immune system function presentation

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High school biology

Course: high school biology   >   unit 2.

• Meet the heart!
• The circulatory system review
• Meet the lungs!
• The respiratory system review
• Meet the gastrointestinal tract!
• The digestive and excretory systems review
• The nervous and endocrine systems review
• The musculoskeletal system review
• Welcome to the reproductive system
• The reproductive system review

The immune system review

• Apply: organ system interactions

Infectious disease

Nonspecific defense: the innate immune system, first line of defense, second line of defense, specific defense: the adaptive immune system, humoral immunity, cell-mediated immunity, viral structure, steps of viral infection.

• The virus recognizes and binds to a host cell via a receptor molecule on the cell surface.
• The virus or its genetic material enters the cell.
• The viral genome is copied and its genes are expressed to make viral proteins.
• New viral particles are assembled from the genome copies and viral proteins.
• Completed viral particles exit the cell and can infect other cells.

Common mistakes and misconceptions

• Incorrect : All bacteria are pathogens.
• Correct : Most bacteria are actually harmless and, in fact, we would not survive without them! Bacteria help us digest food, produce vitamins, and act as fermenting agents in certain food preparations. Some bacteria also fill niches that would otherwise be open for pathogenic bacteria. For example, the use of antibiotics can wipe out gastrointestinal (GI) flora. This allows competing pathogenic bacteria to fill the empty niche, which can result in diarrhea and GI upset.
• Incorrect : We should stop vaccinating people for diseases which are now rare due to vaccines.
• Correct : Some diseases have been nearly eliminated through the use of vaccines. However, this does not mean that we should stop vaccinating against these diseases. Most of these diseases still do exist in the human population, and without the continued use of vaccines, people are at risk of getting and spreading the disease.
• Incorrect : Vaccines always provide permanent immunity to a disease.
• Correct : For some diseases, a single vaccine is sufficient, but for many diseases you must get vaccinated more than once to be protected. For example, the flu vaccine becomes less effective over time because of how rapidly the flu virus mutates. Therefore, the flu shot’s formulation changes each year to protect against specific viruses that are predicted to be prominent each year.

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The Immune System

• Cell Communication
• Immune System

Resource Type

• Click & Learn

Description

This interactive module introduces the anatomy of the immune system and walks through the timeline of a typical immune response. 

The timeline includes the differences between the first time a pathogen is encountered versus subsequent infections, including an explanation of how vaccines work. Different tabs, videos, images, questions, and a detailed glossary of terms allow this resource to be explored at varying levels of depth depending on the class. Refer to the “Educator Materials” for implementation suggestions. 

The accompanying worksheets guide students’ exploration. The “General Immunology” worksheet is a guided exploration of the Click & Learn. The “Immunotherapy” worksheet applies the content in the Click & Learn to cancer immunotherapy. The “Vaccine Research Extension” worksheet guides students through an optional research project on vaccines. The glossary and illustrations in the Click & Learn are also provided as slide decks; you may make copies of these slides and adapt them to your classroom.

The “Resource Google Folder” link directs to a Google Drive folder of resource documents in the Google Docs format. Not all downloadable documents for the resource may be available in this format. The Google Drive folder is set as “View Only”; to save a copy of a document in this folder to your Google Drive, open that document, then select File → “Make a copy.” These documents can be copied, modified, and distributed online following the Terms of Use listed in the “Details” section below, including crediting BioInteractive.  

Student Learning Targets

• Identify the main organs and cells of the immune system, and explain their functions. 
• Compare and contrast the innate and adaptive immune responses, and explain how they interact.
• Explain the role of memory cells when the body responds to a pathogen it has previously encountered, and apply this knowledge to the function of vaccines. 
• Interpret graphs to support and/or revise scientific explanations.  

Estimated Time

adaptive immune response, antibody, antigen, B cell, cytokine, dendritic cell, innate immune response, pathogen, T cell, vaccine

Terms of Use

The resource is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International license . No rights are granted to use HHMI’s or BioInteractive’s names or logos independent from this Resource or in any derivative works.

Accessibility Level (WCAG compliance)

Version history, curriculum connections, ngss (2013).

HS-LS1-2; SEP8

AP Biology (2019)

IST-3.A; IST-3.F; SP1, SP2 

IB Biology (2016)

Common core (2010).

ELA.RST.9-12.2; ELA.WHST.9-12.9

Vision and Change (2009)

CC2, CC5; DP1

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• Introduction

Mucous membranes

Chemicals with incidental protective effects.

• Interferons
• Proteins from naturally occurring bacteria
• Granulocytes
• Macrophages
• Natural killer (NK) cells
• Acute-phase response
• Inflammatory response
• Location in the lymphatic system
• T and B cells
• Receptor molecules
• Diversity of lymphocytes
• Basic structure of the immunoglobulin molecule
• Normal production of antibody
• Structure of the T-cell receptor
• Function of the T-cell receptor
• Helper-T-cell activation
• Results of helper-T-cell activation
• Activation of B cells
• Protective attachment to antigens
• Activation of the complement system
• Activation of killer cells
• Other antibody-mediated mechanisms
• Transfer of antibodies from mother to offspring
• Cell-mediated immune mechanisms
• Immunity against cancer
• Passive immunization
• Active immunization
• Immune capacity among invertebrates
• Immune capacity among vertebrates
• Genetic origins of the immune system

• What is a white blood cell?
• What are the major classes of white blood cells?
• What is a healthy white blood cell count?

immune system

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• Harvard Health - How to boost your immune system
• National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - How does the immune system work?
• Cleveland Clinic - Immune System
• Oregon State University - Linus Pauling Institute - Immunity In Depth
• Biology LibreTexts - Overview of the Immune System
• National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases - Overview of the Immune System
• immune system - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• immune system - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

Recent News

immune system , the complex group of defense responses found in humans and other advanced vertebrates that helps repel disease-causing organisms (pathogens). Immunity from disease is actually conferred by two cooperative defense systems, called nonspecific, innate immunity and specific, acquired immunity. Nonspecific protective mechanisms repel all microorganisms equally, while the specific immune responses are tailored to particular types of invaders. Both systems work together to thwart organisms from entering and proliferating within the body. These immune mechanisms also help eliminate abnormal cells of the body that can develop into cancer .

The following sections provide a detailed explanation of how nonspecific and specific immunity function and how the immune system evolved. For information on how these systems can go awry and give rise to disease, see immune system disorder . For additional information on leukemias, lymphomas, and myelomas, see cancer .

Mechanisms of the immune system

Nonspecific, innate immunity.

Most microorganisms encountered in daily life are repelled before they cause detectable signs and symptoms of disease. These potential pathogens, which include viruses , bacteria , fungi , protozoans , and worms , are quite diverse , and therefore a nonspecific defense system that diverts all types of this varied microscopic horde equally is quite useful to an organism. The innate immune system provides this kind of nonspecific protection through a number of defense mechanisms, which include physical barriers such as the skin , chemical barriers such as antimicrobial proteins that harm or destroy invaders, and cells that attack foreign cells and body cells harbouring infectious agents. The details of how these mechanisms operate to protect the body are described in the following sections.

External barriers to infection

The skin and the mucous membrane linings of the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts provide the first line of defense against invasion by microbes or parasites .

Human skin has a tough outer layer of cells that produce keratin . This layer of cells, which is constantly renewed from below, serves as a mechanical barrier to infection. In addition, glands in the skin secrete oily substances that include fatty acids , such as oleic acid , that can kill some bacteria; skin glands also secrete lysozyme , an enzyme (also present in tears and saliva) that can break down the outer wall of certain bacteria. Victims of severe burns often fall prey to infections from normally harmless bacteria, illustrating the importance of intact, healthy skin to a healthy immune system.

Like the outer layer of the skin but much softer, the mucous membrane linings of the respiratory, gastrointestinal , and genitourinary tracts provide a mechanical barrier of cells that are constantly being renewed. The lining of the respiratory tract has cells that secrete mucus (phlegm), which traps small particles. Other cells in the wall of the respiratory tract have small hairlike projections called cilia , which steadily beat in a sweeping movement that propels the mucus and any trapped particles up and out of the throat and nose . Also present in the mucus are protective antibodies , which are products of specific immunity. Cells in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract secrete mucus that, in addition to aiding the passage of food, can trap potentially harmful particles or prevent them from attaching to cells that make up the lining of the gut. Protective antibodies are secreted by cells underlying the gastrointestinal lining. Furthermore, the stomach lining secretes hydrochloric acid that is strong enough to kill many microbes.

Chemical barriers to infection

Some microbes penetrate the body’s protective barriers and enter the internal tissues. There they encounter a variety of chemical substances that may prevent their growth. These substances include chemicals whose protective effects are incidental to their primary function in the body, chemicals whose principal function is to harm or destroy invaders, and chemicals produced by naturally occurring bacteria.

Some of the chemicals involved in normal body processes are not directly involved in defending the body against disease. Nevertheless, they do help repel invaders. For example, chemicals that inhibit the potentially damaging digestive enzymes released from body cells which have died in the natural course of events also can inhibit similar enzymes produced by bacteria, thereby limiting bacterial growth. Another substance that provides protection against microbes incidentally to its primary cellular role is the blood protein transferrin . The normal function of transferrin is to bind molecules of iron that are absorbed into the bloodstream through the gut and to deliver the iron to cells, which require the mineral to grow. The protective benefit transferrin confers results from the fact that bacteria, like cells, need free iron to grow. When bound to transferrin, however, iron is unavailable to the invading microbes, and their growth is stemmed.

Antimicrobial proteins

A number of proteins contribute directly to the body’s nonspecific defense system by helping to destroy invading microorganisms. One group of such proteins is called complement because it works with other defense mechanisms of the body, complementing their efforts to eradicate invaders. Many microorganisms can activate complement in ways that do not involve specific immunity. Once activated, complement proteins work together to lyse, or break apart, harmful infectious organisms that do not have protective coats. Other microorganisms can evade these mechanisms but fall prey to scavenger cells, which engulf and destroy infectious agents, and to the mechanisms of the specific immune response. Complement cooperates with both nonspecific and specific defense systems.

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Cells of the immune system – slideshow.

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This slideshow is designed to present the immune system to younger students in a simple way. It describes some of the cells and how they might function in response to harmful microorganisms entering the body. It is part of the The wars within activity.

The wars within

In this activity, students are introduced to the immune system. By the end of this activity, students should be able to: explain in simple terms what the immune system is list some of the names ...

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In brief: how does the immune system work.

Last Update: June 6, 2023 ; Next update: 2026.

The immune system has a vital role: It protects your body from harmful substances, germs and cell changes that could make you ill. It is made up of various organs , cells and proteins.

As long as your immune system is running smoothly, you don’t notice that it’s there. But if it stops working properly – because it’s weak or can't fight particularly aggressive germs – you get ill. Germs that your body has never encountered before are also likely to make you ill. Some germs will only make you ill the first time you come into contact with them. These include childhood diseases like chickenpox .

• What jobs does the the immune system have?

Without an immune system, we would have no way to fight harmful things that enter our body from the outside or harmful changes that occur inside our body. The main jobs of the body’s immune system include

• fighting disease-causing germs (pathogens) like bacteria , viruses, parasites or fungi, and to remove them from the body,
• recognizing and neutralizing harmful substances from the environment, and
• fighting disease-causing changes in the body, such as cancer cells .
• How is the immune system activated?

The immune system can be activated by a lot of different things that the body doesn’t recognize as its own. These are called antigens. Examples of antigens include the proteins on the surfaces of bacteria , fungi and viruses. When these antigens attach to special receptors on the immune cells (immune system cells), a whole series of processes are triggered in the body. Once the body has come into contact with a disease-causing germ for the first time, it usually stores information about the germ and how to fight it. Then, if it comes into contact with the germ again, it recognizes the germ straight away and can start fighting it faster.

The body’s own cells have proteins on their surface, too. But those proteins don’t usually trigger the immune system to fight the cells. Sometimes the immune system mistakenly thinks that the body's own cells are foreign cells. It then attacks healthy, harmless cells in the body. This is known as an autoimmune response.

• Which part of the immune system is innate and which part is adaptive?

There are two subsystems within the immune system, known as the innate (non-specific) immune system and the adaptive (specific) immune system . Both of these subsystems are closely linked and work together whenever a germ or harmful substance triggers an immune response.

The innate immune system provides a general defense against harmful germs and substances, so it’s also called the non-specific immune system. It mostly fights using immune cells such as natural killer cells and phagocytes (“eating cells”). The main job of the innate immune system is to fight harmful substances and germs that enter the body, for instance through the skin or digestive system.

The adaptive (specific) immune system makes antibodies and uses them to specifically fight certain germs that the body has previously come into contact with. This is also known as an “acquired” (learned) or specific immune response.

Because the adaptive immune system is constantly learning and adapting, the body can also fight bacteria or viruses that change over time.

• Brandes R, Lang F, Schmidt R. Physiologie des Menschen: mit Pathophysiologie. Berlin: Springer; 2019.
• Lippert H. Lehrbuch Anatomie. München: Urban und Fischer; 2020.
• Menche N. Biologie Anatomie Physiologie. München: Urban und Fischer; 2023.
• Pschyrembel Online . 2023.

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Immune System Function - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Immune System Function

Immune system function lecture outline immune system basics & general functions functional anatomy of the immune system physical and chemical barriers the immune ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• Immune System Basics General Functions
• Functional Anatomy of the Immune System
• Physical and Chemical Barriers
• The Immune Response
• Innate Immunity (non-specific)
• Adaptive Immunity (acquired immunity)
• Pathogenic Differences
• Incompatibilities Allergies
• Why do we need an immune system?
• To protect against disease causing agents
• Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, parasites
• How does this work efficiently and without killin us?
• The key to do this is recognition of what does belong in your body, or what is self vs. what does not belong in the body, or what is foreign (not self).
• All self cells have a recognizable complement of surface markers
• Foreign cells and structures have non-self markers which are capable of being recognized by our immune system
• The component that is recognizable and initiates an immuneresponse is the antigenic portion
• Major Histocompatability Complexes (MHC) are molecules that present antigenic cytosolic components to the exterior for the purpose of initating an immune response
• MHC-I which are found on all nucleated cells of the body
• MHC-II which are found on macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells antigen presenting cells (APCs)
• 1. Protection from pathogens
• May include microorganisms
• May also include macroorganisms
• Parasites such as
• May also overzealously protect from non dangerous pathogens
• Creates an allergic response
• Removal of dead and damaged cells and components
• Recognition and removal of abnormal cells
• Failure to do this can result in
• Autoimmune disorders
• Lack of immune system response indicates immunodeficiency!
• may be acquired through family genetics
• may be acquired through infection
• Physical Chemical Barriers
• Highly integrated into other systems
• Two relatively identifiable aspects
• 1. Lymphoid tissues
• Primary Lymphatic Tissues sites of production maturation
• Bone marrow
• Secondary Lymphatic Tissues encapsulated or diffuse
• Lymph nodes
• MALTs (diffuse)
• 2. Cells Leukocytes Derivatives
• Immune Response
• Provide the 1st line of defense against pathogens
• Least specific
• Physical/mechanical barriers
• Coughing/sneezing
• Chemical barriers
• Acid secretions
• Sweat/Tears
• Semen/Vaginal secretions
• Respiratory enzymes
• Salivary enzymes
• Breast Milk enzymes
• Incompatabilities Allergies
• Innate Immunity
• 2nd line of defense
• Phagocytosis job of some leukocytes
• Antigen presenting specific function to activate specific immune responses (adaptive immunity)
• Macrophages, Monocytes, Neutrophils that are both stationary and mobile
• Must be able to recognize non-self aspects of pathogens then initiate an appropriate response
• Pathogen-Associated Mollecular Patterns (PAMPs)
• Allow for recognition of foreign structures from bacterial cell wall components and toxins to secretions and exposure of collage/fibrin from injured tissue area
• Bind to Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs)
• Phagocytosis
• Primarily the job of tissue macrophages and neutrophils
• Options are
• Bind and engulf pathogen directly by binding to PRRs on phagocyte
• Pathogen gets coated (opsonized) by antibodies (Abs) which then bind to receptors on the phagocyte and initiate phagocytosis
• Phagocytosis Options
• Once the pathogen is ingested macrophages become antigen presenting cells (APCs)
• This simply means that they process the pathogen internally and then insert the antigenic portion of the pathogen into their cell membrane and present it to lymphocytes
• B lymphocytes and Dendritic cells are also capable of acting as APCs
• Natural Killer Cells (NK cells)
• A class of lymphocytes
• Attack and induce cells to kill themselves (self induced apoptosis)
• May also attack some tumor cells
• Also secrete
• Interferons
• Mess up viral replication
• and activate macrophages
• and other immune cells
• Cytokine Function
• Inflammation
• Attracts additional immune cells
• Increases physical barrier effectiveness
• Promotes tissue repair upon removal of infectious agent
• The cytokine players
• Acute-phase proteins
• Appear quickly after injury or infection
• Molecules produced by the liver that act as opsonins, antiprotease molecules and C-reactive protein (involved in atherosclerotic thrombus formation released by foam cells)
• local vasodilator and attracts leukocytes
• Produced by mast cells basophils
• Interleukins
• Chemical messengers involved in communication among leukocytes
• Vasodilator pain receptor stimulator
• Complement Proteins
• Cascading activation that ends with insertion of a membrane attack complex into the target cell, causing death by lysis
• Functions of Adaptive Immunity
• Recognition of non-self antigens from self
• Generate a tailored response to eliminate specific antigen
• Development of immunological memory
• Adaptive Immune responses refer to an antigen-specific response. This requires
• Processing the pathogen
• Presenting the Ag to B and T cells
• After presentation options are
• Produce antibodies
• Activate cytotoxic T cells
• Creation of memory cells for long lasting immunity
• Why is adaptive?
• Because of the capacity to generate immune responses for the nearly endless varieties of antigens
• Through the process of recombining antigen receptor gene segments based on the antigen presented to the system
• The players
• Involve in humoral immunity
• Differentiate into
• plasma cells which produce antibodies for the specific antigen
• Memory cells to provide immunological memory
• cell-mediated immunity
• Types of T cells
• CD4 T cells or T helper cells of which there are two types
• Th1 and Th2
• CD8 T cells (T killer or cytotoxic T cells )
• NK cells (natural killer cells)
• Provide the link between innate and adaptive immunity
• T memory cells provide?
• The general process
• Antigen is processed and presented
• CD4 (T helper) cells are activated
• B cells are activated by CD4 cells and
• Plasma cells
• Produce clonal antibodies
• Produce memory cells
• Antibody Structure
• Antibody Function
• T cell activation
• What are the differences between the two major pathological entities?
• Bacteria Vs. Viruses
• Bacteria 10x the bacteria as there are cells in the human body
• Most are non-pathogenic
• Those that are produce toxins/by products of bacterial growth and metabolism
• Viruses disrupt cell function by taking over the cells DNA creating a virus producing machine
• What happens when things go wrong?
• Incompatibility?

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Immune System

Mar 30, 2019

550 likes | 1.2k Views

Immune System. Biology March 2014 Ms. Boehm. What is the Immune System?. The body’s defense system, which fights off pathogens that cause disease- it keeps you healthy! Pathogen = a foreign substance that can cause disease Bacteria, virus, etc. 1 st Line of Defense.

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• antibody pathogen antigen
• foreign substance
• acquired immune deficiency
• entire pathogen antibody macrophage

Presentation Transcript

Immune System Biology March 2014 Ms. Boehm

What is the Immune System? • The body’s defense system, which fights off pathogens that cause disease- it keeps you healthy! • Pathogen = a foreign substance that can cause disease Bacteria, virus, etc.

1st Line of Defense • All first line of defense is non-specific, meaning they don’t distinguish among pathogens • Skin: shields body from harmful invaders (Barrier)

1st Line of Defense • Mucus & Cilia: (Barriers) • Mucus traps foreign microbes & dust that are allowed in through nasal hair • hair-like structures (cilia) in the lungs sweep mucus upward & out of system

1st Line of Defense What’s the first thing you do when you cut your finger? • Saliva: contains chemicals that break down bacteria (Barrier)

1st Line of Defense • Stomach Acid: swallowed bacteria is broken down by strong acids in stomach (Barrier)

2nd Line of Defense • The second line of defense is non-specific as well, but is now inside the body/bloodstream • White Blood Cells: if invaders do make it inside the body, WBC’s engulf & destroy them • Also known as phagocytes or leukocytes • Perform phagocytosis- cell eating • Breakdown of bacteria occurs in lysosome Video

2nd Line of Defense • Another 2nd line of defense is the inflammatory response • The chemical response is known as histamines • you have probably taken an antihistamine before

3rd Line of Defense • The third line of defense is a specific, targeted attack on pathogens • Able to distinguish self vs. non-self invaders • Has a role in immunity Each antibody is specific to a certain antigen

Types of WBC’s • Lymphocytes = originate in the bone marrow & travel throughout lymphatic system to recognize specific invaders • B cells = programmed to make certain antibodies • Develop in bone marrow • T cells = responsible for attacking & destroying harmful pathogens • Develop in thymus gland

How do Antigens work? • Antigensare proteins on the outside of a pathogen, unique to each one • identifies the pathogen as non-self and the body uses it for identification and marks it for destruction • Immune system responds by releasing Antibodies, which fit onto the Antigens perfectly • Antibodies: proteins that attach to specific antigens in the body (made by WBC’s) antibody pathogen antigen

What happens next? • Once the Antibodies are attached to the antigen, it triggers a macrophage to come along and engulf the entire pathogen antibody macrophage (WBC) pathogen antigen

Stop and Review • What is the role of the immune system? • Compare and contrast the 1st, 2nd and 3rd lines of defense. How are they similar, how are they different? • Define antigen and antibody. Relate the two terms to each other. • What type of organelle do you think a macrophage must have a lot of?

Immunity • Why is it impossible to get the same type of cold twice? • Your body has been exposed to the antigen • You make antibodies that eventually destroy it • The next time that same antigen tries to come around, those same antibodies will destroy it immediately

Immunity • How do Vaccines work? • Your body is injected with dead or weakened version of the ________________.

Think the flu is no big deal? • Think again… • In 1918, a particularly deadly strain of flu, called the Spanish Influenza, spread across the globe • A form of H1N1 that is present again today. • It infected 20% of the human population and killed 5%, which came out to be about 100 million people

Immune Disorders • Allergies • When your immune system mistakes harmless foreign particles (dust, pollen) as serious threats • Immune system launches a response, which causes sneezing, runny nose, & watery eyes

Immune Disorders • Autoimmune diseases • The immune system turns against itself • The surface proteins on our own cells are viewed as foreign and the body makes antibodies to destroy the cells • Not sure why the body turns against itself • Examples: • Rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, type I diabetes

Immune Disorders • Acquired Immune Deficiency – AIDS • Caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) • Discovered in 1983 • Targets and kills T-cells • Immune System is weakened • HIV doesn’t kill you • Common diseases that your body can no longer fight off can become life-threatening

Immune Disorders • Acquired Immune Deficiency – AIDS • Transmitted through sexual contact, blood transfusions, contaminated needles • AIDS affects over 40 million people worldwidepeople

• More by User

Immune System. Defense system. Nonspecific Immunity Specific Immunity. First line of defense: Surface membrane barriers. Skin and mucous membrane Layered epidermis and shedding of epithelial cells Sebum inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi Mucous traps microbes, dust and pollutants.

851 views • 42 slides

Immune System. Two nonspecific defense systems. First line of defense Skin and mucous membranes Second line of defense Nonspecific cellular and chemical protection devices ( Third line of defense = specific immune responses to kill particular organisms).

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Immune System . Noel Esqueda. Important vocabulary . Interferon – Proteins that protect cells from viruses Phagocytes – white blood cells that destroy pathogens by surrounding and engulfing them

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Immune System . Chapter 21. Immune System. Functional body system Structures are cells not organs Provides immunity Recognizes ‘self’ from ‘non-self’ Fights pathogens and infections Destroy cancer cells Isolate and remove foreign substances Divisions Innate immunity (non-specific)

764 views • 32 slides

Immune System. Chris Schneider. Immune System Function. The purpose of the immune system is to keep infectious microorganisms, such as certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi, out of the body, and to destroy any infectious microorganisms that do invade the body .

446 views • 14 slides

Immune System. By: Asia Williams & Trevonta Gibbens. I. The Immune System includes structures like, white blood cells, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels. A. White Blood Cells. 1. Leukocytes(WBC’s) 2. Thrombocytes(platelets)

231 views • 10 slides

Immune System. Fighting off disease. Immune system. System of blood cells and bodily functions designed to allow you to fight pathogens Pathogen- anything capable of causing disease within your body May be: Virus Bacteria Environmental factor (pollen, etc.) Chemical . Parts of system.

286 views • 16 slides

Immune System. The Body’s Defense System. Types of Pathogens: Agents that can cause disease…. Viruses Bacteria Protists Worms Fungi. Nonspecific Defenses. First Line of Defense Skin, mucus, sweat and tears Second Line of Defense Inflammatory Response Production of WBC Swollen tissue

295 views • 7 slides

Immune System. Body's line of defenses. What are nonspecific defenses?. Skin Mucus membranes Inflammatory response . Skin first line of Nonspecific defense. Acts as a barrier Chemical defenses (sweat, oils, waxes). Mucus membranes first lines of Nonspecific defense.

301 views • 12 slides

Immune System. Objectives To select genes that are embryonic lethal Or accept bone marrow from other centres Generate bone marrow chimeras Or generate conditional mutants for EUCOMM allels Analyse phenotypes of these mutants and Establish the course of embryonic lethality.

320 views • 16 slides

IMMUNE SYSTEM

IMMUNE SYSTEM. Immunity. Barrier Defenses. Integument Secretions Lysozymes Mucus. Internal Defenses. Phagocytic Leukocytes Neutrophils Suicidal engulfing of pathogens Macrophages Engulf multiple invaders Patrol or reside in spleen and lymph nodes. Internal Defenses.

335 views • 12 slides

Immune system

Immune system. The function of the immune system is to defend the body against organisms and substances that invade body systems and cause disease.

283 views • 15 slides

Immune System. Glossary of the immune system vaccine viruses and Bacteria’s immune system interact. Glossary. Helper t cells b cells killer t cells suppresser Lymphnodes Thymus Antibodies Antigens memory t cell. Macrophages .

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Immune system. General outline. Lymphatic organs: thymus, lymph node,. spleen, tonsil. Lymphoid tissue. T ： Th 、 Ts 、 Tc B K NK. Lymphocyte. Cells. Macrophage. Lymphoid tissue :. consists of reticular tissue, macrophage, plasma cell and lymphocyte.

820 views • 39 slides

Immune System. An animal must defend itself against unwelcome intruders - the many potentially dangerous viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens it encounters in the air, in food, and in water.

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Immune System. Chapter 43. 2 Types of Immunity. 2 major kinds of defenses have evolved to counter threats of viruses, bacteria, & other pathogens Innate Immunity Present PRIOR to exposure Effective from time of birth Nonspecific Acquired Immunity Present only AFTER exposure

586 views • 39 slides

Immune System. Macrophage (“Big Eater”). Natural Killer Cells. The immune system protects an organism from outside biological influences. When the immune system is functioning properly, it protects the body against - bacteria - viral infections - foreign substances

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IMMUNE SYSTEM . Innate immunity a) barrier defenses- skin and membranes (mucus, lysozyme , stomach acid, sebaceous secretions) b) phagocytosis – use TLR’s to detect foreign invaders ( monocytes (macrophages) and neutrophils and eosinophils and dendritic cells).

327 views • 17 slides

Immune System. A Boo Boo lets in germs. Like…Bacteria. Or a virus. A germ is still a germ…. Pathogen =agent that causes disease 2 . Antigen = foreign particle that triggers an immune response - often they are proteins on the surface

405 views • 26 slides

Immune System. Κουσιάτζας Δημήτριος ΑΕΜ:27066. Καπέλλος Γεράσιμος ΑΕΜ:27249. Immune System. Innative. Adaptive. A) Skin and Mucosal membranes. A) Cells. B lymphocytes T lymphocytes. B) Secreted soluble proteins. - Lysozyme C-creative protein Interferons Complement system.

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Immune System. Purpose:. It is designed to defend against millions of bacteria, microbes, viruses, toxins and parasites that would love to invade your body.

165 views • 11 slides

Immune System. First line of defense. The skin serves as a physical barrier to prevent the passage of many disease-causing microorganisms. The skin is also slightly acidic and has good bacteria. Antigens.

186 views • 14 slides

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Structure of a key 'trigger' of immune response solved

by Monash University

An international collaboration, involving researchers from Monash University and the University of Oxford, has led to a breakthrough in our understanding of how immune responses are started. The study has been published in Nature .

The human immune system comprises multiple important white blood cells (i.e., lymphocytes) including B cells and T cells that fight off infections and cancers. Basic discoveries leading to an understanding of how lymphocytes function have led to the development of immunotherapies and vaccines.

There are two types of T cells in humans, called αβ T-cells and γδ T cells, each of which expresses on their surfaces either an αβ T cell receptor (TCR) or a γδ TCR, respectively.

In 1957, Frank Macfarlane Burnet, a famous Australian immunologist, predicted the existence of these receptors and speculated that they would "trigger" clonal lymphocyte expansions, producing enough cells to fight off infections.

We now recognize that TCRs have the pivotal role of recognizing molecules derived from foreign pathogens or tumors. While less is known about γδ T cells than αβ T cells, they are emerging as key players in immune defense and are becoming increasingly important for immunotherapy.

The team, using a technique called cryogenic electron microscopy , determined the molecular structure of the TCR that is found on the surface of γδ T cells. This technically demanding project took over a decade from conception to completion and was made possible by the expertise within the Monash Ramaciotti Center for Cryo-Electron Microscopy.

The new structure unexpectedly showed that the γδ TCR is remarkably flexible, in stark contrast to relatively rigid αβ TCRs. The work also showed that the γδ TCR is very likely the more primeval receptor and completes the initial structural analysis of Burnet's "trigger" receptors, alongside a companion paper also published in Nature .

"This flexibility is key to the ability of the γδ TCR receptor to recognize a wide array of binding partners, which underscores the unique role it plays in the human immune system," Dr. Benjamin Gully, co-first author of the study stated.

According to Professor Simon Davis, from Oxford University and joint senior author of the study, γδ T-cells are becoming increasingly important therapeutically.

"The new structure helps constrain theories of how TCRs trigger lymphocytes, and should be helpful, especially, for re-engineering TCRs and optimizing their use in the clinic," he said.

Weizhi Xin et al, Structures of human γδ T cell receptor–CD3 complex, Nature (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07439-4

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• Immune System Responses to Therapeutic Proteins: Getting up close and personal - 09/09/2021

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Event Title Immune System Responses to Therapeutic Proteins: Getting up close and personal September 9, 2021

About the speaker:.

Zuben E. Sauna, PhD Research Biologist Division of Plasma Protein Therapeutics  Office of Tissues and Advanced Therapies Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER)

Zuben E. Sauna is a Principal Investigator and a Chemistry, Manufacturing and Controls Reviewer at the US Food and Drug Administration. His research interests lie in understanding the pharmacogenetic basis of the immune response to proteins used in therapeutic interventions as these affect efficacy and safety. His laboratory exploits a combination of computational, in vitro and ex vivo approaches to understand why some individuals and/or sub-populations develop immune responses while others do not. Work from his laboratory has been published in high impact journals such as Nature Biotechnology, Nature Medicine, Science, Science Translational Medicine and Nature Reviews Genetics. He received his Ph.D. from Poona University, India. 

About the Presentation:

Proteins used as therapeutics have become an essential part of modern medicine. Immunogenicity (anti-drug antibodies that target the protein-therapeutic) is a significant impediment to development and licensure of any therapeutic-protein. The lecture will illustrate how judicious application of tools available for immunogenicity risk-assessment can permit better decision-making during drug-development, licensure, and clinical-trials.

Learning Objectives:

After completion of this activity, the participant will be able to:

• Identify the economic and personal costs of immunogenicity to protein therapeutics
• Explain the use of non-clinical immunogenicity assays for determining immunogenicity risk
• List some in silico, in vitro and ex vivo methods used to evaluate immunogenicity of therapeutic proteins

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New clue into the curious case of our ageing immune system

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A WEHI study could help solve a long-standing mystery into why a key immune organ in our bodies shrinks and loses its function as we get older.

The thymus is an organ essential for good health due to its ability to produce special immune cells that are responsible for fighting infections and cancer.

In a world-first, researchers have uncovered new cells that drive this ageing process in the thymus – significant findings that could unlock a way to restore function in the thymus and prevent our immunity from waning as we age.

T cells, also known as T lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in our immune system. T cells are essential for identifying and responding to pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria, and for eliminating infected or cancerous cells.

The thymus is a small, but mighty, organ that sits behind the breastbone. It is the only organ in the body that can make T cells.

But a curious feature of the thymus is that it is the first organ in our bodies to shrink as we get older. As this happens, the T cell growth areas in the thymus are replaced with fatty tissue, diminishing T cell production and contributing to a weakened immune system.

While the thymus is capable of regenerating from damage, to date researchers have been unable to figure out how to unlock this ability and boost immunity in humans as we age.

WEHI Laboratory Head Professor Daniel Gray said the new findings, published in Nature Immunology , could help solve this mystery that has stumped researchers for decades.

“The number of new T cells produced in the body significantly declines after puberty, irrespective of how fit you are. By age 65, the thymus has virtually retired,” Prof Gray said.

“This weakening of the thymus makes it harder for the body to deal with new infections, cancers and reg-ulate immunity as we age.

“This is also why adults who have depleted immune systems, for example due to cancer treatment or stem cell transplants, take much longer than children to recover.

“These adults need years to recover their T cells – or sometimes never do – putting them at higher risk of contracting potentially life-threatening infections for the rest of their lives.

“Exploring ways to restore thymic function is critical to finding new therapies that can improve outcomes for these vulnerable patients and find a way to ensure a healthy level of T cells are produced throughout our lives.”

The new study, an international collaboration with groups at the Fred Hutch Cancer Center (Seattle) and Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Centre (NYC), provides crucial new insights that could help achieve this goal.

“Our discovery provides a new angle for thymic regeneration and immune restoration, could unravel a way to boost immune function in vulnerable patients in the future,” Prof Gray said.

Scarring effects

Using advanced imaging techniques at WEHI’s Centre for Dynamic Imaging and animal models, the re-search team discovered two new cell types that cause the thymus to lose its function.

These cells, which appeared only in the defective thymus of older mice and humans, were found to form clusters around T cell growth areas, impairing the organ’s ability to make these important immune cells.

In a world-first, the researchers discovered these clusters also formed ‘scars’ in the thymus which prevented the organ from restoring itself after damage.

Dr Kelin Zhao, who led the imaging efforts, said the findings showed for the first time how this scarring process acts as a barrier to thymic regeneration and function.

“While a large focus of research into thymic loss of function has focused on the shrinking process, we’ve proven that changes that occur inside the organ also impact its ability to function with age,” Dr Zhao said.

“By capturing these cell clusters in the act and showing how they contribute to loss of thymic function, we’ve been able to do something no one else has ever done before, largely thanks to the incredible advanced imaging platforms we have at WEHI.

“This knowledge enables us to investigate whether these cells can be therapeutically targeted in future, to help turn back the clock on the ageing thymus and boost T cell function in humans as we get older. This is the goal our team is working towards.”

Rich WEHI history

The thymus has deep roots to the institute, with the function of the organ discovered by WEHI Emeritus Professor Jacques Miller in 1958.

While working at the Chester Beatty Research Institute in London, Prof Miller’s work on leukaemia led him to discover that the thymus was crucial to the development of the immune system. He is now credited as the last person to have identified the function of a major organ.

Prof Miller’s discovery revolutionised our understanding of the immune system, infection and disease, with many WEHI researchers – including Prof Daniel Gray’s lab – continuing to build upon his landmark findings.

This research was supported by National Institutes of Health, the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Cancer Council of Victoria, the Starr Cancer Consortium, the Tri-Institutional Stem Cell Initiative, The Lymphoma Foundation, The Susan and Peter Solomon Divisional Genomics Program, Cycle for Survival, and the Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy and the University of Melbourne Research Training Program Scholarship.

Header image: Pictured are the cells that form clusters in the thymus with age. On the left, the thymus from a two-month-old mouse has few age-associated (in blue) clusters. On the right, the thymus from a 24-month-old mouse shows many clusters. Researchers have found these clusters form ‘scars’ in the thymus which prevent the organ from restoring itself after damage. Credit: WEHI

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• Review Article
• Published: 09 August 2024

Peripheral nervous system immune-related adverse events due to checkpoint inhibition

• Meabh O’Hare   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0004-7537-7803 1 , 2 &
• Amanda C. Guidon 2 , 3  

Nature Reviews Neurology ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Neuroimmunology
• Neuromuscular disease
• Peripheral neuropathies

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have revolutionized cancer therapy and are increasingly used to treat a wide range of oncological conditions, with dramatic benefits for many patients. Unfortunately, the resulting increase in T cell effector function often results in immune-related adverse events (irAEs), which can involve any organ system, including the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). Neurological irAEs involve the PNS in two-thirds of affected patients. Muscle involvement (immune-related myopathy) is the most common PNS irAE and can be associated with neuromuscular junction involvement. Immune-related peripheral neuropathy most commonly takes the form of polyradiculoneuropathy or cranial neuropathies. Immune-related myopathy (with or without neuromuscular junction involvement) often occurs along with immune-related myocarditis, and this overlap syndrome is associated with substantially increased mortality. This Review focuses on PNS adverse events associated with immune checkpoint inhibition. Underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are discussed, including antigen homology between self and tumour, epitope spreading and activation of pre-existing autoreactive T cells. An overview of current approaches to clinical management is provided, including cytokine-directed therapies that aim to decouple anticancer immunity from autoimmunity and emerging treatments for patients with severe (life-threatening) presentations.

Checkpoint inhibitors have improved cancer outcomes but the resultant increase in T cell effector function can result in immune-related adverse events (irAEs).

Neurological irAEs occur in 1–2% of all patients treated with checkpoint inhibitors and most frequently (in about two-thirds of individuals) involve the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The most common presentation of PNS irAEs is immune-related myopathy, which can be associated with immune-related neuromuscular junction involvement; immune-related neuropathy most commonly presents as polyradiculoneuropathy or cranial neuropathies.

irAEs are largely driven by excessive T cell activity and autoimmunity resulting from factors including antigen homology between self and tumour, epitope spreading and activation of pre-existing autoreactive T cells.

Clinical management of PNS irAEs is guided by syndrome subtype, severity and comorbidities, most notably myocarditis; research focuses on prevention, identification of new targeted treatments and strategies for severe, life-threatening PNS irAEs.

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• Find Your Calm: Managing Stress & Anxiety

Stress Symptoms

What Is Stress?

Stress is your body's response to a challenging or demanding situation. When you feel stressed, your body releases certain hormones. Your hormones are chemical signals your body uses to tell your body systems what to do. The hormones your body releases when you're stressed get you ready to meet the challenge or demand in your environment. During the stress response, your body gets ready to flee or fight by increasing your heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure.

Not all stress is bad. In small doses, stress can help you accomplish tasks or prevent you from getting hurt. For example, stress is what makes you slam on the brakes to avoid hitting a suddenly stopped car in front of you. That's a good thing.

But people handle stressful situations differently. What stresses you out may be of little concern to someone else. 

Stress can be a short-term response to something that happens once or only a few times or a long-term response to something that keeps happening. Our bodies can usually handle short-term stress without long-term effects. But long-term or chronic stress can make you sick, both mentally and physically.

The first step to managing your stress is to know the symptoms. But recognizing stress symptoms may be harder than you think. Many of us are so used to feeling stressed that we may not know it until we get sick. Read on to learn more about the various symptoms you may have when you're stressed.

Difference between stress and distress

Stress is a normal reaction to challenges in your physical environment or in your perceptions of what's happening around you. Experts consider distress to be stress that is severe, prolonged, or both. Distress is when you feel you’re under more stress than you can handle.

Emotional Stress Symptoms

Mental symptoms of emotional stress include:

• Feeling more emotional than usual, especially feeling grumpy, teary, or angry
• Feeling anxious, overwhelmed, nervous, or on edge
• Feeling sad or depressed
• Feeling restless
• Trouble keeping track of or remembering things
• Trouble getting your work done, solving problems, making decisions, or concentrating 

Physical Stress Symptoms

Symptoms of stress that you might feel in your body include:

• Clenching your jaw and grinding your teeth
• Shoulder, neck, or back pain; general body aches, pains, and tense muscles
• Chest pain, increased heart rate, heaviness in your chest
• Shortness of breath
• Feeling more tired than usual (fatigue)
• Sleeping more or less than usual
• Upset stomach , including diarrhea , constipation , and nausea
• Loss of sexual desire and/or ability
• Getting sick more easily, such as getting colds and infections often

Respiratory distress

This is when you aren't getting enough oxygen or are having to work really hard to breathe. If you or a loved one has symptoms of respiratory distress, you need to call 911 and get to the ER as soon as possible. Signs include:

• Breathing faster than usual
• Color changes of your skin, mouth, lips, or fingernails. A blue color around your mouth, lips, or fingernails usually shows you aren't getting enough oxygen. Your skin may also look pale or gray.
• Grunting when you breath out
• A whistling with each breath (wheezing)
• Nose flaring
• Chest sinking below your neck or under your breastbone with each breath (retractions)
• Increased sweating, especially cold, clammy skin on your forehead
• Leaning forward while sitting to help take deeper breaths

Cognitive Stress Symptoms

Symptoms of stress that affect your mental performance include:

• Trouble getting your work done, solving problems, making decisions, or concentrating
• Feeling less commitment to your work
• Lack of motivation
• Negative thinking

Behavioral Stress Symptoms

Symptoms of behavioral stress include:

• Changes in your eating habits; losing or gaining weight
• Procrastinating and avoiding responsibilities
• Using alcohol, tobacco, or drugs to feel better
• Avoiding your friends and family; isolating yourself from others
• Failing to meet your deadlines
• Increased absences at school or work
• Doing your work more slowly
• Exercising less often

Symptoms of Chronic Stress

Chronic stress is when you experience stress over an extended time. This can have negative effects on your body and your mental state, and it can increase your risk of cardiovascular disease, anxiety, and depression.

In general, the symptoms of chronic stress are the same as those for shorter-term stress. You may not have all these symptoms, but if you have more than three symptoms and they last for a few weeks, you may have chronic stress. Potential symptoms to look for include:

• Aches and pains
• Changes in your sleeping patterns, such as insomnia or sleepiness
• Changes in your social behavior, such as avoiding other people
• Changes in your emotional response to others
• Emotional withdrawal
• Low energy, fatigue
• Unfocused or cloudy thinking
• Changes in your appetite
• Increased alcohol or drug use
• Getting sick more often than usual

Is It Stress or Something Else?

You may be dealing with something more serious than day-to-day stress if you have symptoms over a period of time even though you've tried to cope using healthy mechanisms. Long-term stress is linked to number of mental health disorders, such as:

• Chronic stress
• Substance use disorder
• Disordered eating

It may be time to visit your doctor if you're struggling to cope with the stress in your life or you have mental health problems from long-term stress. They can help you figure out ways of coping in a healthy way or refer you to a mental health professional who can help you.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is mental health condition that you may have after you have or witness a traumatic event, such as a natural disaster, accident, or violence. PTSD overwhelms your ability to cope with new stress. PTSD can lead to symptoms such as intrusive memories, avoidance behaviors, and hyperarousal. 

These symptoms can cause significant problems in your work or relationships. T alk to your doctor or a mental health professional if you've had or witnessed a traumatic event and have disturbing thoughts and feelings about it for more than a month, if your thoughts and feelings are severe, or if you feel like you're having trouble getting your life back on track.

What Are the Consequences of Long-Term Stress?

Ongoing, chronic stress can trigger or worsen many serious health problems, including:

• Mental health problems, such as depression, anxiety, and personality disorders
• Cardiovascular disease, including heart disease , high blood pressure, abnormal heart rhythms, heart attacks, and strokes
• Obesity and other eating disorders
• Menstrual problems
• Sexual dysfunction, such as impotence and premature ejaculation in men and loss of sexual desire in men and women
• Skin and hair problems , such as acne, psoriasis, and eczema, and permanent hair loss
• Gastrointestinal problems, such as GERD, gastritis , ulcerative colitis, and irritable bowel syndrome

Help Is Available for Stress

Stress is a part of life. What matters most is how you handle it. The best thing you can do to prevent stress overload and the health consequences that come with it is to know your stress symptoms.

If you or a loved one is feeling overwhelmed by stress, talk to your doctor. Many symptoms of stress can also be signs of other health problems. Your doctor can evaluate your symptoms and rule out other conditions. If stress is to blame, your doctor can recommend a therapist or counselor to help you better handle your stress.

Stress Takeaways

Stress is your body's response to a challenging or demanding situation. It can affect you physically, mentally, and behaviorally, especially when you have chronic stress. Chronic stress is when you are stressed for an extended time. Chronic stress can make it more likely for you to develop other mental health disorders, such as anxiety or depression. It can also affect your heart health and digestive health. If you're stressed and having trouble coping, it may be time for you to see your doctor or a mental health professional.

Stress FAQs

What can extreme stress cause?

Extreme stress, especially if it's prolonged, can cause emotional distress. And stress from a traumatic event, which is usually extreme, can cause posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). These are more serious cases of stress that overwhelm your ability to manage on your own. You may need to get a professional's help to get back on track. If you feel like you're having trouble managing your emotions, talk to your doctor. They can help you or direct you to someone who can help you.

Can stress make you throw up?

Yes, stress can make you throw up. Your digestive system is one of the many systems that stress can affect. In fact, you may have a whole range of other digestive symptoms, such as nausea, pain, and constipation or diarrhea. Not everyone has stress nausea or vomiting, but you may be more prone to it if you have a gastrointestinal condition, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), or you have anxiety or depression.

You may be able to tell if you're stress vomiting if your episode passes when the stress goes away. If it doesn't, then your episode may be caused by something else. It's time to get checked out by your doctor if you have more than a couple of episodes or you can't figure out what's causing them.

Show Sources

Chu, B. Physiology, Stress Reaction , StatPearls Publishing, 2024.

American Psychological Association: "Stress effects on the body."

MedlinePlus: "Stress."

Mayo Clinic: "Stress management," "Emotional exhaustion: When your feelings feel overwhelming," "Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)."

Cleveland Clinic: "Emotional Stress: Warning Signs, Management, When to Get Help," "Stress Nausea: Why It Happens and How To Deal. "

Johns Hopkins Medicine: "Signs of Respiratory Distress."

Helpguide.org: "Stress Symptoms, Signs, and Causes," "Understanding Stress."

Yale Medicine: "Chronic Stress."

Department of Health and Human Services: "Stress and Your Health."

American Institute of Stress: "Effects of Stress."

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