbridge, “Rethinking Representation,” American Political Science Review 97, no. 4 (2003): 515–528.

Nadia Urbinati and Mark E. Warren, “The Concept of Representation in Contemporary Democratic Theory,” Annual Review of Political Science 11 (2008): 387–412; The Economist Intelligence Unit, Democracy Index 2018: Me Too? Political Participation, Protest and Democracy , http://www.eiu.com/topic/democracy-index (accessed 7 February 2020).

Hanna F. Pitkin, The Concept of Representation (Berkeley: The University of California Press, 1967).

Hasso Hofmann, Repräsentation: Studien zur Wort- und Begriffsgeschichte von der Antike bis ins 19. Jahrhundert [Representation: Studies on the history of words and concepts from antiquity to the nineteenth century] (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1974).

Didier Mineur, Archéologie de la représentation politique: structure et fondement d'une crise [Archeology of political representation: Structure and foundation of a crisis] (Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2010).

David Plotke, “Representation Is Democracy,” Constellations 4, no. 1 (1997): 19–34; Nadia Urbinati, “Continuity and Rupture: The Power of Judgment in Democratic Representation,” Constellations 12, no. 2 (2005): 194–222; Sofia Näsström, “Representative Democracy as Tautology: Ankersmit and Lefort on Representation,” European Journal of Political Theory 5, no. 3 (2006): 321–342.

Michael Saward, The Representative Claim (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).

Lisa Disch, Mathijs van de Sande, and Nadia Urbinati, eds., The Constructivist Turn in Political Representation (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2019).

Reinhart Koselleck, “Basic Concepts in History: A Historical Dictionary of Political and Social Language in Germany,” trans. Michaela Richter, Contributions to the History of Concepts 6, no. 1 (2011): 1–37.

Adalbert Podlech, “Repräsentation,” in Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe , vol. 5, ed. Otto Brunner, Werner Conze, and Reinhart Koselleck (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1984), 509–547.

Bernard Manin, The Principles of Representative Government (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Pierre Rosanvallon, Le peuple introuvable: Histoire de la représentation démocratique en France [The unfindable people: History of democratic representation in France] (Paris: Gallimard, 1998); Nadia Urbinati, Representative Democracy: Principles and Genealogy (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006).

See, e.g., Juan P. Luna and Elizabeth J. Zechmeister, “Representation in Latin America: A Study of Elite-Mass Congruence in Nine Countries,” Comparative Political Studies 38, no. 4 (2005): 388–416; Omano Edigheji, “Political Representation in Africa: Towards a Conceptual Framework,” Africa Development 31, no. 3 (2006): 93–119; and Garry Rodan, “Compelling Ideologies of Political Representation in Southeast Asia,” Third World Quarterly 33, no. 2 (2012): 311–332.

Yves Sintomer, “The Meanings of Political Representation: Uses and Misuses of a Notion,” Raisons politiques 50 (2013): 13–34.

Wim Weymans, “Freedom through Political Representation: Lefort, Gauchet and Rosanvallon on the Relationship between State and Society,” European Journal of Political Theory 4, no. 3 (2005): 263–282.

Eric J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe, 1789–1848 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1962); Keith Michael Baker, Colin Lucas, François Furet, and Mona Ozouf, eds., The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture , 4 vols. (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1987); John Phillip Reid, The Concept of Representation in the Age of the American Revolution (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1989).

Quentin Skinner, “Hobbes on Representation,” European Journal of Philosophy 13, no. 2 (2005): 155–184.

Yves Sintomer, “La représentation-incarnation: idéaltype et configurations historiques” [Representation as embodiment: Ideal type and historical configurations], Raisons politiques 72 (2018): 21–52.

Baker et al., The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture .

Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society , trans. Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1989).

Jonathan Sperber, The European Revolutions: 1848–1851 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Douglas Moggach and Gareth Stedman Jones, The 1848 Revolutions and European Political Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018).

Contributor Notes

Samuel Hayat is a researcher in political science at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) in Lille. Email: [email protected]

José María Rosales is a professor of moral and political philosophy at the University of Málaga. Email: [email protected]

• Share on facebook Share on linkedin Share on twitter

Contributions to the History of Concepts

Article Information

Issue table of contents, section headings, google scholar.

• Article by Samuel Hayat
• Article by José María Rosales

• Accessibility
• Terms & Conditions
• Privacy Policy

© 2024 Berghahn Books

Powered by:

• [185.80.149.115]
• 185.80.149.115

Alisa Acosta

Researcher, Designer, Educator

Representation, meaning, and language

In his interview with Eve Bearne, Gunther Kress argues that literacy is “that which is about representation” (Kress, in Bearne, 2005, p. 288).  Because “literacy” implies something that is mediated through text, in my previous post I questioned the idea of what constitutes a “text.” After further consideration, I feel that  representation  is the key; therefore, for the purposes of this post I have decided to pursue  representation  a bit further.

The following two graphics provide a visual model for the way I have come to understand  representation  through various readings (most notably, those by cultural theorist Stuart Hall). Although these models represent the culmination of my understanding, I thought it would be helpful to  begin  with these models and then proceed to deconstruct and explain them throughout the post.

Model 1: Theories of Representation

Cultural theorist Stuart Hall describes  representation  as the process by which meaning is produced and exchanged between members of a culture through the use of language, signs and images which stand for or represent things (Hall, 1997).  However, there are several different theories that describe how language is used to represent the world; three of which are outlined above:  reflective, intentional  and  constructionist.

With  reflective  approach to representation, language is said to function like a mirror; it reflects the true meaning of an object, person, idea or event as it already exists in the world.  The Greek word ‘ mimesis’  is used for this purpose to describe how language imitates (or “mimics”) nature.  Essentially, the  reflective  theory proposes that language works by simply reflecting or imitating a fixed “truth” that is already present in the real world (Hall, 1997).

The  intentional  approach argues the opposite, suggesting that the speaker or author of a particular work  imposes  meaning onto the world through the use of language.  Words mean only what their author intends them to mean.  This is not to say that authors can go making up their own private languages; communication – the essence of language – depends on  shared  linguistic conventions and shared codes within a culture.  The author’s intended meanings/messages have to follow these rules and conventions in order to be shared and understood (Hall, 1997).

The  constructionist  approach (sometimes referred to as the  constructivist  approach) recognizes the social character of language and acknowledges that neither things in themselves nor the individual users of language can fix meaning (Hall, 1997).  Meaning is not inherent within an object itself, rather we  construct  meaning using  systems of representation  (concepts and signs); I will elaborate upon these systems further in my second model.  According to Hall:

“Constructivists do not deny the existence of the material world. However, it is not the material world which conveys meaning: it is the language system or whatever system we are using to represent our concepts. It is social actors who use the conceptual systems of their culture and the linguistic and other representational systems to construct meaning, to make the world meaningful and to communicate about that world meaningfully to others.” (Hall, 1997, p. 25)

There are two major variants of the constructionist approach: the  semiotic  approach, which was largely influenced by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, and the  discursive  approach, which is associated with French philosopher Michel Foucault.

Semiotics is the study of signs in a culture (culture  as  language), though the  semiotic  approach doesn’t consider how, when or why language is used.  Saussure believed that language was a rule-governed system that could be studied with the law-like precision of a science (deemed “structuralism”).  He called this rule-governed structure “ la langue,”  and referred to individual language  acts  as “ la parole”  (Culler, 1976).  Many found Saussure’s model appealing because they felt it offered a closed, structured, scientific approach to “the least scientific object of inquiry – culture” (Culler, 1976, p. 29).

“Saussure’s great achievement was to force us to focus on language itself, as a social fact; on the process of representation itself; on how language actually works and the role it plays in the production of meaning.  In doing so, he saved language from the status of a mere transparent medium between  things  and  meaning .  He showed, instead, that representation was a  practice .” (Hall, 1997, p. 34)

With the  semiotic  approach, in addition to words and images, objects themselves can function as signifiers in the production of meaning (Hall, 1997).  Therefore from this perspective, going back to my previous post, my little book of plant pressings may in fact be considered a  text  since each little plant was chosen as a  representative  of an entire species.  Because they were being used to  represent  certain species, it is not the actual plant clipping itself that carries the meaning, rather it is the  symbolic function  it serves in generalizing the morphology, physiology, taxonomy etc.

What Saussure failed to address, however, were questions related to  power  in language (Hall, 1997). Cultural theorists eventually rejected the idea that language could be studied with law-like precision, mainly because language doesn’t operate within a “closed” system as Saussure suggests.  In a culture, language tends to operate across larger units of analysis – narratives, statements, groups of images, and whole discourses which operate across a variety of texts and areas of knowledge (Hall, 1997).

Michel Foucault used the word “ representation ” to refer to the production of  knowledge  (rather than just meaning) through the use of  discourses  (rather than just language) (Foucault, 1980).  His conception of “discourse” was less concerned about  whether  things exist, as it was with  where  meaning comes from. Discourse is always context-dependent.

J.P. Gee uses the concept of Discourse to describe the “distinctive ways of speaking, listening, reading and writing, coupled with distinctive ways of acting, interacting, valuing, feeling, dressing, thinking, believing with other people and with various object, tools, and technologies so as to enact specific socially recognizable identities engaged in specific socially recognizable activities” (Gee, 2008, p. 155).  As Foucault suggests in  The Archaeology of Knowledge,  “nothing has meaning outside of discourse” (Foucault, 1972).

Additionally, for Foucault the formation of discourses had the potential to sustain a “regime of truth” in a particular context.  No form of thought could claim absolute truth, because “truth” was all relative; knowledge, linked to power, can  make itself true .

“Here I believe one’s point of reference should not be the great model of language (langue) and signs, but that of war and battle.  The history which bears and determines us has the form of a war rather than that of a language: relations of power not relations of meaning”  (Foucault, 1980, p. 114-115)

Model 2: Systems of Representation

Meaning is always produced within language; it is the  practice  of representation, constructed through  signifying.   As described in the previous section, the “real world” itself does not convey meaning.  Instead, meaning-making relies two different but related systems of representation:  concepts  and  language .

Concepts  are our mental representations of real-world phenomena.  They may be constructed from physical, material objects that we can perceive through our senses (e.g. a chair, a flower, a tangerine), or they may be abstract things that we cannot directly see, feel, or touch (e.g. love, war, culture).  In our minds, we organize, cluster, arrange and classify different concepts and build complex schema to describe the relations between them (Hall, 1997).

If we have a concept for something, we can say we know its  meaning , but we cannot communicate this meaning without the second system of representation:  language .   Language  can include written or spoken words, but it can also include visual images, gestures, body language, music, or other stimuli such as traffic lights (Hall, 1997).  It is important to note that  language  is completely arbitrary, often bearing little resemblance to the things to which they refer.  As Stuart Hall describes:

“Trees would not mind if we used the word SEERT – ‘trees’ written backwards – to represent the concept of them… it is not at all clear that real trees  know  that they are trees, and even less clear that they know that the word in English which represents the concept of themselves is written TREE whereas in French it is written ARBRE! As far as they are concerned, it could just as well be written COW or VACHE or indeed XYZ” (Hall, 1997, p. 21)

Codes  govern the translation between  concepts  and  language .  These codes are culturally constructed and stabilize meanings within different languages and cultures.  (Note: although meanings can be  stabilized  within a culture, they are never finally  fixed.   Social and linguistic conventions change over time as cultures evolve).

Saussure referred to  the   form , or the  language  used to refer to a concept,   as “ the signifier,”  and the corresponding  idea  it triggered in your head (the  concept ) as “ the signified .”  Together, these constituted “ the sign,”  which he argued “are members of a system and are defined in relation to the other members of that system” (Culler, 1976, p. 19).

In order to produce meaning, signifiers have to be organized into a system of  differences  (Hall, 1997).  For example, it is not the particular colours used in a traffic light that carries meaning – red, yellow, green, blue, pink, violet or vermillion are all arbitrary.  What matters instead is that they are  different  and can be distinguished from one another.  It is the  difference  between Red and Green which signifies – not the colours themselves, or even the words used to describe them (Hall, 1997).

Therefore, going back to my plant pressings dilemma, I am now inclined to argue that my book of plant clippings  is  in fact a text.  My  wild rose  clipping, for example, serves as a material “ signifier ” to represent the  concept  of “ wild rose-ness ” (the  idea ) through its physiological  differences  to the other plants contained in the book.  Meaning is made through the fact that it  represents  wild roses – even though I could have chosen any other wild rose plant from which to take my representative sample.  The book itself is transportable and no longer tied to its immediate context of production, which was an important criterion for Lankshear and Knobel’s definition.

However, after compiling this research on  representation , I have also come to understand that the  definition  of “text” is less important than its  interpretation:

“There is a necessary and inevitable imprecision about language… There is a constant  sliding of meaning  in all interpretation, a margin – something in excess of what we intend to say – in which other meanings overshadow the statement or the text; where other associations are awakened to life, giving what we say a different twist.  So interpretation becomes an essential aspect of the process by which meaning is given and taken” (Hall, 1997, p. 32-33).

___________________________

References:

Bearne, E.  (2005).  Interview with Gunther Kress.  Discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education.  26(3):287-299

Culler, J.  (1976).  Saussure.  London: Fontana.

Foucault, M.  (1972).  The Archaeology of Knowledge.  London: Tavistock.

Foucault, M.  (1980).  Power/Knowledge.  Brighton: Harvester.

Gee, J.P.  (2008).  Chapter 8: Discourses and literacies.    in Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses, 3rd edition.  London: Routledge.

Hall, S. (Ed.)  (1997). Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices. Chapter 1: Representation, meaning and language.  London Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage in association with the Open University. pp. 15-64

Share this:

• Already have a WordPress.com account? Log in now.
• Subscribe Subscribed
• Copy shortlink
• Report this content
• View post in Reader
• Manage subscriptions
• Collapse this bar

Sorry, there was a problem.

Download the free Kindle app and start reading Kindle books instantly on your smartphone, tablet, or computer - no Kindle device required .

Read instantly on your browser with Kindle for Web.

Using your mobile phone camera - scan the code below and download the Kindle app.

Image Unavailable

• To view this video download Flash Player

Follow the author

Meaning and Representation in History (Making Sense of History, 7) Paperback – December 1, 2007

History has always been more than just the past. It involves a relationship between past and present, perceived, on the one hand, as a temporal chain of events and, on the other, symbolically as an interpretation that gives meaning to these events through varying cultural orientations, charging it with norms and values, hopes and fears. And it is memory that links the present to the past and therefore has to be seen as the most fundamental procedure of the human mind that constitutes history: memory and historical thinking are the door of the human mind to experience. At the same time, it transforms the past into a meaningful and sense bearing part of the present and beyond. It is these complex interrelationships that are the focus of the contributors to this volume, among them such distinguished scholars as Paul Ricoeur, Johan Galtung, Eberhard Lämmert, and James E. Young. Full of profound insights into human society pat and present it is a book that not only historians but also philosophers and social scientists should engage with.

• Part of series Making Sense of History
• Print length 292 pages
• Language English
• Publisher Berghahn Books
• Publication date December 1, 2007
• Dimensions 6 x 0.61 x 9 inches
• ISBN-10 1845452623
• ISBN-13 978-1845452629
• See all details

Editorial Reviews

About the author.

Jörn Rüsen was Professor of Modern History at the Universities of Bochum and Bielefeld for many years. From 1994 to 1997 he was the Director of the Center for Interdisciplinary Research (ZiF). Since 1997 he has been President of the Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities (Kulturwissenschaftliches Institut), Essen.

Product details

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Berghahn Books; 1st edition (December 1, 2007)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 292 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 1845452623
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1845452629
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 14.4 ounces
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 6 x 0.61 x 9 inches
• #5,961 in Historiography (Books)
• #254,507 in United States History (Books)

About the author

Discover more of the author’s books, see similar authors, read author blogs and more

Customer reviews

• 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star 1 star 5 star 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
• 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star 1 star 4 star 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
• 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star 1 star 3 star 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
• 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star 1 star 2 star 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
• 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star 1 star 1 star 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%

Customer Reviews, including Product Star Ratings help customers to learn more about the product and decide whether it is the right product for them.

To calculate the overall star rating and percentage breakdown by star, we don’t use a simple average. Instead, our system considers things like how recent a review is and if the reviewer bought the item on Amazon. It also analyzed reviews to verify trustworthiness.

No customer reviews

• About Amazon
• Investor Relations
• Amazon Devices
• Amazon Science
• Sell products on Amazon
• Sell on Amazon Business
• Sell apps on Amazon
• Become an Affiliate
• Advertise Your Products
• Self-Publish with Us
• Host an Amazon Hub
• › See More Make Money with Us
• Amazon Business Card
• Shop with Points
• Reload Your Balance
• Amazon Currency Converter
• Amazon and COVID-19
• Your Account
• Your Orders
• Shipping Rates & Policies
• Returns & Replacements
• Manage Your Content and Devices

• Conditions of Use
• Privacy Notice
• Consumer Health Data Privacy Disclosure
• Your Ads Privacy Choices

• Source Criticism

Representativeness of historical sources

All sources are created by people who had a particular point of view of an event. We initially determine what this view is by analysing the source’s perspective and bias .

However, the creator(s) may not only be expressing their own perspective or bias : their words may reflect those of a larger section of society at that time.

What is 'representativeness'?

If a creator represents the views of a larger group, we can say that the individual 'represents' the opinions of that group of people.

In this way, you can talk about a creator’s ‘representativeness’.

For example:

As the leader of his country, the president of the United States of America may represent the views of Americans.

How do you determine representativeness?

The easiest way to assess a source’s representativeness is to consider what other group of people would have shared (or agreed with) the views expressed in the source at the time of its creation .

A creator can either represent the views of a majority of people (mainstream) or of a small group (marginalised) at a particular point in time .

Often, you need to draw upon your own historical knowledge of the period to decide this.

A source may be representative of a social group's:

• political views
• religious beliefs
• cultural understandings
• an institution’s philosophy

Demonstrating source representativeness in your writing:

Most ancient accounts of Roman history were written by the wealthy elites, so their works reflect the views of this social class (as found in Stevenson, 2015, 56).

Thousands of papyrus fragments from Oxyrhynchus preserve the personal thoughts of children as they learnt to write and, as such, provides rare insights into this segment of ancient Egyptian society (as found in Bean, 1979, 21).

Cicero was a senator and an optimate and so his opinions reflect this view. However, his opinion that “ …” (as found in Jones, 1985, 49) was probably shared by most in the Senatorial order at that time and provides unique insight into this dominant position.

What do you need help with?

Download ready-to-use digital learning resources.

Copyright © History Skills 2014-2024.

Contact  via email

Why Representation Matters and Why It’s Still Not Enough

Reflections on growing up brown, queer, and asian american..

Posted December 27, 2021 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

• Positive media representation can be helpful in increasing self-esteem for people of marginalized groups (especially youth).
• Interpersonal contact and exposure through media representation can assist in reducing stereotypes of underrepresented groups.
• Representation in educational curricula and social media can provide validation and support, especially for youth of marginalized groups.

Growing up as a Brown Asian American child of immigrants, I never really saw anyone who looked like me in the media. The TV shows and movies I watched mostly concentrated on blonde-haired, white, or light-skinned protagonists. They also normalized western and heterosexist ideals and behaviors, while hardly ever depicting things that reflected my everyday life. For example, it was equally odd and fascinating that people on TV didn’t eat rice at every meal; that their parents didn’t speak with accents; or that no one seemed to navigate a world of daily microaggressions . Despite these observations, I continued to absorb this mass media—internalizing messages of what my life should be like or what I should aspire to be like.

Because there were so few media images of people who looked like me, I distinctly remember the joy and validation that emerged when I did see those representations. Filipino American actors like Ernie Reyes, Nia Peeples, Dante Basco, and Tia Carrere looked like they could be my cousins. Each time they sporadically appeared in films and television series throughout my youth, their mere presence brought a sense of pride. However, because they never played Filipino characters (e.g., Carrere was Chinese American in Wayne's World ) or their racial identities remained unaddressed (e.g., Basco as Rufio in Hook ), I did not know for certain that they were Filipino American like me. And because the internet was not readily accessible (nor fully informational) until my late adolescence , I could not easily find out.

Through my Ethnic Studies classes as an undergraduate student (and my later research on Asian American and Filipino American experiences with microaggressions), I discovered that my perspectives were not that unique. Many Asian Americans and other people of color often struggle with their racial and ethnic identity development —with many citing how a lack of media representation negatively impacts their self-esteem and overall views of their racial or cultural groups. Scholars and community leaders have declared mottos like how it's "hard to be what you can’t see," asserting that people from marginalized groups do not pursue career or academic opportunities when they are not exposed to such possibilities. For example, when women (and women of color specifically) don’t see themselves represented in STEM fields , they may internalize that such careers are not made for them. When people of color don’t see themselves in the arts or in government positions, they likely learn similar messages too.

Complicating these messages are my intersectional identities as a queer person of color. In my teens, it was heartbreakingly lonely to witness everyday homophobia (especially unnecessary homophobic language) in almost all television programming. The few visual examples I saw of anyone LGBTQ involved mostly white, gay, cisgender people. While there was some comfort in seeing them navigate their coming out processes or overcome heterosexism on screen, their storylines often appeared unrealistic—at least in comparison to the nuanced homophobia I observed in my religious, immigrant family. In some ways, not seeing LGBTQ people of color in the media kept me in the closet for years.

How representation can help

Representation can serve as opportunities for minoritized people to find community support and validation. For example, recent studies have found that social media has given LGBTQ young people the outlets to connect with others—especially when the COVID-19 pandemic has limited in-person opportunities. Given the increased suicidal ideation, depression , and other mental health issues among LGBTQ youth amidst this global pandemic, visibility via social media can possibly save lives. Relatedly, taking Ethnic Studies courses can be valuable in helping students to develop a critical consciousness that is culturally relevant to their lives. In this way, representation can allow students of color to personally connect to school, potentially making their educational pursuits more meaningful.

Further, representation can be helpful in reducing negative stereotypes about other groups. Initially discussed by psychologist Dr. Gordon Allport as Intergroup Contact Theory, researchers believed that the more exposure or contact that people had to groups who were different from them, the less likely they would maintain prejudice . Literature has supported how positive LGBTQ media representation helped transform public opinions about LGBTQ people and their rights. In 2019, the Pew Research Center reported that the general US population significantly changed their views of same-sex marriage in just 15 years—with 60% of the population being opposed in 2004 to 61% in favor in 2019. While there are many other factors that likely influenced these perspective shifts, studies suggest that positive LGBTQ media depictions played a significant role.

For Asian Americans and other groups who have been historically underrepresented in the media, any visibility can feel like a win. For example, Gold House recently featured an article in Vanity Fair , highlighting the power of Asian American visibility in the media—citing blockbuster films like Crazy Rich Asians and Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings . Asian American producers like Mindy Kaling of Never Have I Ever and The Sex Lives of College Girls demonstrate how influential creators of color can initiate their own projects and write their own storylines, in order to directly increase representation (and indirectly increase mental health and positive esteem for its audiences of color).

When representation is not enough

However, representation simply is not enough—especially when it is one-dimensional, superficial, or not actually representative. Some scholars describe how Asian American media depictions still tend to reinforce stereotypes, which may negatively impact identity development for Asian American youth. Asian American Studies is still needed to teach about oppression and to combat hate violence. Further, representation might also fail to reflect the true diversity of communities; historically, Brown Asian Americans have been underrepresented in Asian American media, resulting in marginalization within marginalized groups. For example, Filipino Americans—despite being the first Asian American group to settle in the US and one of the largest immigrant groups—remain underrepresented across many sectors, including academia, arts, and government.

Representation should never be the final goal; instead, it should merely be one step toward equity. Having a diverse cast on a television show is meaningless if those storylines promote harmful stereotypes or fail to address societal inequities. Being the “first” at anything is pointless if there aren’t efforts to address the systemic obstacles that prevent people from certain groups from succeeding in the first place.

Instead, representation should be intentional. People in power should aim for their content to reflect their audiences—especially if they know that doing so could assist in increasing people's self-esteem and wellness. People who have the opportunity to represent their identity groups in any sector may make conscious efforts to use their influence to teach (or remind) others that their communities exist. Finally, parents and teachers can be more intentional in ensuring that their children and students always feel seen and validated. By providing youth with visual representations of people they can relate to, they can potentially save future generations from a lifetime of feeling underrepresented or misunderstood.

Kevin Leo Yabut Nadal, Ph.D., is a Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the City University of New York and the author of books including Microaggressions and Traumatic Stress .

• Find a Therapist
• Find a Treatment Center
• Find a Psychiatrist
• Find a Support Group
• Find Online Therapy
• United States
• Brooklyn, NY
• Chicago, IL
• Houston, TX
• Los Angeles, CA
• New York, NY
• Portland, OR
• San Diego, CA
• San Francisco, CA
• Seattle, WA
• Washington, DC
• Asperger's
• Bipolar Disorder
• Chronic Pain
• Eating Disorders
• Passive Aggression
• Personality
• Goal Setting
• Positive Psychology
• Stopping Smoking
• Low Sexual Desire
• Relationships
• Child Development
• Self Tests NEW
• Therapy Center
• Diagnosis Dictionary
• Types of Therapy

Sticking up for yourself is no easy task. But there are concrete skills you can use to hone your assertiveness and advocate for yourself.

• Emotional Intelligence
• Gaslighting
• Affective Forecasting
• Neuroscience

Words and phrases

Personal account.

• Access or purchase personal subscriptions
• Get our newsletter
• Save searches
• Set display preferences

Institutional access

Sign in with library card

Sign in with username / password

Recommend to your librarian

Institutional account management

Sign in as administrator on Oxford Academic

representation noun 1

• Hide all quotations

What does the noun representation mean?

There are 19 meanings listed in OED's entry for the noun representation , three of which are labelled obsolete. See ‘Meaning & use’ for definitions, usage, and quotation evidence.

representation has developed meanings and uses in subjects including

How common is the noun representation ?

How is the noun representation pronounced?

British english, u.s. english, where does the noun representation come from.

Earliest known use

Middle English

The earliest known use of the noun representation is in the Middle English period (1150—1500).

OED's earliest evidence for representation is from around 1450, in St. Elizabeth of Spalbeck .

representation is of multiple origins. Either (i) a borrowing from French. Or (ii) a borrowing from Latin.

Etymons: French representation ; Latin repraesentātiōn- , repraesentātiō .

Nearby entries

• reprehensory, adj. 1576–1825
• repremiation, n. 1611
• represent, n. a1500–1635
• represent, v.¹ c1390–
• re-present, v.² 1564–
• representable, adj. & n. 1630–
• representamen, n. 1677–
• representance, n. 1565–
• representant, n. 1622–
• representant, adj. 1851–82
• representation, n.¹ c1450–
• re-presentation, n.² 1805–
• representational, adj. 1850–
• representationalism, n. 1846–
• representationalist, adj. & n. 1846–
• representationary, adj. 1856–
• representationism, n. 1842–
• representationist, n. & adj. 1842–
• representation theory, n. 1928–
• representative, adj. & n. a1475–
• representative fraction, n. 1860–

Thank you for visiting Oxford English Dictionary

To continue reading, please sign in below or purchase a subscription. After purchasing, please sign in below to access the content.

Meaning & use

Pronunciation, compounds & derived words, entry history for representation, n.¹.

representation, n.¹ was revised in December 2009.

representation, n.¹ was last modified in June 2024.

oed.com is a living text, updated every three months. Modifications may include:

• further revisions to definitions, pronunciation, etymology, headwords, variant spellings, quotations, and dates;
• new senses, phrases, and quotations.

Revisions and additions of this kind were last incorporated into representation, n.¹ in June 2024.

Earlier versions of this entry were published in:

OED First Edition (1906)

• Find out more

OED Second Edition (1989)

• View representation in OED Second Edition

Please submit your feedback for representation, n.¹

Please include your email address if you are happy to be contacted about your feedback. OUP will not use this email address for any other purpose.

Citation details

Factsheet for representation, n.¹, browse entry.

• Daily Crossword
• Word Puzzle
• Word Finder
• Word of the Day
• Synonym of the Day
• Word of the Year
• Language stories
• All featured
• Gender and sexuality
• All pop culture
• Writing hub
• Grammar essentials
• Commonly confused
• All writing tips
• Pop culture
• Writing tips

Advertisement

representation

[ rep-ri-zen- tey -sh uh n , -z uh n- ]

• the act of representing.
• the state of being represented.
• the expression or designation by some term, character, symbol, or the like.
• action or speech on behalf of a person, group, business house, state, or the like by an agent, deputy, or representative.

to demand representation on a board of directors.

• Government. the state, fact, or right of being represented by delegates having a voice in legislation or government.
• the body or number of representatives, as of a constituency.
• the act of speaking or negotiating on behalf of a state.
• an utterance on behalf of a state.
• presentation to the mind, as of an idea or image.
• a mental image or idea so presented; concept.
• the act of portrayal, picturing, or other rendering in visible form.
• a picture, figure, statue, etc.
• the production or a performance of a play or the like, as on the stage.
• Often representations. a description or statement, as of things true or alleged.
• a statement of facts, reasons, etc., made in appealing or protesting; a protest or remonstrance.

a representation of authority.

/ ˌrɛprɪzɛnˈteɪʃən /

• the act or an instance of representing or the state of being represented
• anything that represents, such as a verbal or pictorial portrait
• anything that is represented, such as an image brought clearly to mind
• the principle by which delegates act for a constituency
• a body of representatives
• contract law a statement of fact made by one party to induce another to enter into a contract
• an instance of acting for another, on his authority, in a particular capacity, such as executor or administrator
• a dramatic production or performance
• often plural a statement of facts, true or alleged, esp one set forth by way of remonstrance or expostulation

phonetic representation

Other Words From

• nonrep·re·sen·tation noun
• over·repre·sen·tation noun
• prerep·re·sen·tation noun
• self-repre·sen·tation noun
• under·repre·sen·tation noun

Word History and Origins

Origin of representation 1

Example Sentences

It was a metaphorical statement of giving and withdrawing consent for a show rooted in a literal representation of Coel being assaulted.

The mathematically manipulated results are passed on and augmented through the stages, finally producing an integrated representation of a face.

I hope this list—a representation of the most consequential changes taking places in our world—is similarly useful for you.

“Given the moment we are in, I can only hope our institutions really understand what this failure of representation means to our city,” he said.

The voters don’t want to have an elected city attorney on the, and representation said, that’s fine.

With all that said, representation of each of these respective communities has increased in the new Congress.

As this excellent piece in Mother Jones describes, however, Holsey had outrageously poor representation during his trial.

During that time days, Livvix went through court hearings without legal representation.

What do you think prompted the change in comic book representation of LGBTQ characters?

Barbie is an unrealistic, unhealthy, insulting representation of female appearance.

With less intelligent children traces of this tendency to take pictorial representation for reality may appear as late as four.

As observation widens and grows finer, the first bald representation becomes fuller and more life-like.

The child now aims at constructing a particular linear representation, that of a man, a horse, or what not.

He had heard it hinted that allowing the colonies representation in Parliament would be a simple plan for making taxes legal.

But sufficient can be discerned for the grasping of the idea, which seems to be a representation of the Nativity.

Related Words

Look up a word, learn it forever.

Representation, /rɛprɪzɛnˈteɪʃɪn/, /rɛprəzɛnˈteɪʃən/.

Other forms: representations

A representation acts or serves on behalf or in place of something. A lawyer provides legal representation for his client. A caricature is an exaggerated representation or likeness of a person.

Representation comes from the Latin repraesentare meaning "bring before, exhibit." A representation is an exhibit, whether it comes in the form of legal guidance or in the form of artistic expression. The act of representation has to do with replacing or acting on behalf of an original. Elected officials serve as the representation for their constituency — or at least it's supposed to work that way.

• noun the act of representing; standing in for someone or some group and speaking with authority in their behalf see more see less types: proportional representation representation of all parties in proportion to their popular vote type of: cooperation joint operation or action
• noun a presentation to the mind in the form of an idea or image synonyms: internal representation , mental representation see more see less types: show 44 types... hide 44 types... convergence , intersection , overlap a representation of common ground between theories or phenomena instantiation a representation of an idea in the form of an instance of it antitype a person or thing represented or foreshadowed by a type or symbol; especially a figure in the Old Testament having a counterpart in the New Testament stereotype a conventional or formulaic conception or image schema , scheme an internal representation of the world; an organization of concepts and actions that can be revised by new information about the world image , mental image an iconic mental representation interpretation , reading , version a mental representation of the meaning or significance of something phantasmagoria a constantly changing medley of real or imagined images (as in a dream) psychosexuality the mental representation of sexual activities percept , perception , perceptual experience the representation of what is perceived; basic component in the formation of a concept memory something that is remembered example , model a representative form or pattern appearance a mental representation blur , fuzz a hazy or indistinct representation abstractionism , unrealism a representation having no reference to concrete objects or specific examples concrete representation , concretism a representation of an abstract idea in concrete terms reminiscence a mental impression retained and recalled from the past crossroads a point where a choice must be made interface the overlap where two theories or phenomena affect each other or have links with each other imagination image , thought-image a mental image produced by the imagination reinterpretation a new or different meaning figure a unitary percept having structure and coherence that is the object of attention and that stands out against a ground ground a relatively homogeneous percept extending back of the figure on which attention is focused visual image , visual percept a percept that arises from the eyes; an image in the visual system recollection something recalled to the mind engram , memory trace a postulated biochemical change (presumably in neural tissue) that represents a memory confabulation (psychiatry) a plausible but imagined memory that fills in gaps in what is remembered screen memory an imagined memory of a childhood experience; hides another memory of distressing significance memory image a mental image of something previously experienced visual image , visualisation , visualization a mental image that is similar to a visual perception impression , mental picture , picture a clear and telling mental image auditory image a mental image that is similar to an auditory perception loadstar , lodestar something that serves as a model or guide epitome , image , paradigm , prototype a standard or typical example holotype , type specimen the original specimen from which the description of a new species is made microcosm a miniature model of something archetype , original , pilot something that serves as a model or a basis for making copies guide , template , templet a model or standard for making comparisons prefiguration an example that prefigures or foreshadows what is to come illusion , semblance an erroneous mental representation 3-D , 3D , three-D having a three-dimensional form or appearance front the outward appearance of a person embodiment , shape a concrete representation of an otherwise nebulous concept anagoge a mystical or allegorical interpretation (especially of Scripture) type of: cognitive content , content , mental object the sum or range of what has been perceived, discovered, or learned
• noun an activity that stands as an equivalent of something or results in an equivalent see more see less types: show 14 types... hide 14 types... model , modeling , modelling the act of representing something (usually on a smaller scale) dramatisation , dramatization a dramatic representation pageant , pageantry an elaborate representation of scenes from history, etc.; usually involves a parade with rich costumes figuration representing figuratively as by emblem or allegory diagramming , schematisation , schematization providing a chart or outline of a system pictorial representation , picturing visual representation as by photography or painting typification the act of representing by a type or symbol; the action of typifying simulation the act of imitating the behavior of some situation or some process by means of something suitably analogous (especially for the purpose of study or personnel training) guerrilla theater , street theater dramatization of a social issue; enacted outside in a park or on the street puppetry a stilted dramatic performance (as if by puppets) symbolising , symbolizing the act of representing something with a symbol delineation , depiction , portrayal representation by drawing or painting etc imaging , tomography (medicine) obtaining pictures of the interior of the body photography , picture taking the act of taking and printing photographs type of: activity any specific behavior
• noun a creation that is a visual or tangible rendering of someone or something see more see less types: show 120 types... hide 120 types... adumbration a sketchy or imperfect or faint representation audiogram a graphical representation of a person's auditory sensitivity to sound copy a thing made to be similar or identical to another thing cosmography a representation of the earth or the heavens creche a representation of Christ's nativity in the stable at Bethlehem cutaway , cutaway drawing , cutaway model a representation (drawing or model) of something in which the outside is omitted to reveal the inner parts display , presentation a visual representation of something document anything serving as a representation of a person's thinking by means of symbolic marks drawing a representation of forms or objects on a surface by means of lines ecce homo a representation (a picture or sculpture) of Jesus wearing a crown of thorns effigy , image , simulacrum a representation of a person (especially in the form of sculpture) illustration a visual representation (a picture or diagram) that is used make some subject more pleasing or easier to understand map a diagrammatic representation of the earth's surface (or part of it) model , simulation a representation of something (sometimes on a smaller scale) nomogram , nomograph a graphic representation of numerical relations objectification a concrete representation of an abstract idea or principle exposure , photo , photograph , pic , picture a representation of a person or scene in the form of a print or transparent slide; recorded by a camera on light-sensitive material icon , ikon , image , picture a visual representation (of an object or scene or person or abstraction) produced on a surface pieta a representation of the Virgin Mary mourning over the dead body of Jesus projection the representation of a figure or solid on a plane as it would look from a particular direction rubbing representation consisting of a copy (as of an engraving) made by laying paper over something and rubbing it with charcoal shade a representation of the effect of shadows in a picture or drawing (as by shading or darker pigment) set , stage set representation consisting of the scenery and other properties used to identify the location of a dramatic production Station of the Cross a representation of any of the 14 stages in Christ's journey to Calvary avatar an electronic image representing a computer user anamorphism , anamorphosis a distorted projection or perspective; especially an image distorted in such a way that it becomes visible only when viewed in a special manner beefcake a photograph of a muscular man in minimal attire bitmap , electronic image an image represented as a two dimensional array of brightness values for pixels black and white , monochrome a black-and-white photograph or slide blueprint photographic print of plans or technical drawings etc. carbon , carbon copy a copy made with carbon paper cast , casting object formed by a mold charcoal a drawing made with a stick of black carbon material chart a map designed to assist navigation by air or sea cheesecake a photograph of an attractive woman in minimal attire chiaroscuro a monochrome picture made by using several different shades of the same color choropleth map a map that uses graded differences in shading or color or the placing of symbols inside defined areas on the map in order to indicate the average values of some property or quantity in those areas closeup a photograph or video taken at close range collage , montage a paste-up made by sticking together pieces of paper or photographs to form an artistic image contour map , relief map a map having contour lines through points of equal elevation daguerreotype a photograph made by an early photographic process; the image was produced on a silver plate sensitized to iodine and developed in mercury vapor delineation , depiction , limning , line drawing a drawing of the outlines of forms or objects diagram a drawing intended to explain how something works; a drawing showing the relation between the parts duplicate , duplication a copy that corresponds to an original exactly blowup , enlargement , magnification a photographic print that has been enlarged autotype , facsimile an exact copy or reproduction figure a model of a bodily form (especially of a person) float an elaborate display mounted on a platform carried by a truck (or pulled by a truck) in a procession or parade foil , transparency picture consisting of a positive photograph or drawing on a transparent base; viewed with a projector frame a single one of a series of still transparent pictures forming a cinema, television or video film globe a sphere on which a map (especially of the earth) is represented glossy a photograph that is printed on smooth shiny paper computer graphic , graphic an image that is generated by a computer Guy an effigy of Guy Fawkes that is burned on a bonfire on Guy Fawkes Day headshot a photograph of a person's head hologram , holograph the intermediate photograph (or photographic record) that contains information for reproducing a three-dimensional image by holography iconography the images and symbolic representations that are traditionally associated with a person or a subject god , graven image , idol a material effigy that is worshipped imitation something copied or derived from an original inset a small picture inserted within the bounds or a larger one clone , knockoff an unauthorized copy or imitation likeness , semblance picture consisting of a graphic image of a person or thing longshot a photograph taken from a distance map projection a projection of the globe onto a flat map using a grid of lines of latitude and longitude mechanical drawing scale drawing of a machine or architectural plan etc, microdot photograph reduced to the size of a dot (usually for purposes of security) miniature , toy a copy that reproduces a person or thing in greatly reduced size mock-up full-scale working model of something built for study or testing or display modification slightly modified copy; not an exact copy arial mosaic , mosaic , photomosaic arrangement of aerial photographs forming a composite picture mug shot , mugshot a photograph of someone's face (especially one made for police records) cyclorama , diorama , panorama a picture (or series of pictures) representing a continuous scene pen-and-ink a drawing executed with pen and ink photocopy a photographic copy of written or printed or graphic work photographic print , print a printed picture produced from a photographic negative photomicrograph a photograph taken with the help of a microscope architectural plan , plan scale drawing of a structure planetarium an apparatus or model for representing the solar systems plat a map showing planned or actual features of an area (streets and building lots etc.) plate a full-page illustration (usually on slick paper) print a copy of a movie on film (especially a particular version of it) quadruplicate any four copies; any of four things that correspond to one another exactly radiogram , radiograph , shadowgraph , skiagram , skiagraph a photographic image produced on a radiosensitive surface by radiation other than visible light (especially by X-rays or gamma rays) restoration a model that represents the landscape of a former geological age or that represents and extinct animal etc. reflection , reflexion the image of something as reflected by a mirror (or other reflective material) rendering perspective drawing of an architect's design replica , replication , reproduction copy that is not the original; something that has been copied road map a map showing roads (for automobile travel) roughcast a rough preliminary model CAT scan , scan an image produced by scanning bird-scarer , scarecrow , scarer , straw man , strawman an effigy in the shape of a man to frighten birds away from seeds scene , scenery the painted structures of a stage set that are intended to suggest a particular locale doodle , scrabble , scribble an aimless drawing silhouette a drawing of the outline of an object; filled in with some uniform color silverpoint a drawing made on specially prepared paper with an instrument having a silver tip (15th and 16th centuries) sketch , study preliminary drawing for later elaboration sketch map a map drawn from observation (rather than from exact measurements) and representing the main features of an area shot , snap , snapshot an informal photograph; usually made with a small hand-held camera Snellen chart display consisting of a printed card with letters and numbers in lines of decreasing size; used to test visual acuity echogram , sonogram an image of a structure that is produced by ultrasonography (reflections of high-frequency sound waves); used to observe fetal growth or to study bodily organs spectacle an elaborate and remarkable display on a lavish scale spectrogram , spectrograph a photographic record of a spectrum stereo , stereoscopic photograph , stereoscopic picture two photographs taken from slightly different angles that appear three-dimensional when viewed together stick figure drawing of a human or animal that represents the head by a circle and the rest of the body by straight lines still a static photograph (especially one taken from a movie and used for advertising purposes) telephoto , telephotograph a photograph made with a telephoto lens telephotograph a photograph transmitted and reproduced over a distance time exposure a photograph produced with a relatively long exposure time trace , tracing a drawing created by superimposing a semitransparent sheet of paper on the original image and copying on it the lines of the original image triplicate one of three copies; any of three things that correspond to one another exactly vignette a photograph whose edges shade off gradually wax figure , waxwork an effigy (usually of a famous person) made of wax weather chart , weather map (meteorology) a map showing the principal meteorological elements at a given time and over an extended region wedding picture photographs of bride and groom and their friends taken at their wedding xerox , xerox copy a copy made by a xerographic printer scene , shot a consecutive series of pictures that constitutes a unit of action in a film letter , missive a written message addressed to a person or organization diorama a three-dimensional representation of a scene, in miniature or life-size, with figures and objects set against a background selfie a photograph that you take of yourself, typically with a digital camera pastel a drawing made with pastel sticks type of: creation an artifact that has been brought into existence by someone
• noun a performance of a play synonyms: histrionics , theatrical , theatrical performance see more see less types: matinee a theatrical performance held during the daytime (especially in the afternoon) type of: performance , public presentation a dramatic or musical entertainment
• noun a factual statement made by one party in order to induce another party to enter into a contract “the sales contract contains several representations by the vendor” see more see less type of: statement a message that is stated or declared; a communication (oral or written) setting forth particulars or facts etc
• noun a statement of facts and reasons made in appealing or protesting “certain representations were made concerning police brutality” see more see less type of: statement a message that is stated or declared; a communication (oral or written) setting forth particulars or facts etc
• noun the state of serving as an official and authorized delegate or agent synonyms: agency , delegacy see more see less types: free agency (sports) the state of a professional athlete who is free to negotiate a contract to play for any team legal representation personal representation that has legal status virus a harmful or corrupting agency type of: state the way something is with respect to its main attributes
• noun the right of being represented by delegates who have a voice in some legislative body see more see less type of: right an abstract idea of that which is due to a person or governmental body by law or tradition or nature
• noun a body of legislators that serve in behalf of some constituency “a Congressional vacancy occurred in the representation from California” see more see less type of: body a group of persons associated by some common tie or occupation and regarded as an entity

Vocabulary lists containing representation

The Colonies–Reconstruction (1600s–1877)

Declare your independence and master these words related to the American Revolution. Learn all about the conflict between the colonists and the redcoats, from the Boston Tea Party to the British surrender at Yorktown. Explore causes of the war and review major battles, key historical figures, and the structure of the new American republic.

To punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party, the British Parliament enforced acts that the colonies found intolerable. In response, they convened the First Continental Congress in 1774 to outline a list of grievances, rights, and resolves. Read the full text here . Here are links to our lists for other notable declarations: Declaration of Colonial Rights , Declaration of the Rights of Man , Declaration of the Rights of Woman , Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Sign up now (it’s free!)

Whether you’re a teacher or a learner, vocabulary.com can put you or your class on the path to systematic vocabulary improvement..

• Skip to main content
• Keyboard shortcuts for audio player

No tax on tips: Why politicians love it, and economists don't

Luke Garrett

Republican vice presidential candidate Sen. JD Vance, R-Ohio, signs a check "no tax on tips!!" as he leaves $200 in cash for a gratuity at the Park Diner, in Waite Park, Minn., on July 28. Alex Brandon/AP hide caption

Vice President Harris and former President Donald Trump don't agree on much — especially when it comes to economic policy. But they both want to get rid of taxes on tips.

At a campaign rally in Nevada, Harris joined Trump in supporting tax-free tips.

"It is my promise to everyone here, when I am president, we will continue to fight for working families, including to raise the minimum wage and eliminate taxes on tips for service and hospitality workers," Harris told a crowd at the University of Nevada in Las Vegas on Saturday.

Trump has been campaigning on the "no tax on tips" policy since June, after a Las Vegas server told him the government was taking too big of a cut from her tipped wages. Trump touted this policy in Milwaukee during the Republican National Convention.

But soon after Harris promised to do away with taxes on tips this weekend, Trump criticized the move as being done for "Political Purposes."

What is the new etiquette for tipping?

"This was a TRUMP idea - She has no ideas, she can only steal from me," Trump posted on Truth Social. "Remember, Kamala has proposed the LARGEST TAX INCREASE IN HISTORY - It won’t happen."

In response, a Harris campaign official told NPR that the vice president's policy proposal is distinct from Trump's — and she intends to deliver on it.

"As president, she would work with Congress to craft a proposal that comes with an income limit and with strict requirements to prevent hedge fund managers and lawyers from structuring their compensation in ways to try to take advantage of the policy," the official, who isn't authorized by the campaign to speak publicly, said. "Vice President Harris would push for the proposal alongside an increase in the minimum wage."

Regardless of its origin and ownership, the no tax on tips idea is gaining bipartisan political steam. On Capitol Hill, Sen. Ted Cruz, R-Texas, introduced the No Tax on Tips Act in July with the support of Democratic Sens. Catherine Cortez Masto and Jacky Rosen, from Nevada , and the powerful Culinary Workers Union Local 226. A companion bill — introduced by Florida Rep. Byron Donalds — is also making its way through the House.

But to senior fellow at the Urban-Brookings Tax Policy Center Steve Rosenthal, this idea is a "bad" one.

"We're in a campaign season — silly season," Rosenthal, who has years of experience designing tax rules for Congress, quipped. "A race to the bottom would be a better way to describe tax policy here."

To tip or not to tip? 3 reasons why tipping has gotten so out of control

For Rosenthal, the idea fails on three counts: equity, efficiency and revenue.

A national ban on taxing tips would disproportionately benefit, for example, a South Carolina server who earns a reduced minimum wage and makes a large portion of their income through tips. While a server in California, where tips make up a smaller portion of their income, would benefit less.

"Why treat employees, who perform similar kinds of services, much different from a tax standpoint just because the first earn tips and the second don't?" the tax lawyer said.

Rosenthal went on to say that a no tax on tips law would be extremely difficult to efficiently administer, regulate and oversee.

"How are we going to tell who is receiving a tip, and when that tip crosses a line into wages?" Rosenthal said. "How will we prevent investment bankers, say, from getting tips? And if we impose income limits, well, wouldn't we expect low paid workers just to demand a tip rather than compensation?"

Ultimately, he said, it would distort the labor market. But the biggest barrier for Congress is the money they'd lose.

"The revenue on this proposal to exempt tips from taxation is something like a couple hundred billion over a 10-year period," he said. "That's a big number for Congress to swallow."

Garrett Watson, senior policy analyst at the Tax Foundation, largely agreed with Rosenthal.

"The underlying policy basis, I think, is weak at best," Watson said.

He also pointed to a recent study from The Budget Lab at Yale University, which found that only 2.5% of workers would benefit from a no tax on tips policy.

Despite this, Watson said he is eager to get more details from both campaigns on how they plan to implement this relatively new tax proposal.

"A lot of tax ideas that come up have had years or decades of ideas behind them," Watson said. "Here, not so much. So, I definitely think that there are versions of this that are more defensible than others in terms of the policy design."

While Vice President Harris voiced her support for the no tax on tips policy on Saturday, the Culinary Workers Union Local 226 endorsed the Democratic presidential nominee and her new policy position.

"As the largest organization of working women in Nevada, the chance to elect the first woman president of the USA is both energizing and historic and we are ready to make history together," the union said in a statement over the weekend. "Culinary Union has led the fight for over 30 years for fair taxation on tips and our union supports the ban on taxes on tips."

So far, neither campaign has released their full tax-free tips policy proposal.

Correction Aug. 12, 2024

In an earlier version of this story, the name of Florida Rep. Byron Donalds was misspelled as Bryon.

• tipped wages
• Vice President Kamala Harris