assignment plane lands

How to Land a Plane Safely Step-By-Step (Video)

Some professionals have the ability to perform certain skills with such ease and smoothness that they appear effortless to those who are not trained in the same field. Landing an aircraft is one of those skills. It may seem like a simple task, but as the saying goes,

"A good landing is one you can walk away from. A great landing is one after which you can use the aircraft again."

Clearly, it requires more skill and precision than meets the eye. In fact, mastering the landing phase is crucial in aviation because almost half of all accidents involve mistakes during this phase.

Today, we will go over a step-by-step guide on how to land a plane, including important tips and tricks to ensure safety and success.

5 Phases of a Normal Landing

The mistakes of others provide good learning lessons, so we will go over common landing errors and how to prevent them. Soon you too will be executing a series of great landings with flawless precision.

We recommend watching this video for further insight into perfecting your landings.

Let's start with a step-by-step high-level guide to the 5 phases of a  normal approach and landing  – that is to say a landing conducted on a long, firm runway during light winds with power available.

A normal landing can be broken down into 5 phases: base leg, final approach, roundout/flare, touchdown and after-landing roll.

Here’s how to ace each phase:

• Prior to reaching your base leg, ensure the landing gear is extended and you have completed your before-landing check ( GUMPS ).
• After turning onto the base leg, reduce power. Your airspeed at the start of the descent should be approximately 1.4 Vso.
• Extend flaps as needed, waiting until final approach for full flap extension.
• Establish and maintain drift correction to follow a ground track perpendicular to the extension of the centerline of the runway.
• Continue your base leg to the point where a medium to shallow-banked turn (no more than 30°) will align the flight path with the centerline of the runway. It is critical to avoid losing airspeed or overbanking here as that has caused many stall accidents. If you overshoot, do a go-around and make another attempt.
• Ensure that the altitude of your base-to-final turn allows you to clear terrain and obstructions.

Final Approach

• When you complete your base-to-final turn, you should be lined up with the runway centerline .
• For a normal approach with no wind drift, keep the longitudinal axis of your aircraft aligned with the runway centerline. Use your rudders.
• Once aligned, extend flaps to final setting. Adjust pitch attitude for desired rate of descent, making slight adjustments to pitch and power in order to maintain descent attitude and target airspeed. Airspeed should be 1.3 Vso unless otherwise specified by the aircraft manufacturer.
• Once pitch attitude and airspeed are stabilized, relieve control pressure by retrimming.
• Control descent angle (using power and pitch adjustments) so that the airplane lands on the centerline in the first third of the runway. At this point you should be looking down the runway and using your peripheral vision to help you gauge your sink rate.

Roundout (Flare)

• Gradually increase pitch attitude and angle of attack (AOA) as the aircraft reaches a height of 10-20’ AGL. AOA increase should be at a rate that allows the airplane to slowly settle as forward speed decreases.
• Sync roundout rate with the rate of closure to the ground.
• Do not push elevator control forward once you have started the roundout maneuver.
• After main wheels make initial ground contact, hold back elevator pressure. This maintains a positive AOA, holds nose wheel off ground until aircraft has decelerated and provides for aerodynamic braking.
• Touchdown with the airplane parallel to the direction of movement along the runway. Any sideways landings put unnecessary and potentially dangerous side loads on the landing gear.

After Landing Roll

• Once your plane has landed, your focus should be on directional control and deceleration.
• Be alert and prepared to respond to any directional control difficulties that can be caused by ground friction on wheels. Use rudder, nose wheel steering, brakes and ailerons to maintain directional control.
• Having established directional control and confirmed nose wheel is on the ground, apply brakes . Apply with a force just short of causing skidding.

Common Landing Errors/Problems

Now that we know how a landing is supposed to look, it’s time to find out what can – and too often does – go wrong. We will review some of the common landing errors and problems, then share what you can do to decrease your likelihood of them happening to you.

Undershooting the Runway

Let’s take a look at what causes undershooting the runway.

• Flying too far away from the runway / pattern too wide
• Turning late on your downwind leg
• Failure to maintain adequate power on final

Poor pattern techniques such as flying too wide, flying too far away from the runway or turning too late on your downwind will get you into this situation. In any case, somewhere along the line you’ve made a miscalculation and now you notice that you will not make the runway with your current glideslope.

An answer for a lot of pilots is to try to carry the plane to the numbers which means they will pitch or ease the nose up without adding power. This technique will only get them closer to stalling and not closer to the airport. When you’re set up on final, remember the saying “pitch controls airspeed, power controls altitude”.

One way to set yourself up for success is by placing the runway centerline on a very specific part of the aircraft.

You’ll be able to look out the window on your downwind and gauge your distance from the runway. Some pilots even put a strip of tape at either the leading edge (on low-wing aircraft) or the wing strut (on high-wing aircraft) as a gauge.

This will take care of the problem of wide or narrow patterns. If you cannot use tape, then practice your patterns until you select the spot on the wing that corresponds to that perfect runway pattern and commit that spot to memory.

Make Your Downwind-to-Base Turn the Same Point

Another way to help avoid the undershoot is to make your downwind to base turn at exactly the same point every time. When there is not a traffic issue, turn base when your landing spot is 45° behind the wing. This will keep you in the box.

When you are at familiar airports, you can use familiar landmarks such as houses, barns, intersections etc. but the 45° technique sets you up for success at any airport.

Some rules to remember:

• On your downwind fly no faster than the top of the flap operating range and no slower than 1.4 times calibrated stall speed for your aircraft at its actual landing weight (1.4 Vso).
• Maintain airspeed no lower than 1.4 Vso until after turning final.
• On final, let your airspeed decay to 1.3 Vso as you near the runway.
• If you encounter wind gusts, wind shear or turbulence, compensate with additional power on each segment of the approach.

Hard Landings

Hard landings cost money. These accidents result from several key causes.

Distractions

• Looking ahead and losing perspective to the ground
• Improper scanning right before touchdown

Stretching Final

As far as distractions go, adopt the standard that ATP pilots use - “sterile cockpit”. All conversations cease at a certain altitude or before entering a pattern, unless they pertain directly to aircraft operations.

Looking ahead instead of outside / Improper Scanning

When you are on short final start looking outside the aircraft – way outside. You’ll gain a good perspective on your sink rate that way.

This often results from too much airspeed and poor flare technique. Pulling back too much or too hard right before landing will get you back up in the air – for a moment, anyway. If this happens to you, ease the nose over gently and add some power if necessary. Remember those go-arounds – they are your friend. A go-around may be a lot easier on your wallet then a hard landing. A hard landing may very likely result in driving up the landing gear and turning that rental aircraft into a retractable.

This situation is a result of you raising the nose without adding power. Remember to add power here to arrest that sink rate. Keep your wings level and remember to perform a go-around if you don’t like it.

Bounced Landings

Bounced landings or porpoising is when the nose wheel or main gear (tail dragger) hits the ground first. This usually occurs because of poor attitude (of the aircraft, not you) at touchdown. The secret to good landings here is getting a feel for the proper attitude for the aircraft you are flying.

Too much airspeed (coming in too hot) is a root cause for many pilots. With the airplane still flying, the pilot wants to force it to the ground.

What to do after you bounce:

• Ease nose over
• Re-land the aircraft, this time holding proper pitch attitude
• Hold back pressure, bleed off airspeed, land it gently

To avoid porpoising:

• Trim the aircraft for a stabilized approach
• Avoid excess airspeed
• Avoid distractions
• Maintain proper pitch attitude (don’t force it down)
• Stay proficient

The Cross-Control Stall

Stalls are still a frequent cause of landing accidents and the deadliest of all is the cross-control stall .

A cross-control stall is usually set up on the base leg. It has a propensity to become even greater if there is tailwind on that leg. The tailwind will give you less time to react. Now, add a distraction or two like a lot of traffic in the pattern or busy radio traffic and you may get yourself into this jam really quick.

When making your turn to final you already have drilled in your head to keep your turns to 30° or less. So when you overshoot your turn to final, you kick in some rudder instead while keeping your wings at 30°.

The nose then wants to drop so you ease the nose up a bit, the plane slows, your airspeed decays then bam – there’s the stall and only a few hundred feet off the ground. The outside wing is still flying while the inside wing has stalled. This causes you to roll to the inside wing and toward the ground.

This situation can be avoided. The number one thing to remember here is the go-around. It costs you nothing. Always be ready to abort. Do not fixate on making that landing, remember they are called approaches for a reason.

Good planning, good pattern discipline and being ready to do a go-around are what will keep you alive and out of the statistics pages.

The safety of you, your passengers and your aircraft depends on your skills and ability to execute a safe, smooth landing. Know the steps to a normal landing, learn what can go wrong and practice, practice, practice. 

Want to improve your landing technique?

Our guides are designed to help student pilots become professional pilots and for private pilots to brush up on their knowledge and skills.

What’s a Cross-Control Stall? (Everything You Need to Know)

Bounced Landing: How to Recover (& Avoid Porpoise Landings)

Crosswind Landing: How to Perfect Your Technique in 3 Easy Steps

Ground Effect: Learning to Use it To Your Advantage

Power-Off Stall (13 Steps): Complete Recovery Procedure Guide

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5 Ways To Land An Airplane And Why Each Is Unique

• By Swayne Martin

Do you think landing is the toughest part about flying? Here are 5 types of landings you'll fly throughout your training and career. ..

If you're an experienced pilot, you're well versed in this subject. If you're just starting, here are some building blocks to start researching!

1) Flaps-Up Landing

By putting the flaps out all the way , you maximize the lift and drag that your wing produces. You have a slower stall speed, which means you can land slower. You'll also produce more drag, which allows you to fly a steeper descent angle to the runway.

When you don't have flaps, or you can't use them, you'll find yourself flying a much faster approach speed and have a tougher time slowing down with less drag.

2) Short Field Landing

To make a great short field landing , you need to be in complete control of your airspeed and descent rate. When you're stabilized, on speed, and on glide path, you can touch down where you want, prevent your plane from floating down the runway, and stop well before you run out of runway.

That means configuring early, flying a stabilized approach, and carrying little excess airspeed into the flare to nail your touchdown point.

3) Soft Field Landing

The difference between a normal and soft field landing really comes into play once you cross the threshold. That's because as you get close to touchdown, you want to hold the aircraft 1-2 feet off the runway in ground effect.

By holding your plane off the runway, you dissipate your forward speed, and allow your wheels to touch down at a slower speed. And by doing that, you reduce the nose-over force on your aircraft when it touches down.

4) Tailwind Landing

If you're landing with a 10 knot tailwind, your landing distance generally increases by 50%. Controllability on touchdown is another issue. When you're landing with a tailwind, you have a higher ground speed on touchdown (assuming you're flying standard pattern/touchdown speeds). When pilots land fast, they have a tendency of braking more aggressively than usual.

5) Crosswind Landing

You can fly a wing-low or crabbed approach to a crosswind landing. As you touch down in the crosswind, you want to do it in three steps: first, the upwind main, then, the downwind main, then finally, the nose wheel.

Here's how to fly perfect crosswind landings.

Do you have any landing stories to tell? Describe them in the comments below.

Become a better pilot. Subscribe to get the latest videos, articles, and quizzes that make you a smarter, safer pilot.

Swayne is an editor at Boldmethod, certified flight instructor, and a First Officer on the Boeing 757/767 for a Major US Carrier. He graduated as an aviation major from the University of North Dakota in 2018, holds a PIC Type Rating for Cessna Citation Jets (CE-525), is a former pilot for Mokulele Airlines, and flew Embraer 145s at the beginning of his airline career. Swayne is an author of articles, quizzes and lists on Boldmethod every week. You can reach Swayne at [email protected] , and follow his flying adventures on his YouTube Channel .

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How Do Planes Land? Step-by-Step Landing Process Explained

Zachary Franklin | October 20, 2023

When you board a plane, you might not think about how it's going to land. It's easy to take for granted that the pilot will safely guide the aircraft to the ground. However, landing a plane is a complex process that requires precision and skill. In this article, we'll explore how planes land and what goes into making a safe landing.

To begin, it's important to understand that landing a plane is not just a matter of pointing the nose downward and touching the wheels to the ground. Pilots must consider a variety of factors, including wind speed and direction, runway length and condition, and the weight and speed of the aircraft. They must also follow specific procedures and protocols to ensure a safe landing. We'll delve into these factors and procedures in more detail in the following sections.

Overall, understanding how planes land can give you a greater appreciation for the skill and expertise of pilots. It can also help ease any fears or anxieties you might have about flying. So let's take a closer look at the process of landing a plane and what it takes to do it safely.

Understanding Flight Mechanics

When a plane is in the air, it is subject to four main forces: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. Understanding these forces is key to understanding how planes land.

Role of Wings

The wings of a plane are designed to create lift. Lift is the force that keeps the plane in the air. The shape of the wings, as well as the speed of the plane, determines the amount of lift generated. When a plane is coming in for a landing, the pilot will adjust the angle of the wings to decrease lift and begin the descent.

Role of Engines

The engines of a plane provide thrust, which is the force that propels the plane forward. During landing, the pilot will reduce the amount of thrust to slow the plane down and prepare for touchdown. It is important for the pilot to maintain a certain speed during landing to ensure a safe touchdown.

In addition to lift and thrust, drag and weight also play a role in landing a plane. Drag is the force that opposes the motion of the plane, while weight is the force of gravity pulling the plane down. The pilot must balance these forces to ensure a smooth landing.

Overall, understanding the role of lift, thrust, drag, and weight is essential to understanding how planes land. By carefully controlling these forces, pilots are able to safely bring planes back to the ground.

The Landing Process

When a plane approaches its destination airport, the landing process begins. This process is broken down into three main phases: Approach, Touchdown, and Deceleration.

During the approach phase, the pilot begins to descend the plane towards the runway. The pilot must ensure that the plane is at the correct altitude, speed, and angle of descent. This is achieved by using a combination of instruments and visual cues, such as the runway lights and the plane's altimeter.

Once the plane is aligned with the runway, the pilot will begin the touchdown phase. The goal of this phase is to safely land the plane on the runway. The pilot will reduce the plane's speed and altitude until the wheels touch the ground. The touchdown phase is crucial as it determines whether the landing is successful or not.

Deceleration

After the wheels touch the ground, the pilot will engage the plane's brakes and reverse thrusters to slow down the plane. This is known as the deceleration phase. The pilot must carefully control the deceleration to ensure that the plane comes to a complete stop before reaching the end of the runway.

Factors Affecting Landing

When it comes to landing a plane, there are several factors that can affect the process. Here are the three main factors that pilots need to consider:

Weather Conditions

Weather conditions play a crucial role in the landing process. Pilots need to take into account the wind speed and direction, visibility, and precipitation . Crosswinds can make it difficult to maintain the correct approach angle, while low visibility can make it hard to see the runway. In extreme weather conditions, such as heavy rain or snow, pilots may need to divert to another airport or delay the landing.

Runway Length

The length of the runway is another important factor to consider when landing a plane. The longer the runway, the more time the pilot has to slow down and bring the plane to a stop. If the runway is too short, the pilot may need to use reverse thrust or brakes to slow down the plane, which can put a strain on the landing gear.

Weight of the Plane

The weight of the plane also affects the landing process. Heavier planes require more runway to come to a stop, and the pilot needs to adjust the approach speed accordingly. The weight of the plane also affects the angle of descent and the amount of lift needed to keep the plane in the air. In some cases, the pilot may need to dump fuel before landing to reduce the weight of the plane.

Safety Measures During Landing

When a plane lands, there are several safety measures that are put in place to ensure a smooth and safe landing. These measures include the use of landing gears and the role of air traffic control.

Use of Landing Gears

Landing gears are an essential part of the landing process. They are the wheels and struts that support the plane during takeoff and landing. The landing gears are designed to absorb the shock of landing and keep the plane stable during the landing process.

Before landing, the pilot will extend the landing gears to ensure that the plane is ready for a safe landing. Once the landing gears are extended, the pilot will lower the plane's speed and altitude to prepare for the landing.

Role of Air Traffic Control

Air traffic control plays a critical role in ensuring the safety of planes during landing. Air traffic controllers are responsible for directing planes to the correct runway and ensuring that they are at a safe altitude and speed.

During the landing process, air traffic controllers communicate with the pilot to provide guidance and ensure that the plane is on the correct approach path. They also monitor the weather conditions and runway conditions to ensure that the landing is safe.

In addition, air traffic controllers are responsible for coordinating with other planes in the area to ensure that there is no interference during the landing process.

You have now learned about the different stages of landing a plane. From the initial approach to touchdown, each step requires precision and careful attention from the pilot and air traffic control.

During the approach phase, the pilot must carefully adjust the plane's speed and altitude to align with the runway. Once the plane is in position, the pilot will initiate the landing sequence, which involves lowering the landing gear and reducing the plane's speed.

As the plane nears the runway, the pilot will use visual cues and instruments to maintain the correct descent rate and angle. The flare stage is critical, as the pilot must smoothly transition from the descent to a horizontal position just before touchdown.

Finally, the pilot will touch down and apply the brakes to bring the plane to a stop. The landing process is a complex and challenging task that requires skill, experience, and attention to detail.

Overall, landing a plane is a highly technical process that involves coordination between the pilot and air traffic control. By following established procedures and guidelines, pilots can safely and efficiently bring their planes to the ground.

Frequently Asked Questions

1 - what is the landing procedure for airplanes.

The landing procedure for airplanes involves several steps. First, the pilot will begin to descend the plane towards the runway. Then, the pilot will line up the plane with the runway and adjust the speed and altitude accordingly. Once the plane is lined up with the runway, the pilot will lower the landing gear and continue to descend towards the runway. Finally, the pilot will touch down on the runway and use the brakes to slow down the plane.

2 - What factors affect how planes land?

Several factors affect how planes land, including wind speed and direction, runway length and condition, weight of the plane, and visibility. Pilots must take all of these factors into account when landing a plane to ensure a safe landing.

3 - How do pilots use instruments to land planes?

Pilots use several instruments to help them land planes, including the altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator. These instruments help the pilot determine the altitude, airspeed, and rate of descent of the plane, which are all critical factors in a safe landing.

4 - What are the safety measures taken during a plane landing?

Several safety measures are taken during a plane landing, including ensuring that the runway is clear of any obstacles, having emergency personnel on standby in case of an accident, and ensuring that the plane is properly maintained and inspected before the flight.

5 - How do pilots communicate during a landing?

Pilots communicate with each other and with air traffic control during a landing using a radio. This allows them to coordinate their movements and ensure that the landing is safe and efficient.

6 - What is the role of air traffic control during a plane landing?

Air traffic control plays a critical role in ensuring the safety of a plane landing. They communicate with the pilot to provide information about runway conditions, weather, and other factors that may affect the landing. They also coordinate the movements of other planes in the vicinity to ensure that there are no collisions.

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How Do I Master the Landing Approach?

By Dave Scott As featured on page 31 in the April 2013 issue of Model Aviation As featured with bonus interactive content in the April 2013 app

It has long been said that the key to a good landing is a good approach to the runway, in other words, one that requires few corrections. Landing is not hard when the pilot can get the airplane to the runway without having to make many corrections.

Approaching the runway without having to make a number of corrections hinges on coming out of the final turn aligned with the runway. Consistently coming out of the final turn already lined up with the runway requires that you keep your turns consistent and start them in the right spot. In short, a successful landing is accomplished through a singular focus on the setup to landing.

Good Landings Are No Accident

If you have ever watched a proficient pilot land, you probably noticed how easily he or she made it look. One reason is that proficient pilots tend to use a 180° turn to set up their landings because—compared to two 90° turns—a 180° turn requires fewer inputs and takes up less space, thereby making it easier to see and to position, especially in a crosswind.  

The first step to achieving great landings is learning to perform consistent turns. Second, the final turn must be kept mostly level to avoid the anxiety and excess speed that tends to build up during a descending turn (Figure 1).

After you’ve mastered consistent turn inputs and level turns, you can start figuring out where to place your turn to consistently come out of it aligned with the runway.

Ground Targets: The Six Ps

There is an old saying, “Prudent prior planning prevents poor performance.”

Proficient pilots don’t strive to make good adjustments to come out of the final turn aligned with the runway. Proficient pilots anticipate where to start the turn so that few, if any, adjustments are needed altogether. Half of the battle is already won by locating a good target area from which to start the final turn and to come out on the centerline without having to make many adjustments.

After determining the direction in which you will be landing, walk out to the centerline of your runway and identify a ground reference on the horizon in line with the centerline. Estimate where you think you should start the final turn to come out near the centerline reference, and choose a ground reference “target” (tree, hill, etc.) to mark that turning point (Figure 2).

If there’s a crosswind, consider the effect that the wind will have on the turn and adjust the target (where you start the turn from) accordingly. Turning with a crosswind will result in a wider turn, and therefore you’ll need to widen your target (Figure 3). How much will depend on the strength of the crosswind.

Turning into (against) a crosswind will tighten the turn, so you’ll need to choose a target slightly closer to the centerline. Plan to initiate the turn when the airplane intersects your line of sight with the target, and if the turn doesn’t come out exactly over the centerline reference, adjust your target accordingly (Figure 4).

Finding good targets will greatly reduce the number of corrections needed to align with the runway, and afford you the opportunity to start thinking about the proper time to idle the engine and land. Of course, to realize the benefits of using “targets,” your turns must all be similar, which is the result of consistent control inputs.

Staying Ahead of the Wind

Although wind is often blamed for causing deviations, the principle effect of wind is helping to exaggerate the deviations and mistakes that pilots can otherwise get away with in calmer conditions.

When a crosswind exists, inexperienced pilots often make the mistake of completing the final turn when the fuselage points at the runway and then try to input a crab into the wind in response to seeing the airplane get blown off of the centerline. The result is a much more challenging approach.  

The correct method is to anticipate the crosswind and overshoot or undershoot the turn slightly so that the required crab angle into the wind is already in place (Figure 5). How much will depend on the strength of the crosswind.

Final Approach

Even the best RC pilots can only approximate the airplane’s position above the ground at a distance, and yet they consistently end up landing on the runway centerline. That’s because proficient pilots perceive how far the runway centerline is from where they are standing and then fly the airplane to that point in front of them. Rather than making hit-or-miss estimates of where the airplane is above the ground, proficient pilots keep track of where the airplane is heading in reference to themselves (Figure 6).

In most flying environments, the runway centerline is approximately 75 feet in front of where the pilot stands. The objective is to maintain an approach that will bring the airplane 75 feet in front of you.

Compare this approach with how a person lands on the runway when flying a simulator. Because the runway does not come into view until the last moment, the pilot needs to guide the airplane nearly at his or her virtual position, remembering that the runway was directly in front of his or her virtual feet when taking off. As a result, the airplane is always close to the runway, and the tiny corrections to perfect the centerline when it comes into view are barely noticeable (Figure 7).

Controlling the Touchdown Location

Wind, model type, etc., all influence the angle and length of the landing-glide slope, making it difficult to judge when to idle the engine to consistently land near the front end of the runway. The solution is to reduce the throttle and begin a gradual descent before the final turn and by doing so, set up a lower approach. A lower approach will take the guesswork out of when to fully idle the engine since the airplane will not have far to go before touching down (Figure 8).  

Determining the touchdown location on the runway is easier when standing near the approach end. When you see that the projected touchdown is going to be short of your position, you’ll know that you need to extend the approach (Figure 9). A projected touchdown in front of yourself will obviously be near the front of the runway, whereas you can predict a touchdown well past you and will likely overshoot the runway.

Besides not using ground targets and performing a diving final turn to lose altitude, the most common error made during landing is failing to establish a good alignment before becoming distracted with throttle and altitude, leading to an angled approach and a much more difficult landing.

On the other hand, those who hold off from thinking about the throttle until after they get aligned, end up having more time to properly manage the throttle because of a less-demanding approach, and the landing flare/touchdown will be much easier when everything leading up to it was more relaxed.

The ease of your landings will tend to reflect the quality and consistency of the turns that set them up. How close you come to the centerline will reflect how consistently you line up the airplane in front of yourself.

Keep the final turn nearly level and make sure you’re aligned with the centerline before you think about idling the engine. Not only will things seem like they’re happening slower, but don’t be surprised if landing starts becoming a lot of fun as well!  

Sources: 1st U.S. R/C Flight School

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I've taken over 100 flights in the past 2 years — here's how I choose my seats when I fly to get the best possible experience

• Seat assignments on flights are often taken for granted but can make or break a flight. 
• Airline seat maps often hide potential problems with seats that be detrimental to any flight.
• Having flown on countless flights, I developed a strategy to ensure I get a good seat on every flight, taking in numerous factors to ensure a perfect flight experience.
• Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories .

Not all airplane seats are created equal.

Professional flyers know that being proactive is the key to a successful flight experience and though it may seem mundane, one of the often-overlooked aspects of flying is the seat assignment.

Choosing the right seat can make the difference between an enjoyable flight and a horrible one and though airline maps rarely show them, there are pros and cons to every seat.

Whether it be reduced recline or a missing window, one missing feature can ruin an entire flight and factors beyond the seat itself can also affect a flight's overall enjoyability.

Having crisscrossed the globe on a variety of aircraft ranging from turboprops to the world's largest passenger jet, I've learned that selecting a seat even on a mundane trip requires careful consideration to the most out of any flight.

Here's how I select my seat every time I fly.

The age-old question when flying is whether or choose the aisle seat or window seat.

Both have their own benefits: the aisle seat has more access but requires getting up when someone in your row needs to use the lavatory and the window seat offers a view but limits your freedom of movement.

In the era of smartphones, tablets, laptops, and other entertainment-providing devices, I still find the airplane window to be the best source of in-flight entertainment.

Even on a routine flight to a city I've visited countless times, I still enjoy looking at the world from above and marveling at the scenery down below. It's for that reason that I'll always choose a window seat when I fly, barring any special circumstances.

If the flight is at night with no real views to be had, however, I'll consider the aisle seat so I can stretch out and be able to get up with ease. This is more of personal preference; though, a good window seat can make a flight infinitely better. 

But just because an airplane is flying to New York, doesn't mean that you'll get to see the skyline when choosing a window seat.

Some of the best views can be had when on approach to an airport since the aircraft will be low enough to get an up-close look at nearby sights. The side of the plane that you're on will largely determine your view and being stuck on the wrong side can mean missing out on the free show.

Though it often seems random, approach paths are generally consistent as one aircraft is usually following another to the runway in the approach stage of the flight. 

Finding out which approach path your aircraft will fly is often very simple and can mean the difference between a boring experience in the window seat and an exciting one.

Knowing which runway you'll be landing on and the approach path the aircraft will take to get there is the key to choosing the right seat for the best views. For example, when New York's LaGuardia Airport is landing aircraft on runway 22 at night, aircraft coming from the south and west will be directed to fly parallel to or above the Hudson River before turning back towards the runway.

Passengers on the right-hand side of the plane get an amazing view of New York City while those on the left get to see comparatively boring New Jersey. 

The same is true when flying to such cities as Washington, DC, Seattle, Chicago, and Los Angeles whose airports have approaches that offer some of the best views in the city.

Luckily, there's an easy way to pick the right seat to get the most views from the window.

Flight tracking websites such as FlightAware.com and FlightRadar24.com will often allow you to pull up an airport and see how flights are being routed to the runway. By looking at the approach path of flights from similar origins, a flyer can easily gauge which side will offer the best views. 

Another important determination when choosing the window seat that is often overlooked is the sun.

Though it's difficult to get sunburnt on an airplane, the sun can make a window seat hotter when the window is open, can introduce blinding glare into the cabin, and render the window useless for gazing or photos certain hours of the day.

The time of day and the sun's position in the sky should always be taken into account, especially when flying into tropical or excessively hot locales.

Even though I'm a fan of the window seat, I'm also practical when I fly.

When flying home from London to New York recently, I chose a late-night flight that would be flying through the darkness over the Atlantic Ocean for the better part of eight hours. While my instinct was to choose a window seat, I debated on whether or not to sit in the aisle.

Ultimately, I chose a window seat as it was the closest seat to the front but found myself without any view for eight hours wishing I stuck with the aisle seat.

Window seats are often pointless on long night flights and I often avoid them on such flights in favor of ease of access to the aisle and lavatory. You don't realize how valuable the aisle seat is until you're trying to wake up your fellow passengers just so you can use the restroom. 

Most people choose or pay more for seats closer to the front because they'll get off of the plane first and have so much extra free time compared to those in the back.

In reality, it may only save a few minutes of waiting and normally isn't worth the fee unless there are extras involved. The back of the plane also isn't without its merits. 

The rear of the aircraft can sometimes have the most open seats, so the decision to sacrifice a few rows in order to get more room is often worth it

Having an empty seat next to you, or even an entire row, is often more rewarding than getting off of the plane a few minutes before the rest of your fellow passengers.

Some airlines like JetBlue Airways also board their aircraft back to front, meaning that those in the rear rows get on first and have first dibs to overhead bins.

While the person in row six may get off earlier than row 20, they'll also be waiting at the gate longer to board and risk now having an overhead bin available for their carry-on. A quick Google search often reveals the boarding order and what row you can select to get an optimal boarding zone. 

In addition to determining your boarding zone, a seat's location in the airplane can make the difference between an enjoyable and unenjoyable flight.

This determination involves two factors: distance from the engines and distance from the lavatories. Flyers should stay as far away from both as possible. 

Engines produce thousands of pounds of thrust and when doing so, create a lot of noise.

For those with noise-canceling headphones, the problem is typically mitigated, but the rest of us need to take engine noise into consideration when choosing our seats.

Aircraft typically have their engines mounted under the wings of each engine and seats ahead of the wing will often be quieter, with the volume increasing as you move back.

Airlines sometimes charge extra for these seats since they are closer to the boarding door, but choosing one helps ensure a quieter ride.

Exceptions to this rule include aircraft with rear-mounted engines including regional jets and certain mainline aircraft such as the McDonnell Douglas MD-80.

With rear-mounted engine aircraft, most of the seats are ahead of the engine with the last few rows often being the loudest. Some seats on these aircraft are located directly next to the engines with passengers being eye-level to them. 

Next-generation aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, Airbus A350 XWB, Airbus A330neo, Airbus A320neo family, and Boeing 737 Max also tend to be quiet regardless of seat location.

In addition to the engines on these aircraft being more efficient, they're also quieter for those in the cabin and on the ground. If you're unsure of the aircraft you're flying on, do some quick research on noise levels since aircraft manufacturers love saying how quiet their newer planes are. 

The crowding factor also plays a large role in choosing where to sit as passengers congregating in the aisle to queue for the lavatory can often be disruptive and bothersome.

To combat this, flyers should locate the lavatories on their aircraft and choose seats at least a few rows away from them. Their location can vary by plane to plane and it's not always as simple as just choosing a seat in the middle of the aircraft.

Once I've made my mind on where I want to sit, I often check to see if there are any problems with the seat itself.

One of the top resources for individual seat advice is SeatGuru . With nearly every airline and variant of aircraft available for viewing, SeatGuru can warn of potential issues such as fixed recline, reduced legroom, immovable armrests, and proximity to nearby lavatories and gallies. 

Even once I have the seat assignment I want, I still check-in for my flight 24 hours in advance on the dot.

Airlines will often release previously blocked seats at check-in that may be better than what was available when booking. 

Southwest Airlines, which doesn't pre-assign seats, also determines boarding order based on check-in time. To ensure I get a good boarding number when flying Southwest, I always set alarms to make sure I check-in for those flights as soon as possible.

The last step is arriving at the airport, the final opportunity to select or change a seat assignment, which can be good and bad.

When checking in at the kiosk, I always check to see what other seats are open to see if I can get a closer seat or a seat with nobody next to me.

Just because an open, more favorable seat appears, however, doesn't mean that you should take it. The previous considerations should still be taken into account and at the very least, consult SeatGuru to see if there are any issues with the seat.

On a flight from Tokyo to New York, I arrived at the airport and saw a closer window seat open at the kiosk and selected it for the 14-hour flight without checking first, thinking that I lucked out.

When I arrived at the seat, however, I saw that it had no window and I'd have to crane my neck in order to look out of the next nearest one.

While check-in kiosks may cut you off as the flight nears, gate agents have access to a flight's seat map up until departure and are often the best resource for getting a better seat.

A seat map isn't solidified until the boarding door closes with any number of factors affecting the final number of seats that will be open on a flight.

Whether it be people upgrading to first class at the last minute, passengers missing their connection, or other flyers changing their seats at check-in, the seat map is constantly changing and the final few minutes before boarding are when gate agents have a better idea of it. If an entire row is open five minutes before a flight, there's a good chance it will stay that way.

It's also often been my experience that asking nicely will lead gate agents to assign seats that previously required a fee such as extra-legroom seats or exit row seats without even explicitly asking for them.

On a recent flight from Copenhagen to London, I was assigned an exit row window seat just by asking if there were any seats open with the middle open. Despite being on a basic economy ticket, the agent showed me the seat map and asked if I wanted a seat in the semi-empty row. 

Although it seems simple to just pick a seat and sit in it, a lot of work can go into selecting the most ideal seat.

Though, sometimes, you just get lucky and find an open row behind you to stretch out on a long flight. 

• Main content

What Do Pilots Say When Landing A Plane?

Whether you’re a frequent flier or just an aviation enthusiast, you’ve probably heard pilots make announcements when a plane is preparing to land. But have you ever wondered what exactly pilots are saying and why?

This comprehensive guide will walk you through the typical landing procedures and pilot announcements, from initial descent all the way to touching down on the runway.

If you’re short on time, here’s a quick answer: Pilots make a series of standardized announcements at various stages of the landing process to communicate with air traffic control, inform the cabin crew, and update passengers on what to expect next .

Key phrases include ‘cabin crew prepare for landing’, ’15 minutes to landing’, ‘on glide slope’, and ‘cleared to land runway X.’

Announcing the Initial Descent

When preparing to land a plane, pilots follow a specific protocol to ensure a safe and smooth landing. One important aspect of this protocol is announcing the initial descent to both air traffic control and the cabin crew.

Contacting Air Traffic Control

As the aircraft begins its descent, the pilot establishes communication with air traffic control (ATC) to inform them of their intentions. This is done to ensure that the airspace is clear and that the plane is given priority for landing.

The pilot will typically use the radio to transmit a message, stating the aircraft’s call sign, current altitude, and intentions to descend. This communication is vital for maintaining situational awareness and coordinating with other aircraft in the vicinity.

ATC will acknowledge the pilot’s message and provide any necessary instructions or updates. They may provide clearance for the descent and assign a specific altitude or heading, depending on the air traffic conditions. The pilot will then follow these instructions to safely navigate the descent path.

It’s worth noting that the language used between pilots and ATC is standardized and precise. This ensures clear and concise communication, minimizing the chance of misunderstandings or confusion.

Updating the Cabin Crew

While the pilot communicates with ATC, it’s equally important to keep the cabin crew informed about the progress of the flight. The cabin crew plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety and comfort of the passengers, and being aware of the upcoming landing is essential for them to prepare accordingly.

The pilot will typically make an announcement to the cabin crew, informing them about the initial descent and the expected landing time. This allows the cabin crew to secure the cabin, ensure that passengers are seated and fastened their seatbelts, and prepare for any necessary safety procedures.

Additionally, the pilot may provide information about the weather conditions at the destination airport, such as temperature, wind speed, and visibility. This helps the cabin crew to anticipate any potential challenges or adjustments they may need to make to ensure a smooth transition for the passengers.

The Approach and Landing Checklist

When it comes to landing a plane, pilots follow a specific checklist to ensure a safe and smooth arrival. This checklist includes various items that need to be addressed before and during the landing process. Two important aspects of this checklist are the flap settings and landing gear.

Flap Settings

Flaps are movable surfaces on the wings of an aircraft that help to create additional lift and increase drag during takeoff and landing. The flap settings for landing depend on several factors, including the aircraft type, weight, and prevailing weather conditions.

Pilots typically adjust the flap settings based on the landing speed required for a specific approach. The higher the flap setting, the slower the landing speed, allowing for a smoother touchdown. However, each aircraft has specific limitations regarding flap settings, and pilots must adhere to these guidelines to ensure the safe operation of the aircraft.

For example, a Boeing 747 may have different flap settings compared to a smaller regional jet. Pilots are trained to select the appropriate flap setting based on the aircraft’s performance capabilities and the specific landing conditions.

Landing Gear

The landing gear is another crucial component that pilots must address during the landing checklist. The landing gear consists of the wheels and supporting structures that allow the aircraft to safely touch down on the runway.

Prior to landing, pilots verify that the landing gear is extended and locked in place. This is usually confirmed through visual and instrument checks, ensuring that the landing gear indicators display the correct position.

If any issues arise with the landing gear during the approach, pilots have procedures in place to troubleshoot and rectify the problem before landing.

Safe landing gear operation is vital for a smooth landing. Pilots are trained to identify any abnormalities or malfunctions in the landing gear system and take appropriate action to ensure a safe touchdown.

This may involve executing a go-around, where the aircraft aborts the landing and initiates another approach, or making an emergency landing if necessary.

It is important to note that pilots receive extensive training on the approach and landing checklist and undergo regular proficiency checks to maintain their skills. Following these procedures helps to ensure the safety and efficiency of every landing.

Key Landing Announcements

15 minutes to landing.

As the plane approaches its destination, passengers may hear the pilot make an announcement indicating that the aircraft is 15 minutes away from landing. This announcement serves as a heads-up for passengers to prepare for landing by fastening their seatbelts, returning their seatbacks and tray tables to the upright position, and stowing any loose items.

It is important for passengers to follow these instructions to ensure a smooth and safe landing.

On Glide Slope

When the plane is on the glide slope, the pilot may inform the passengers about this milestone. The glide slope refers to the path that the aircraft follows as it descends towards the runway during the landing approach.

It is a critical phase of the landing process, as the pilot must maintain the correct angle and rate of descent to ensure a safe touchdown. Passengers may feel a slight change in the aircraft’s pitch and hear the engines adjust as the plane aligns with the glide slope.

Cleared to Land

Once the plane is on the final approach, the tower controller will give the pilot clearance to land. The pilot may relay this information to the passengers, indicating that they have received permission to proceed with the landing.

This announcement is a reassuring indication that the necessary coordination between the pilot and air traffic control has taken place, ensuring a safe and orderly landing.

Upon touchdown, the pilot may announce that the plane has safely landed. This announcement brings a sense of relief and accomplishment to both the passengers and the flight crew. It signifies the successful completion of the flight and the transition from being airborne to being on the ground.

Passengers may feel a slight jolt as the wheels make contact with the runway, followed by the sound of the engines reversing thrust to slow down the aircraft.

It is important to note that the specific announcements made by pilots during landing may vary depending on the airline and the pilot’s personal style. However, these key landing announcements mentioned above are commonly used to keep passengers informed and ensure a smooth landing experience.

After Landing and Taxiing

Welcome message.

Once the plane has touched down on the runway and is coasting to a stop, the captain will make an announcement welcoming passengers to their destination city. This short message typically includes the local time and weather conditions. For example, “Ladies and gentlemen, welcome to Los Angeles.

Local time is 10:30am and the weather is sunny and clear. The current temperature is 72 degrees Fahrenheit.” This welcome announcement lets passengers know they have officially arrived.

After landing, the pilots must still taxi the plane to its assigned gate. Some captains will make brief announcements during the taxiing phase, providing passengers with updates on the remaining taxi time or which gate they will be arriving at. For instance, “Folks, we are now taxiing to Gate 34.

Please remain seated with your seatbelt fastened until we reach the gate and the captain turns off the Fasten Seat Belt sign.” Giving passengers information about the taxiing process helps keep them patient and informed.

Gate Assignment

Often the gate assignment will not be confirmed until shortly before landing. So, in many cases, the pilots will announce the gate assignment in their welcome message after touch down. For example, “Welcome to Chicago, folks. The local time is 2:45pm and weather is clear.

We have been assigned Gate 12 today, so please remain seated until we arrive at the gate in about 5 minutes.” Providing the gate number right away helps passengers prepare to deplane and head to their next destination.

However, sometimes the gate assignment changes last minute while taxiing. In this case, the pilot will make a short separate announcement about the new gate number. For instance, “Ladies and gentlemen, due to traffic at our originally assigned Gate 21, we have been reassigned to Gate 34.

Please stay seated as we taxi to this new gate.” Keeping passengers updated on any gate changes prevents confusion upon arrival at the terminal.

While passengers only hear a handful of landing announcements, pilots are continuously communicating with air traffic control throughout the descent and approach. Standard callouts and procedures ensure a smooth, coordinated landing.

Next time you’re tuned in on a plane landing, you’ll have a better sense of what’s happening in the cockpit. Safe travels!

Stephanie Lee is an avid travel writer and remote worker with a passion for mind-opening adventures that change not just where you go, but who you become. Originally from San Francisco with continual wanderlust woven into her multiethnic upbringing, Stephanie has extensively backpacked through over 50 countries across 6 continents while working flexibly online. Through vulnerable storytelling on The FYS Life, she motivates people to embrace travel as a conduit for better understanding themselves and the cultures that shape our world. An optimistic spirit who finds daily inspiration in moments of natural beauty or human connection, Stephanie currently resides in Portland, Oregon between journeys abroad.

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Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University

Economics Operations Strategy May 3, 2012

Which plane lands last, the tricky science of weather delays and airport landing slots.

James Schummer

Rakesh Vohra

“Ladies and gentlemen, due to severe weather in the Northeast, flight 1138 to Newark has been delayed. We’ll update you when we have more information.” Those words are the last thing a traveler wants to hear. A delay due to inclement weather means three things: One, you are going to be late. Two, the airline is not at fault, so do not expect any compensation. And three, weather conditions can be fickle, so any estimated delay is likely to be longer than originally reported.

Inclement weather is a big deal in the airline industry—it is responsible for nearly 40 percent of the total amount of time flights are delayed. Wind, fog, snow, and thunderstorms limit the rate at which planes can safely take off and land. That throws airlines’ and air traffic controllers’ carefully crafted schedules into disarray. The Federal Aviation Administration has to step in to make sure everyone gets a fair slot on the runways.

In the past, the FAA used a procedure called Grover-Jack. It assigned arrival slots during inclement weather based on feasible departure times, which were reported by the airlines themselves. Under Grover-Jack, if a plane had a mechanical problem, that delay was added to the weather delay, penalizing the airline twice. Airlines would deliberately withhold information about mechanical and other problems to avoid this double penalty. Sometimes they would be able to land a different flight in the open slot, but if none was ready the slot would go unused. That meant arrival slots—which were already limited—were being wasted, lengthening delays. This was bad for everyone.

Eventually the FAA developed a new scheme that assigns arrival slots based on their original schedule, not actual schedule. If a flight cannot use a weather-delayed slot, an algorithm called Compression steps in to reassign it. Compression works by first looking for flights by the same airline. If none exist, it moves on to other carriers to look for a trade. That trading is the fundamental advantage Compression has over Grover-Jack. When an airline decides a slot is useless, it trades it for a later one, usually owned by the carrier that took the heretofore useless slot. The airline that gave up the initial slot is rewarded because the one it accepts is typically earlier than it would have received otherwise.

Because of these incentives, the FAA says the Compression algorithm is immune to the sort of games that were played under Grover-Jack. And as far as anyone knew, that seemed to be the case. But no one ever sat down to make sure.

Enter James Schummer and Rakesh Vohra , associate professor and professor, respectively, of managerial economics and decision sciences at the Kellogg School of Management. They undertook the first rigorous investigation of the Compression algorithm. While they show that Compression is largely free from manipulation, they do reveal some potential problems.

Identifying the Problems

The first issue is that Compression merely discourages manipulation—it does not preclude it entirely. One trick would be if an airline could “destroy” a slot. “Destroying a slot means pretending there’s a flight in there and isn’t really in there. Basically that slot is not available,” Vohra says. That could give an airline an advantage by denying their competitors that slot. While Schummer and Vohra say that slot destruction is a shortcoming of Compression, it will not necessarily present a problem in the real world.

“An airline would actually have to run the computations to find the situation,” Schummer remarks, adding even that is only half the battle. “At some point the FAA realizes that the plane you were supposed to land there hasn’t taken off yet back at the other airport.” The slot would remain empty, but the ruse would be exposed and the airline likely punished. Such a brief gain would not be worth the trouble.

Still, there is nothing in the Compression algorithm that prevents slot destruction. As game theorists who prefer to tackle all shortcomings of a model, Schummer and Vohra are bothered by this issue, though they have not yet devised a way to address it mathematically.

The second problem with Compression that Schummer and Vohra identified is more tractable, and one for which they have a solution. Under Compression, it is possible that a subset of airlines could break off from the main group. Such a schism would occur if those airlines thought they could fare better trading slots among themselves rather than in the larger group.

Arrival slots technically belong to the federal government—airspace is a public good owned by everyone in the country—but airlines have claimed squatters rights because they have invested money in staffing and scheduling around those times. Schummer and Vohra say Compression does not go far enough to respect those rights, which could lead to splinter groups.

To see how a splinter group would affect the air traffic system, let’s say that of three carriers—Delta, American, and United—two of them—United and American—decide to trade slots with each other and exclude Delta. That would give United and American first choice from their collective pool of slots. But suppose a Delta flight would be a better fit for one of those slots, easing congestion more than a United or American flight. Because Delta is not in that group, United and American could effectively deny them that slot. United and American would gain the advantage, but the system as a whole would be worse off.

Such blocking coalitions would reduce the pool of slots for other airlines and harm the efficiency of the allocation process. Fortunately, these coalitions are not likely to form. “As a practical matter, given the amount of time in which airlines have to do these arrangements, it’s not clear that it’s feasible for them to do that,” Vohra says.

A Better System

So given that neither slot destruction nor splinter groups are likely under the Compression algorithm, why bother searching for such theoretical flaws? Because in the process Schummer and Vohra have found another algorithm—called Trade Cycle—that they say would both eliminate those theoretical problems and be better overall.

Trade Cycle is based on an old economic theory called the house trading model. In the house trading model, the fundamental question is, Vohra says, “Without money, is there a way to trade that in some sense is good?” To understand how that works, let’s pretend you ask three people to point to the owner of another house they would like to trade into. Any sequence of owners who form a cycle—person 1 points to person 2 who points to person 3 who points to person 1—can trade with each other and each receives their favorite house by giving up their current house. These three owners can then move into their new homes, and the process starts all over again. “No one has an incentive to lie about their favorite house at any time,” Vohra points out. “Why is that? At the beginning, I ask you to point to your favorite house. You wouldn’t have gained by pretending your favorite house was your number four choice.” The same goes for airlines—in pointing to their favorite slot, there is no incentive to lie.

Eventually, all airlines receive slots that are better than the ones they started out with, or at least no worse.

When applying the house trading model to flight arrival slots, Vohra says, “there are a couple of wrinkles. In the house trading model, every agent owns a single house. Here agents are airlines and they own multiple homes.” That makes the mathematics a bit trickier, but not so onerous that the problems cannot be solved.

Eventually, all airlines receive slots that are better than the ones they started out with, or at least no worse. The key part about Trade Cycle—the part that makes it work—is that it respects the property rights of airlines and their slots. When trading, an airline may be giving up their right to that slot, but in return they are receiving one that is worth more to them. There is no need for shenanigans like slot destruction or slot-trading cartels. The result, Schummer and Vohra hope, would be a slot assignment system that would function even more smoothly, reducing the number of minutes flights are delayed.

Schummer and Vohra have yet to present their paper to the FAA, though they are open to the idea. But before they do, they want make sure they have worked through all the details. “One approach we sometimes take as game theorists is to first solve a problem in reduced form, before enriching it with details to see which details really matter.”

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Should I Bring an Umbrella? Rating forecasters is difficult, but not impossible

Associate Professor of Managerial Economics & Decision Sciences

Faculty member in the Department of Managerial Economics & Decision Sciences until 2013

About the Writer Tim De Chant was science writer and editor of Kellogg Insight between 2009 and 2012.

Schummer, James and Rakesh Vohra. 2012. “Assignment of Arrival Slots.” Working paper, Kellogg School of Management.

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• Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) Act, 1977
• The Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) (Amendment) Act, 1989, Act 32 of 1989

An overview of the Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) Act, 1977

This article is written by Srishti Sinha , a student at the Institute of Law, Nirma University. This article deals with an overview of the Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) Act, 1977. 

Table of Contents

Introduction 

It has been discovered throughout the years that many of the lands given to the impoverished people are not in their ownership. The Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) Act, 1977 was enacted by the state government to stop this tendency. This Act is a protective statute designed to safeguard and assist those who are truly landless and destitute. This Act makes it illegal to sell lands allotted to the poor for agriculture or habitation to anybody else. Under any conditions and any other applicable legislation, the transfer of allocated lands is prohibited. Any document signed only for the transfer is void and unlawful. Even a civil court cannot issue a decree relating to such allocated lands transactions. 

Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) Act, 1977: an overview

Legislative history.

The government had been allocating government lands to landless impoverished people who had no other source of income. In Andhra Pradesh, such land assignments are controlled by Board Standing Orders , but in Telangana, they are governed by the Andhra Pradesh (Telangana Area) Land Revenue Act 1317 Fasli. Nonetheless, the regulations regulating such property assignments and the terms of the government land grant remain the same. The Pattas (a type of land deed issued by the government to an individual or organization), given there usually included a provision stating that the lands assigned were heritable but not alienable, as well as several additional stipulations. Every assignment includes a provision stating that the land will be returned if the grant’s conditions are not met, in the hopes that such limitations will prevent the impoverished landless people from losing the land allocated to them. However, previous experience has demonstrated that large swaths of land allotted to landless impoverished people have been alienated and are now in the hands of well-off people. The grant’s terms were deemed to be inefficient and inadequate for achieving the government’s social goals. 

There are no provisions in the current rules for punishing those who acquire such lands. Efforts to give vast swaths of land to landless impoverished people have gone to waste. As a result, to more effectively implement the aim, the Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) Act 1977 was created as protective legislation to prevent the alienation of assigned lands to landless poor individuals and to provide for the penalty of buyers of such lands. 

Important points related to the Act

In the sense that it provides for the resumption, restoration, and distribution of the Assigned Lands, the Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) Act 1977 is a self-contained code. Except for Section 2 of the Act, which took effect on January 21, 1977, the remaining sections took effect on January 29, 2007. However, Section 3 (1) of the Act not only prohibits the transfer of assigned lands on or after the Act’s commencement but also declares that all transfers of Assigned Lands that occurred before the Act’s commencement are null and void and that no right or title in such Assigned Land shall vest in any person acquiring the land through such transfer. 

Further, Section 3(3) of the Act says that any transfer or acquisition of government lands or surplus lands allocated to landless poor individuals for cultivation or as a house site under the condition of non-alienation made by purchase, gift, lease, mortgage, exchange, or otherwise will be declared null and invalid under this Act.

Conditions under which the Act will not apply 

If the requirements stipulated in Section 3(5) are met, the Act is not applicable. Section 3(5) says that:

• The buyer must be a destitute landless individual.
• The acquisition must be made in good faith and at a fair price.
• Before the effective date of this Act, the acquisition must be made from the original assignee or transferee.
• On the date of such beginning, the land thus bought is in possession for cultivation or as a house site.

Consequences of breach of provisions mentioned under Section 3 of the Act

While Section 3 of the Act sets some restrictions on the transfer of allocated lands, Section 4 of the Act outlines the repercussions of violating Section 3. Only Section 4 comes into play if Section 3 is violated, i.e. alienation of the allocated land. 

• Under Section 4(1), the District Collector or any other officer, not below the rank of a Mandal Revenue Officer can take possession of the assigned lands after evicting the person in possession and reassign the said resumed land other than those lands or areas as may be notified by the government from time to time in the public interest and restore the assigned land to the original assignee or his legal heir, or if it is not practically possible to do so, resume the assigned property to the government for the assignment of landless poor people in line with the laws in effect at the time.
• Provided, however, that the assigned land may not be restored to the original assignee or his legal heir more than once, and that if the original assignee or his legal heir transfers the assigned land after such restoration, it shall be returned to the Government for assignment to another landless poor person.
• Provided, further, if no qualified landless poor people in the village or area are available, the reclaimed land will be used for public purposes.
• Under Section 4(2), any order passed in revision under Section 4-B, and subject to such order, the decision in appeal under Section 4-A, and subject to the said orders in revision and appeal, any order passed under sub-section (1), shall be final and shall not be questioned in any Court of law, and no injunction shall be 
• Granted by any Court in respect of any proceeding taken or about to be taken by any officer or authorized person.
• Appeals and Revisions [Section 4A and Section 4B, respectively] – Section 4 A (1) allows the Mandal Revenue Officer’s orders [passed under Section 4(1)] to be appealed to the Revenue Divisional Officer within 90 days of receipt of the order. The Revenue Divisional Officer’s order can be appealed to the District Collector under Section 4 A (2). 
• Under Section 4 B (1), there is also a provision for Revision to the District Collector or the Government. Further, this section states that the District Collector or the Government may also delay the judgment or order’s implementation awaiting the exercise of their powers under sub-section (1).

Prohibition of registration of assigned lands

Under Section 5, no registering officer shall accept for registration any document relating to the transfer of, or the creation of any interest in, any assigned land included in a list of assigned lands in the district prepared by the District Collector and furnished to the registering officer on or after the commencement of this Act, notwithstanding anything in the Registration Act, 1908.

Exemption clause (Section 6)

According to Section 6, nothing in this Act applies to assigned lands held on the mortgage by the State or Central Governments, any local authority, a co-operative society, a scheduled bank, or any other financial institution-owned, controlled, or managed by a State Government or the Central Government, as the Government may notify in this regard. 

Penal provisions (Section 7)

The punishment for violating the Act’s requirements is outlined in Section 7 of the Act as follows: 

• Whoever obtains any allotted land in violation of Section 3 sub-section (2) is punishable by imprisonment for up to six months or a fine of up to two thousand rupees, or both.
• Whoever resists or obstructs the District Collector or any other person authorized by him in taking possession of any allocated land under this Act is punishable by imprisonment for up to six months or a fine of up to five thousand rupees, or both. Furthermore, Section 2(A) talks about the imprisonment of the officers and says that any officer who violates the requirements of Section 5 sub-sections (1) and (2) will be penalized with either simple imprisonment for up to six months or a fine of up to ten thousand rupees, or both.
• A court may not take cognizance of an offense punished under this section unless the District Collector has given his prior approval.

Protections available

Section 8 of the Act, mentions the circumstances under which no suit can be filed against the person. The following are the circumstances: 

• No litigation, prosecution, or other legal action shall be brought against any person, official, or authority for anything done or intended to be done in good faith following the Act or any rules promulgated thereunder. 
• There shall be no suit or other legal action brought against the Government for any damage caused or likely to be caused, or for any injury suffered or likely to be suffered, as a result of any provision of this Act, or for anything done or intended to be done in good faith in pursuance of this Act or any rules made thereunder.

Ineffective implementation of the Act

The Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) Act, 1977 came into effect to safeguard and protect those people who are truly landless but there are some loopholes in this act due to ineffective implementation of the act. 

This Act bans the transfer of lands allotted to landless impoverished people (through alienation or sale to a third party). The territories that have been given to landless people are inheritable, but not alienable. If the District Collector or any other officer authorized by him violates this provision, the District Collector or any other officer authorized by him may seize the assigned land, evict the person in possession after giving him a reasonable opportunity to leave, and return the land to the original assignee or his legal heir. If rehabilitation is not possible, the government may take over the property for new use.

This Act is retroactive meaning it applies to sales that occurred before the Act’s enactment. This is a seldom-used option by revenue authorities. Large swaths of land that were supposed to go to the landless poor have been alienated and ended up in the hands of the non-poor. The most pressing necessity of the hour is to assess the extent of the alienation and make efforts to restore or allocate the lands to the poor.

After a thorough study on the implementation and the ineffectiveness of the Act, the committee concluded that the executive must be forced to execute its duty professionally and methodically, which has been practically neglected during the last decade and a half.

The following are the recommendations of the said committee:

• Reduction of the size of land assigned – The definition of the landless poor person should be redefined as or the one who owns no land or a person who owns a land of not more than 1 acre of wet or 2 acres of dry land.
• Land assignment – The maximum amount of land that may be assigned to a single individual is 1 acre of wetland or 2 acres of dry land, subject to the condition that lands owned by the assignee be taken into account in computing the area so that the lands assigned to him together with what he already owns does not exceed the total extent of 1 acre of wetland or 2 acres of dry land.
• 3 months to assign land to the applicant – According to the rules in effect, the assignment of land to the landless poor for agricultural purposes must be given within 3 months of the date of receipt of the application for assignment.
• Government role – Where assigned lands are put up for auction due to non-payment of credit agency dues, government agencies will participate in the auction and purchase the lands to reassign landless people. 
• The assignment committee’s composition should include women from Indira Kranthi Patham (IKP) -The Assignment Committee’s composition should be amended to include the Sarpanch as well as the president and secretary of the concerned village organizations of poor women from the IKP, wherever the assignment proposals concern that village.
• Gram Sabha Approval – Government land assignment proposals must be authorized by Gram Sabha.
• Assignment Committee proposals should not be rejected – The Assignment Review Committee should not reject any proposed assignment unless the intended beneficiaries are ineligible. 

Amendments brought in the Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) Act

With the change in society, the requirements and needs of people, the Act of 1977 was amended many times. The following are the amendments and clauses introduced in the act of 1977:

The Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) (Amendment) Act, 1989, Act 32 of 1989 

The Act of 1989 inserted the following clauses in the act:

• There is an amendment under Section 4 of the 1977 act. In the sub-section (1) of Section 4, the word “Mandal Revenue Officer” replaces the word “Tahsildar”. Furthermore, in the sub-section (2) of Section 4, the expression “Any order passed in revision under Section 4-B and subject to such order, the decision in appeal under Section 4-A and subject to the said orders in revision and appeal, any order passed under sub-section(1)” shall be substituted. 
• Also, with this Amendment, there was an inclusion of Section 4A and Section 4B.

The Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) (Amendment) Act, 2007, Act 8 of 2007

The Act of 2007 inserted the following clause in the act: 

• It brings an amendment under Section 4 of the Act. It substituted clause (b) and clause (c) under sub-section (1) of Section 4.
• Further, the Act substitutes Section 5 of the Act of 1977.
• Also, the Act inserts an expression “Provided that any person who has voluntarily disclosed and surrendered the assigned land in his possession or discloses and surrenders the assigned land in his possession within 90 days from the commencement of Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) (Amendment) Act, 2006 shall be exempted from Prosecution” , under Section 7 (1) and the expression “(2A) Any Officer, violating the provisions under sub-section (1) and (2) of Section 5 shall be punished with simple imprisonment which may extend to six months or with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees or with both” , after sub-section (2) of Section 7.

The Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) (Amendment) Act, 2008, Act 21 of 2008

The Act of 2008 , brings the following changes in the act of 1977:

• The Act of 2008 brings the Amendment under Section 4 of the act of 1977. It substitutes Section 4(1) (b) of the act.

The Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) (Amendment) Act, 2019, Act 11 of 2019

The Act of 2019 , brings the following substitutions in the act of 1977:

• The Act of 2019 brings amendment under Section 2 (1) of the act of 1977. It substitutes the expression “lands assigned” with “lands or house sites assigned”. Further, it substitutes the expression “landless poor persons” with “landless and homeless poor persons”.
• Furthermore, this Act brings Amendment under Section 3 of the act of 1977. It says that after sub-section (2) under Section 3, the following sub-sections shall be inserted:

“(2A) No assignee shall transfer any assigned house site, and no person shall acquire any assigned house site, either by purchase, gift, lease, mortgage, exchange, or otherwise, till completion of the period of 20 years from the date of assignment. 

(2B) Where the assigned house site was alienated by the assignee as on the date of commencement of this Act, such house site shall be regularized in favor of the alienee as a one-time measure. 

(2C) The eligible family shall be assigned house site only once in a lifetime.” 

• Furthermore, the Act adds an expression under Section 3(3). It says that under Sub-Section(3), after the expression “Sub-Section(2)” the expression “or Sub-Section(2A)” shall be inserted.

The Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) Act, 1977 came into effect to protect the lands given to impoverished sections of the society. The main aim of the Act is to assist and safeguard those people who are truly landless but due to improper implementation of this Act, there were lots of loopholes created in this Act. Further, certain recommendations were made to improve this condition and to make sure that the act does not divert from its main aim. 

With the change in circumstances and to define each section more properly, there were various amendments to this act and currently, there is a Bill passed by the Legislative Assembly in 2020 called, the Andhra Pradesh Assigned Lands (Prohibition of Transfers) (Amendment) Bill, 2020 . Deputy Chief Minister, Dharmana Krishna Das, tabled the bill and explained the objective of the Bill. The Bill’s main objective was to give farmers Rupees 25,000 per annum as rent for an acre and take their lands for lease only if the farmers agree to give it voluntarily. 

References 

• https://www.landgovernance.org/assets/2014/07/India_Andhra-Pradesh_CESS.pdf 
• https://aphrdi.ap.gov.in/documents/Workshops/2015/Dec/8-11_Revenue/POT_Act.pdf 
• https://english.sakshi.com/news/amaravati/ap-assembly-passes-assigned-lands-bill-127175 

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Major Landforms – Mountains, Plateaus, and Plains: Learn faster

Last updated on October 9, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

Endogenic forces and exogenic forces can create a lot of landforms . A landform is a natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth. Examples include Mountains, Plateaus, and Plains.

In this post, ClearIAS brings you a brief overview of the major landforms of the earth, in a reader-friendly format, which helps in faster learning. You will also be able to learn the economic significance of mountains, plateaus and plains. Aspirants who prepare for UPSC exams can surely expect many questions from this topic.

Table of Contents

• Nearly 27% of the world’s land surface is covered by mountains.
• It is from the mountains that up to 80% of the planet’s fresh surface water come from.
• According to the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), about 12% of the world’s population lives in the mountains, but over 50% are directly or indirectly dependent on mountain resources.

Classification of mountains

The mountains, on the basis of their mode of formation, can be classified as:

Fold Mountains

Block mountains.

• Volcanic Mountains/ Accumulated Mountains
• Residual Mountains/ Relict Mountains
• Mountain ranges mainly consisting of uplifted folded sedimentary rocks are called Fold Mountains.
• They are formed due to the force of compression arising from the endogenic or internal forces.
• Synclines (trough) and anticlines (crest) are part of Fold Mountains.

• The Himalayas in Asia, the Alps in Europe, the Rockies in North America, and the Andes in South America are the most prominent fold mountains of the world.
• Since these mountain ranges were formed during the most recent mountain building period, they are also known as Young Fold Mountains .
• Block Mountains are also formed by the internal or endogenic earth movements which cause the force of tension and faulting.
• The down-lifting or uplifting of land in between two parallel faults results in the formation of Block Mountains.
• A block mountain is also called as Horst and the rift valley formed as a result of faulting is called  Graben .

• Examples: The Sierra Nevada in North America, Black Forest Mountains in Germany etc are typical examples of Block Mountains.

Volcanic Mountains or Accumulated Mountains

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• The mountains formed by the accumulation of volcanic materials are called as Volcanic Mountains or Mountains of accumulation.
• Examples: Mount Mauna Loa in Hawaii Island, Mount Popa in Myanmar, Fuji Yama in Japan etc are some examples.

Also read: Hills of Peninsular India

Residual Mountains or Relict Mountains

• We have seen the effects of weathering (as part of exogenic processes). Weathering acts upon the earth’s crust constantly.
• To a large extent, the process of wearing down depends on the shape and structure of the rocks upon which it acts.
• So, in some cases, some portions of an elevated area escape from the process of weathering due to the hardness of the materials it is made of.
• These portions remain unweathered while its surrounding area gets eroded constantly. This results in the formation of Residual or Relict Mountains .
• Examples: Hills like Nilgiri, Palkonda, Parasnath and Rajmahal and Mountains like the Aravalli, the Vindhya, and the Satpura are some of the examples of Relict Mountains in India.

Economic Significance of Mountains

• A storehouse of resources : Mountains are the storehouse of natural resources. Large resources of minerals like petroleum, coal, limestone are found in mountains. The mountains are the main source of timber, lac, medical herbs, etc.
• Generation of hydro-electricity : Hydro-electricity is mainly generated from the waters of perennial rivers in the mountains.
• An abundant source of water: Perennial rivers arising in the snow-fed or heavily rain-fed mountains are one of the important sources of water. They help in promoting the irrigation and provide water for many other purposes.
• Formation of fertile plains: The rivers that originate from the high mountain ranges bring silt along with water to the lower valleys. This helps in the formation of fertile plains and further the expansion of agriculture and related activities.
• Natural political frontiers:  The mountains can also act as natural boundaries between the two countries. They have a prominent role in protecting the country from external threats.
• Effects on climate:  They serve as a climatic divide between two adjoining regions. The mountains cause orogenic rainfalls, diversion, and blocking of cold winds, etc.
• Tourist centres:  The pleasant climate and beautiful sceneries of the mountains have led to their development as centres of tourist attraction.
• A plateau is an elevated area with a more or less levelled land on its top. It has a large area on its top and a steep slope on its sides.
• They are also called as high plains or tablelands .
• The plateaus cover about 18% of the earth’s land surface.

Classification of plateaus

On the basis of their geographical location and structure of rocks, the plateaus can be classified as:

Intermontane Plateaus

• Piedmont plateaus
• Continental plateaus
• Volcanic plateaus
• Dissected plateaus

• The plateaus which are bordering the mountain ranges (generally fold mountains) or are partly or fully enclosed within them are the intermontane plateaus.
• The word ‘intermontane’ means ‘between mountains’.
• Intermontane plateaus are the highest in the world.
• They have nearly horizontal rock layers which are raised to very heights by vertical movements of the earth.
• Examples : The Plateau of Tibet is an example of the intermontane plateau which is surrounded by the fold mountains like the Himalayas, the Karakoram, the Kunlun and the Tien Shah.

Piedmont Plateaus

• Plateaus which is situated at the foot of a mountain and is locked on the other side by a plain or a sea/ ocean is called as a piedmont plateau.
• The word ‘piedmont’ means ‘foot of a mountain’.
• They are also called as Plateaus of denudation as the areas once were high to the level of mountains, have now been reduced to the foot level of the mountain by various agents of erosion.
• Examples: The Malwa Plateau is an example of piedmont plateau.

Continental Plateaus

• They are formed either by an extensive continental upliftment or by the spread of horizontal basic lava (less viscous) sheets completely covering the original topography.
• This kind of plateaus shows an abrupt elevation in contrast to the nearby lowland or sea (i.e. more steepness on sides).
• The Continental Plateaus are also known as Plateaus of Accumulation .
• Examples: Plateau of Maharashtra is an example of the continental plateau.

Volcanic Plateaus

• A volcanic plateau is a plateau produced by volcanic activity. There are two main types: lava plateaus and pyroclastic plateaus.
• Lava plateaus are formed by highly fluid basaltic lava during numerous successive eruptions through numerous vents without violent explosions.
• Pyroclastic volcanic plateaus are produced by massive pyroclastic flows and they are underlain by pyroclastic rocks.

Dissected Plateaus

• A dissected plateau is a plateau area that has been severely eroded so that the relief is sharp. Such an area may appear as mountainous.
• D issected plateaus are distinguishable from orogenic mountain belts by the lack of folding, metamorphism, extensive faulting, or magmatic activity that accompanies orogeny (mountain building).

The economic significance of Plateaus

• A storehouse of minerals: Most of the minerals in the world are found in plateaus. The extraction of minerals in plateaus is relatively easier on plateaus than mountains. The major portions of industrial raw materials are obtained from plateaus. We get gold from the plateau of Western Australia; copper, diamond and gold from the plateaus of Africa; and coal, iron, manganese and mica from the Chottanagpur Plateau in India.
• Generation of hydel-power: The edges of plateaus form waterfalls which provide ideal sites for generating hydel power.
• Cool climate:  The higher parts of the plateaus even in tropical and sub-tropical regions have a cool climate.
• Animal rearing and agriculture: plateaus have large grassland areas suitable for animal rearing especially sheep, goat, and cattle. The lava plateaus when compared to other plateaus are richer in minerals and hence used for agriculture as the soil is very fertile.
• Plains are the most important landforms found on the earth surface.
• A plain is nothing but a low-lying relatively flat land surface with very gentle slope and minimum local relief.
• About 55% of the earth’s land surface is occupied by plains.
• Most of the plain have been formed by deposition of sediments brought down by rivers.
• Besides rivers, some plains have also been formed by the action of the wind, moving ice and tectonic activities (Refer exogenic processes ).

Classification of plains

On the basis of their mode of formation, plains can be classified as:

• Structural plain
• Erosional plains
• Depositional plains

Structural Plains

• These plains are mainly formed by the upliftment of a part of the sea floor or continental shelf.
• They are located on the borders of almost all the major continents.
• The structural plains may also be formed by the subsidence of areas.

Erosional Plains (Peneplains)

• Erosional plains are formed by the continuous and longtime erosion of uplands.
• The surface of such plains is hardly smooth and hence, they are also called as Peneplains , which means almost plain.

Depositional Plains

• These plains are formed by the depositional activity of various geomorphic agents.
• When plains are formed by the river deposits, they are called as riverine or alluvial plains .
• The depositions of sediments in a lake give rise to a Lacustrine Plain or Lake Plains. The Valley of Kashmir is an example of lacustrine plain.
• When plains are formed by glacial deposits, they are called as Glacial or Drift Plains.
• When the wind is the major agent of deposition, those plains are called as Loess Plains.

The economic significance of Plains

• Fertile soil: The plains generally have deep and fertile soil. As they have a flat surface, the means of irrigation can be easily developed. That is why plains are called as the ‘ Food baskets of the world’.
• The growth of industries: The rich agricultural resources, especially of alluvial plains, have helped in the growth of agro-based industries. Since the plains are thickly populated, plenty of labour is available for the intense cultivation and for supplying the workforce for the industries.
• Expansion of means of transportation: The flat surface of plains favours the building of roads, airports and laying down railway lines.
• Centres of civilizations: Plains are centres of many civilizations.
• Setting up of cities and towns: Easy means of transportation on land and the growth of agriculture and industries in plains have resulted in the setting up and expansion of cities and towns. The most developed trade centres and ports of the world are found in the plains only and as much as 80% of the world’s population lives here.

Mountains, Plateaus and Plains are some of the important landforms on earth. Each of these is classified into different subtypes are economically significant. PS: You can let our team know about any feedback or suggestions about these free study materials in the comment section below. Happy learning!

Article by: Jijo Sudarshan

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Reader Interactions

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excellent .. theory of formation of those land forms may need more explanation sir…but its good information … thank you

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October 20, 2020 at 3:44 pm

July 21, 2021 at 7:14 am

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August 17, 2018 at 10:16 pm

I have a question Why do equatorial zone have high elevated mountains are located in equatorial zone then all other portion of world? I want answer in 200 words

September 27, 2018 at 1:52 am

PROVIDE MORE ELABORATION. INFORMATION PROVIDED IS INSUFFICIENT. EXAMPLE. CONTINENTAL PLATEAU IS OLDEST OF ALL PLATEAU AND IT VERY EXTENSIVE AND OCCASIONALLY SURROUNDED BY MOUNTAINS ETC IS NOT MENTIONED.

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April 8, 2020 at 7:57 pm

The mountains are responsible of Orographic* rainfall (not orogenic).

April 8, 2020 at 8:06 pm

” Effects on climate: They serve as a climatic divide between two adjoining regions. The mountains cause orogenic rainfalls, diversion, and blocking of cold winds, etc. ”

How is this related to economic significance ?

May 19, 2020 at 11:54 am

June 11, 2020 at 4:43 pm

Thanks for the information. It will be of great help.

June 29, 2020 at 10:10 pm

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October 20, 2020 at 3:46 pm

December 29, 2020 at 10:54 am

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Flight Time Calculator

Flying time between cities

Travelmath provides an online flight time calculator for all types of travel routes. You can enter airports, cities, states, countries, or zip codes to find the flying time between any two points. The database uses the great circle distance and the average airspeed of a commercial airliner to figure out how long a typical flight would take. Find your travel time to estimate the length of a flight between airports, or ask how long it takes to fly from one city to another.

You can also search for the closest airport to any city in the world or check the flying distance between airports. If you're thinking about a road trip, compare the driving time for the same route.

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