research respondents meaning

• Memberships

Respondents: the definition, meaning and the recruitment

Respondents: this article explains the concept of respondents in a practical way. The article starts with the definition and meaning of the word respondents, followed by a summary of the types of research in which they play an important role and a step-by-step plan for selecting the right ones. Enjoy reading!

What are respondents?

Writing a thesis means doing research. Research involves collecting data and insights to answer research questions or hypotheses . A common method in research is to collect responses from individuals who play an important role in the research. These individuals are known as “respondents” .

Definition of respondents

In the context of research, a respondent refers to the individual who participates in a research by completing surveys , questionnaires, interviews , or other data collection tools.

They are an essential part of the research process , as their input and perspectives help generate meaningful conclusions and enrich the overall findings of the study.

When do I need respondents for my research?

Students conducting a thesis or other academic research projects may need respondents in a variety of scenarios, such as:

Surveys and questionnaires

When researching the opinions, preferences, or behaviors of a specific group of people, students can design surveys or questionnaires to collect data directly from respondents.

Case studies

For in-depth analysis of an individual, group, organization or community, students can gather insights from respondents through interviews or focus groups.

Experimental studies

In experimental research, they are essential to provide data that allows students to evaluate the effects of certain variables or interventions.

Longitudinal studies

Students conducting surveys over a longer period of time can engage them to collect data at multiple points in time and observe changes or trends.

Qualitative research

In qualitative studies, students often involve them to explore their experiences, beliefs, and perceptions in depth.

Remember that the selection of suitable participants is very important for the validity and relevance of the research.

Ethical considerations, confidentiality and obtaining informed consent from a respondent should always be a priority to ensure the integrity of the research process.

How do I select the right respondents?

When conducting academic research, selecting the right participants is very important.

The choice of participants has a profound impact on the quality and validity of the findings obtained.

Ensuring that the selected individuals match the characteristics of ideal respondents contributes to the overall success of the research project.

Read more below about the characteristics of a good respondent.

Willingness

Ideal participants (respondents) show enthusiasm to participate in the survey, which improves data collection and response rates.

Relevant knowledge and experience

Participants with knowledge and experience relevant to the research topic provide valuable insights and credible information.

Representativeness

Ideal participants represent the target population, allowing for broader generalization of the research results.

Honesty and accuracy

Participants who provide honest and accurate answers contribute to the reliability of the data collected.

Responsiveness

Ideal participants actively engage in the research process and respond to surveys or interview requests in a timely manner.

Ensuring a diverse group of participants allows for a comprehensive understanding of different perspectives and contexts.

Reliability

Respondents who are reliable and committed to participation throughout the research process contribute to the consistency of the study.

Selecting with these characteristics not only strengthens the research results, but also promotes an enriching and comprehensive exploration of the chosen research topic.

Respondents recruitment: how do I select the right respondents?

Finding and recruiting suitable respondents for research can be a challenging task, especially for students undertaking academic studies. Here are some practical methods and useful tips to facilitate successful respondent recruitment:

Use social media

Make use of social media, forums and academic networks to reach potential respondents. Online platforms offer a wide range of individuals from diverse backgrounds who may want to participate in your research.

Clearly define the purpose of your research and the specific characteristics you are looking for in respondents. A targeted approach will attract people who actually match the requirements of your study.

Take advantage of networking

Leverage personal and professional connections, such as friends, family, classmates, or colleagues, to identify potential participants. These connections can lead you to individuals who are more willing to participate.

Collaborate

Collaborate with educational institutions, NGOs or civil society organizations related to your research topic. They can help you access their members or stakeholders as potential participants.

Offer respondents a reward for participating

Incentives, such as gift cards, vouchers or tokens of appreciation, can motivate people to participate. Make sure the incentives are relevant and attractive to your target participants.

Use clear communication

Use concise and engaging language in your recruitment messages when approaching potential particpants. Clearly explain the research objectives and state the benefits of their participation.

Respect the effort of respondents

Recognize the importance of their time and be transparent about the expected time commitment for their engagement.

Ensure anonymity of respondents

Assure them that their personal information will be kept strictly confidential and that their answers will remain anonymous.

Use a strategic approach

If you’re having trouble recruiting, consider sending follow-up messages or reminders to those who initially expressed interest but haven’t responded yet.

Respondents Recruitment challenges

Respondents play a vital role in academic research, but there are several challenges researchers may face. Understanding these common challenges is essential for successful data collection and meaningful research outcomes. Some of the obstacles commonly encountered when dealing with respondents are explained below:

Limited Availability of respondents

They may have busy schedules or other commitments that make it difficult to find time to participate in research. This can lead to problems in obtaining a sufficient sample size within the desired time period.

Some potential particpants may choose not to participate in the survey, which may lead to non-response bias. This bias can affect the representativeness of the collected data and potentially distort the study results.

Some individuals may be reluctant or disinterested in participating in research because of privacy concerns, skepticism about the purpose of the research, or a lack of interest in the topic.

Challenges in recruitment process

Finding and approaching suitable participants can be a challenge, especially for niche or specific research topics. It may take creative approaches and persistence to identify and recruit the right participants.

Survey fatigue of respondents

Now it’s your turn

What do you think? Do you recognize the explanation about the subject of respondents? Have you ever participated in a survey? Which characteristics of a respondent do you consider most important? Have you ever written a thesis for which you needed a respondent? What recruitment methods did you use? What tips can you share with (future) thesis students to help them find good particpants? Do you have other tips or comments?

Share your experience and knowledge in the comments box below.

More information

• Barton, J., Bain, C., Hennekens, C. H., Rosner, B., Belanger, C., Roth, A., & Speizer, F. E. (1980). Characteristics of respondents and non-respondents to a mailed questionnaire . American Journal of Public Health, 70(8), 823-825.
• Kaiser, K. (2009). Protecting respondent confidentiality in qualitative research . Qualitative health research, 19(11), 1632-1641.
• Scott, J. (2008). Children as respondents: The challenge for quantitative methods . In Research with children (pp. 103-124). Routledge .
• Montabon, F., Daugherty, P. J., & Chen, H. (2018). Setting standards for single respondent survey design . Journal of Supply Chain Management , 54(1), 35-41.

How to cite this article: Janse, B. (2024). Respondents . Retrieved [insert date] from Toolshero: https://www.toolshero.com/research/respondents/

Original publication date: 04/11/2024 | Last update: 07/09/2024

Add a link to this page on your website: <a href=”https://www.toolshero.com/research/respondents/”>Toolshero: Respondents</a>

Did you find this article interesting?

Your rating is more than welcome or share this article via Social media!

Average rating 4.2 / 5. Vote count: 5

No votes so far! Be the first to rate this post.

We are sorry that this post was not useful for you!

Let us improve this post!

Tell us how we can improve this post?

Ben Janse is a young professional working at ToolsHero as Content Manager. He is also an International Business student at Rotterdam Business School where he focusses on analyzing and developing management models. Thanks to his theoretical and practical knowledge, he knows how to distinguish main- and side issues and to make the essence of each article clearly visible.

Related ARTICLES

STARR Method for reflection explained

Carl Jung biography, quotes and books

Amy Cuddy biography and quotes

Univariate Analysis: basic theory and example

Contingency Table: the Theory and an Example

Research questions explained plus examples

Also interesting.

Research Proposal explained and guide

Research Ethics in Research: the Definition and Principles

Observational Research Method explained

Leave a reply cancel reply.

You must be logged in to post a comment.

BOOST YOUR SKILLS

Toolshero supports people worldwide ( 10+ million visitors from 100+ countries ) to empower themselves through an easily accessible and high-quality learning platform for personal and professional development.

By making access to scientific knowledge simple and affordable, self-development becomes attainable for everyone, including you! Join our learning platform and boost your skills with Toolshero.

POPULAR TOPICS

• Change Management
• Marketing Theories
• Problem Solving Theories
• Psychology Theories

ABOUT TOOLSHERO

• Free Toolshero e-book
• Memberships & Pricing

What is research respondents?  

Insight from top 5 papers.

Research respondents are individuals who participate in research studies by providing their insights, experiences, and opinions. They play a crucial role in generating data and contributing to the overall findings of the research. The relationship between researchers and respondents is complex, as highlighted by Husband, who discusses the potential for change in respondents' professional actions and decisions post-interview [1] . Parkin and Kimergård raise concerns about the use of respondent quotes as titles in qualitative research papers, suggesting that it may misrepresent the wider qualitative dataset and introduce investigator bias [2] . Goodfellow emphasizes the importance of surveys in gathering evidence for social sciences and healthcare research, allowing researchers to generalize findings from a sample of respondents to a population [3] . Ahn and Seryoong analyze the consistency of responses from respondents in a survey on housing loans, highlighting the need for careful interpretation of findings based on respondent characteristics [4] . Boch explores the use of participatory photography as a visual method in marketing research, emphasizing the role of respondents in producing and analyzing data [5] .

Source Papers (5)

Related Questions

Survey research is a methodical approach to collecting information from a sample of a population to draw conclusions about the entire group, utilizing well-defined concepts and procedures to compile data systematically . It involves posing questions to study subjects to gauge their beliefs, attitudes, experiences, and expectations, often conducted through various mediums like online platforms, telephone, mail, or direct interviews . The design and implementation of surveys require careful planning to ensure validity and generalizability of the data collected, as surveys can be misused or inaccurately designed, limiting the interpretability of results . Survey research is crucial in various fields, including practical theology, disaster medical research, pharmacy practice, and communication studies, as it allows researchers to explore and understand different aspects of a population's characteristics and behaviors .

Research respondents in the context of reducing violence against women and children refer to individuals who participate in studies aimed at assessing the implementation of laws and interventions to protect these vulnerable groups. Studies, such as the one conducted in the City of Malabon , involve victim-survivors, social workers, law enforcement officers, and officials to evaluate the effectiveness of laws like the Republic Act 9262 Anti-Violence against Women and Children Act. Additionally, research on the prevalence of sexual abuse in women highlighted that victims of sexual assault prefer prevention measures over punishment . Understanding the perspectives and experiences of these respondents is crucial in shaping policies and interventions that prioritize prevention, education, and comprehensive community change to address the complex issue of violence against women and children .

A research interview is a method used to gain insights into people's knowledge, views, and experiences, essential for understanding social realities . It is widely employed in various research designs in fields like applied linguistics and tourism to delve into topics deeply and acquire in-depth perceptions . Research interviews are crucial for investigative purposes in criminal investigations, facilitating communication between interviewers and subjects, developing rapport, retrieving memories, and assessing credibility . Moreover, interviews can serve as a tool for promoting the emancipation process of social actors experiencing stigmatization, allowing researchers to identify conditions favorable for personal transformation and reciprocity between interviewees and researchers . Overall, research interviews are subjective, requiring careful consideration of questioning techniques to avoid bias and ensure confidentiality while extracting valuable information.

Most students are respondents in surveys due to the prevalent use of surveys in higher education for various purposes. Surveys are commonly utilized in academic settings due to their ease of administration, cost-effectiveness, and ability to gather valuable data on student behaviors, perceptions, and attitudes. However, declining response rates among college students pose a challenge, emphasizing the importance of understanding factors that promote student participation in survey research. Additionally, the use of student samples in consumer research is widespread, with a significant proportion of studies relying on student subjects. This raises questions about the generalizability of findings derived from student samples to the broader population, highlighting the need for caution when interpreting consumer behavior research based on student data.

Survey research is a method commonly used in social sciences, health sciences, and library science to gather information about people's opinions, attitudes, beliefs, and experiences. It involves asking questions to individuals and using their responses to generalize findings to a larger population. The main purpose of survey research is to gain insight into the thoughts and opinions of a specific group or population. It is a cost-effective and time-efficient method that allows researchers to collect data on a large scale. However, survey research can face challenges such as low response rates and the need for careful selection of data collection instruments. With the advent of the digital age, survey research is also being influenced by big data, social media, and mobile devices.

Trending Questions

The Gaslin style, while not directly mentioned in the provided papers, can be inferred to relate to innovative approaches in improving stray dog welfare through technology and community engagement. The papers collectively highlight various strategies that can be integrated into a Gaslin-style approach to enhance the welfare of stray dogs, focusing on identification, health monitoring, adoption, and community involvement. ## Identification and Health Monitoring - **Machine Learning for Rabies Detection**: Utilizing machine learning models, specifically RNN classifiers with LSTM algorithms, can significantly aid in the early detection of rabies in stray dogs. This technology allows for the analysis of video data to identify symptoms of rabies, facilitating timely intervention and treatment, which is crucial for both animal and public health. - **Dog Identification Systems**: Advanced identification systems using machine learning can recognize individual dogs based on facial features. This capability is essential for tracking stray dogs, managing their health records, and implementing targeted welfare interventions. ## Adoption and Population Control - **Facilitating Adoptions**: By maintaining a comprehensive database of stray dogs, the system can match dogs with potential adopters more effectively. This increases the chances of successful adoptions, thereby reducing the number of stray dogs on the streets and improving their overall welfare. - **Coordinated Efforts for Population Control**: Veterinary services play a crucial role in controlling dog populations without causing unnecessary suffering. This involves coordinating with public institutions to ensure humane and effective population management strategies. ## Community Engagement and Education - **Public Awareness and Policy Advocacy**: Engaging with policymakers and the public to prioritize dog welfare on the political agenda can lead to more supportive environments for stray dogs. This includes advocating for policies that support humane treatment and welfare improvements. - **Behavioral Understanding and Owner Education**: Educating current and potential dog owners about canine behavior can prevent abandonment and improve the welfare of dogs in general. This involves community-based initiatives that help decode dog behavior, fostering better human-animal relationships. ## Cooperative Learning Models - **Two Stay-Two Stray (TS-TS) Model**: Although primarily an educational strategy, the TS-TS model emphasizes cooperative learning and communication skills, which can be adapted for community-based dog welfare programs. By fostering collaboration and active participation, communities can work together to address stray dog issues more effectively . In contrast to these proactive measures, some challenges remain in implementing such comprehensive systems. The integration of technology in stray dog welfare requires significant resources and infrastructure, which may not be readily available in all regions. Additionally, cultural and socio-economic factors can influence the effectiveness of adoption and population control strategies. Therefore, while the Gaslin style offers promising avenues for improving stray dog welfare, it must be tailored to fit the specific needs and capabilities of different communities.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is increasingly prevalent, influenced by various risk factors and trends. Current research highlights significant associations with demographic factors, comorbidities, and lifestyle choices that contribute to its development. ## Key Risk Factors - **Demographics**: Older age (especially over 60) and male sex are prominent risk factors, with studies indicating an odds ratio (OR) of 6.38 for those aged 60 and above. - **Comorbidities**: Conditions such as hypertension (65% prevalence) and diabetes (32% prevalence) are critical contributors to CKD. Anemia also plays a significant role, with an OR of 1.71. - **Acute Kidney Injury**: A history of acute kidney injury significantly increases the risk of developing CKD, particularly within the first year post-recovery. ## Lifestyle and Behavioral Factors - **Urbanization and Lifestyle**: Increased urbanization correlates with unhealthy behaviors, such as poor diet and low physical activity, which exacerbate CKD risk. While these findings underscore the multifaceted nature of CKD risk factors, it is essential to consider that some individuals may develop CKD without the presence of these common risk factors, indicating a need for broader screening and awareness initiatives.

The prevalence of hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) among patients with autoimmune diseases is notably high, with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and dermatomyositis being significant contributors. The underlying mechanisms involve complex interactions between lipid metabolism and immune responses. ## Prevalence of Hypertriglyceridemia - HTG is a common abnormality in SLE, often mild but can escalate, as seen in cases with acute pancreatitis. - Dermatomyositis can exacerbate pre-existing HTG, indicating a direct link between autoimmune conditions and lipid dysregulation. ## Underlying Mechanisms - Dysregulated lipid metabolism is linked to inflammation, where innate immune cells produce pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to lipid species. - Liver X receptor (LXR) signaling plays a crucial role, as its downregulation in hyperlipidemic environments can lead to autoimmune responses by promoting autoreactive T and B cell differentiation. While hypertriglyceridemia is prevalent in autoimmune diseases, it is essential to consider that not all patients exhibit this condition, and genetic factors may also play a role in individual susceptibility.

Advancements in medical technology are crucial for enhancing laboratory diagnostics in the Philippines, particularly in addressing accessibility and efficiency challenges. Key areas for improvement include: ## Automation and Point-of-Care Testing - Automation can significantly reduce human error and increase efficiency in laboratory processes. - Point-of-care testing allows for rapid diagnostics, especially in emergency settings, improving patient outcomes. ## Affordable Diagnostic Tools - The development of low-cost, portable diagnostic tools, such as the 3D-printed Openflexure microscope, can enhance access to essential diagnostics in rural areas. - Nanotechnology can facilitate the creation of smaller, more affordable testing devices, making diagnostics more accessible. ## Infrastructure and Training - There is a pressing need to improve the distribution of diagnostic equipment and enhance training for medical technologists, particularly in underserved regions. - Implementing failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA) can help identify and mitigate risks in laboratory processes, ensuring safer and more reliable diagnostics. While these advancements hold promise, challenges such as funding limitations and uneven distribution of resources remain significant barriers to achieving equitable healthcare access across the Philippines.

Hadist mengenai penghambaan istri kepada suami mencakup berbagai aspek yang berkaitan dengan hak dan kewajiban dalam hubungan suami-istri. Dalam konteks ini, terdapat pandangan yang beragam mengenai peran dan tanggung jawab masing-masing pihak. ## Hak dan Kewajiban Suami-Istri - Hadist menekankan pentingnya keadilan dalam poligami, di mana suami diharuskan untuk memenuhi hak istri dengan kasih sayang dan nafkah yang adil. - Suami juga memiliki tanggung jawab untuk mendukung istri, terutama ketika istri bekerja, yang dapat mempengaruhi pembagian tugas rumah tangga. ## Perspektif Hukum Islam - Terdapat perdebatan dalam hukum Islam mengenai pemukulan suami terhadap istri, di mana beberapa ulama mengizinkan dalam konteks tertentu, seperti ketika istri nusyuz, tetapi dengan batasan yang ketat. - Pandangan ini menunjukkan bahwa meskipun ada hak suami untuk mengatur, hal tersebut tidak boleh melanggar hak-hak istri yang telah ditetapkan dalam syariat. Meskipun ada pandangan yang mendukung penghambaan istri kepada suami, penting untuk diingat bahwa Islam juga menekankan keadilan dan perlindungan hak-hak wanita, yang menunjukkan bahwa hubungan ini seharusnya saling menghormati dan mendukung.

Project Types We Cover

• Admissions Essay
• PowerPoint Presentation
• Research Paper
• Book Reviews
• Personal Statement
• Ph.D Dissertation
• Proofreading

Academic Fields & Subjects

• Programming
• Computer Science
• Other projects we help with
• Our Experts
• Plagiarism Checker

All You Need to Know about the Respondents of the Study

By: Angelina Grin

In terms of research, sampling makes for a crucial part of the methodology. It is the selection of a subset of the population from a larger group with shared characteristics. At some point in your journey of academic career, you may have to conduct primary research, getting you to take the opinion of a target population in the process of investigating a research question. If you haven't yet cut your teeth on research, you may have your head surrounded with many "hows", "whens", and "wheres". But, don't worry, today you're in the right place.

• Purposive Sampling 
• Convenience Sampling 
• Sample Size for Qualitative Research 
• Random Sampling 

How to Calculate Margin for Error

• How to Reduce the Chance of Errors 
• Criteria for Choosing Respondents? 

Purchasing your Panel Respondents

Taking help from social media, in-person contact.

• How to Convince Respondents to Participate? 

Sampling Methods And Size Suitable For Qualitative Research

Due to its open-ended nature, a qualitative study is always going to be more time-consuming than its counterpart. With this in view, these two research methods are generally preferable while dealing with qualitative research:

Purposive Sampling

It involves choosing the participants based on demographic and other characteristics, such as preferences, taste, income level, etc. in line with the nature and objectives of the study. Unlike random sampling, in purposive one, the researcher actively engages in laying out the criteria for the informants. Only the respondents reasonably satisfying these criteria are invited to partake.

Now the question arises why purposive sampling for qualitative research? As mentioned, such studies have no restriction in terms of time or space to the respondents' input. The participants may adjust the spillways of information to any point. Given this, it is essential for the respondents to be filled with the desired knowledge or be equipped with the relevant skill-sets. A random selection can barely serve this purpose which makes purposeful sampling a perfect fit for this endeavor.

Convenience Sampling

A researcher applies convenience sampling if they target the respondents who are easily available. The logic behind using this type of sampling for qualitative research is simple. As told, qualitative research takes a comparatively greater amount of time. So, the researchers, when faced with time-constraints, may have to make smart choices. It makes sense to rely on people who are on hand rather than moving proposals with a number of respondents with the least assurance of their interest.

Sample Size for Qualitative Research

Since you are consciously engaged in selecting the participants using non-probability methods, it is undesirable to chase a sizable number. What makes a small size more suitable is the amount of time that the researcher has to spend with each participant. A few respondents, handpicked for the study, can serve the purpose because they are sure to have adequate knowledge around the concerned area of research. In most cases, 10-12 participants may cut it for the panel discussion. For an interview, the researchers may rely on 5-10 experts. However, as a thumb-rule, the greater, the better.

Sampling Methods And Size Suitable For Quantitative Research

Quantitative research design ensures the quicker process of data collection. Mostly, the survey respondents or the participants of a questionnaire have to respond to close-ended questions. All they have to do is mark their choice, either on Likert or any other scale or order of questions, and submit. In such types of studies, independent and dependent variables are well defined and the researcher seeks exact measures. This understanding leads to the following choices:

Random Sampling

For sure, the generalization of data is possible only if the results represent the entire target population. In qualitative research, it is attainable through purposive sampling as the respondents can go on to any length. However, in quantitative research, responses are measured in numbers. The greater the number of responses, the more representative those numbers would be.

This can be understood with a simple example. Let's say a town houses 1000 residents and the researcher has to conduct a poll to assess the support of residents for the democratic vs liberal party. Let's say, he selects 50 individuals based on shared characteristics (high educational level and high-income level). Would their responses be generalizable? A big "no", because they represent only the higher income group of their population and not the entire population. A better way to go about it is to randomly pick a decent number of participants. It will come with the probability that the targeted subset of the population is diverse enough to represent the town's population as a whole.

With this being clear that random sampling is a better choice when it comes to quantitative research, let's have a quick look at its key types:

• Simple random sampling : It is when you choose participants from a large population without regard to any characteristics.
• Cluster sampling : It involves dividing the entire sampling frame into small clusters and then randomly picking the clusters. You can pick as many clusters as desired depending on the needs and budget.
• Stratified sampling : It is one of the most widely used methods which involves dividing a population into subsets with shared characteristics (e.g. high-income group, low-income group). Then, you can randomly pick the participants from those subsets. This type of sampling is suited for projects that involve assessing the interaction between participants' responses to a certain phenomenon and given characteristics.
• Systematic sampling : If your research calls for insights on what every second, third, or Kth person says about something, systematic sampling is going to be the top choice. You obtain the "Kth" number by dividing the total population (N) by the number of participants in the subset of the population (n).

For example, you have to conduct a survey on the customer's opinion about the quality of food in a fast-food restaurant. Let's say the restaurant serves 100 customers on average every single day and you think responses from 20 customers would be highly representative. Here, your population size is "100" and sample size "20". Let's apply the formula:

N/n=Kth; 100/20=5(th)

Hence, you can randomly approach each 5th customer pouring out of the restaurant.

Acceptable Margin for Error

During the statistical analysis of information gathered from a sample, what you may have to worry about is 'error'. Howsoever precautions you may be and whatsoever techniques you may apply, the margin for error is always there. All you can do is minimize that margin to an acceptable range.

Acceptable margin may vary with the type and objectives of the research. Having said that, there is considerable consensus over 4%-8% being the permissible range when the confidence interval is set at 95% (say if a poll or survey is repeated 95 percent of times, the findings will not deviate more than 4% to 8%).

If the range of error exceeds that margin, it will put the reliability and transferability of your research to question.

In general, you can apply the following formula to assess the margin for error in research:

Margin for Error = z-score (constant value derieved from the confidence interval) x standard deviation/underroot "n" (sample population size)

For example, your research is focused on a sample of 100 participants with a standard deviation of 0.5 at a confidence interval of 95%. Suppose, the z-score is 1.9. The margin of error will be as under:

Margin for Error = 1.9 x 0.5/10 = 0.095

How to Reduce the Chance of Errors

To continuously restrict the chances of errors to an acceptable range, you should make sure:

• The sample size is large enough to be representative of the target population for a particular research question;
• You keep your personal bias suspended while interacting with the population;
• The results are accurately calculated and presented;
• You are well aware of your population's characteristics.

Criteria for Choosing Respondents?

Here's what to make sure while fishing around for respondents:

• Participants are knowledgeable: Make sure the participants have enough grasp of the subject or case of the study at hand;
• Participants are available in the given time: Your respondents must respond within a given time-frame. Schedule interviews and questionnaires keeping the budget constraints in view. If a prospective respondent may not be able to show up within a given time, you may drop them and go for a more suitable one.

Where To Find Respondents?

Your panel will consist of a group of people who should belong to a relevant background and be agreeable to participating in your survey research. There are multiple services available that are selling bespoke and ready-made participant lists, such as Survey Monkey, Survey Savvy, My Points, Inbox Dollars, and Branded Surveys to name only a few. You can easily access a wider selection of people who have the potential of being your prospective respondents.

Depending on what your research objectives are, online surveys can be a great method to target more potential participants. This can be done by widely sharing your survey with people on several social media platforms. The beauty of using this option is that you may also invite your relatives and friends with their social media accounts to help you out.

With a clear target audience in mind, build your survey design around meeting the audience where they are. This is beneficial in the cases where you are seeking participation from demographics who fail to respond online. For example a sample of elderly people who are not tech-savvy. For research focusing on the elderly population, you may visit senior citizen community halls and other places where people from this age group congregate. You may find your respondents at shopping malls, outside a large outlet, passing by a roadside, etc. You may ask the respondents to show their voluntary consent to the participant to share their phone numbers (obviously, on a condition of confidentiality). Since COVID has limited the in-person interaction, you may encourage the participants, found at any of these spots, to share their phone numbers (for the sole purpose of research). Later on, you can conduct telephone surveys according to the schedules agreed upon.

How to Convince Respondents to Participate?

The response rate is largely hinged on your success in convincing the respondents to partake. You may utilize any of these methods to maximize participation:

• Showing the respondents the importance of partaking for them, as well as for the intended audience (yes, the ethical appeal may come in handy);
• Keeping the process of participation smooth; participants may feel reluctant if it comes with the irksome hassle;
• Incentivizing the participation (e.g. monetary benefit or meal) if the budget allows.

With all these tips taken home, you are on your way to ace your upcoming research assignment. Trial and error is the part of the game but what you have learned in this post can pave the path to the best possible outcomes, be it your maiden or 100th project.

User ratings:

User ratings is 4.6 stars.

4.6 /5 ( 9 Votes)

Creative Writer and Blog Editor

Despite my relatively young age, I am a professional writer with more than 14 years of experience. I studied journalism at the university, worked for media and digital agencies, and organized several events for ed-tech companies. Yet for the last 6 years, I've worked mainly in marketing. Here, at Studybay, my objective is to make sure all our texts are clear, informative, and engaging.

Add Your Comment

We are very interested to know your opinion

Upgrade your writing skills!

Try our AI essay writer from Studybay today!

Careers in Qual

Quick answers, synonyms, acronyms and abbreviations, related terms.

About Contact Us Client Login

Capstone-Intel seeks to be the country’s leading private intelligence agency providing high-impact research and actionable intelligence to help businesses, governments, and investors solve problems, find solutions, grow constituencies and markets, build reputations, navigate risks and manage crises.

Solutions Integration

More on Services

Panel Survey

Face to Face Survey

Focused Group Discussion

Rapid Appraisal

More on Surveys

Customized Social Listening

Facebook Scan

Channel Performance

Keyword Search Engagement

News Monitoring

Social Media Monitoring

More on Social Listening

Data Integration

Research Areas

• Politics and Government
• Cyber Science

Research Guides

More Surveys

More Social Intelligence Report

Press Releases

• August 8, 2024

• July 30, 2024

• July 24, 2024

• July 16, 2024

Italian Embassy News

• November 18, 2023

• November 3, 2023

Multi Media

Copyright © 2023 Capstone-Intel, Philippines.  All Rights Reserved..

Unit 1511, Alveo Park Triangle, 32nd St., corner 11th Avenue, BGC, Taguig City

+632 7005 9194

• Your cart is empty! Return to shop

Open Education Sociology Dictionary

Table of Contents

Definition of Respondent

( noun ) Any  individual that answers questions during an interview or replies to a survey .

Examples of Respondent

• Citizens responding to an annual census .
• Students filling out course evaluations at the end of a semester.

Respondent Pronunciation

Pronunciation Usage Guide

Syllabification : re·spon·dent

Audio Pronunciation

Phonetic Spelling

• American English – /ri-spAHn-duhnt/
• British English – /ri-spOn-duhnt/

International Phonetic Alphabet

• American English – /riˈspɑnd(ə)nt/
• British English – /rᵻˈspɒnd(ə)nt/

Usage Notes

• Plural: respondents
• The terms “respondent” and “ informant ” are often used interchangeably; however they are separate terms. Respondent connotes quantitative research and informant connotes qualitative research .
• A type of  ascribed status and individual .
• A respondent ( verb ) responds with a ( noun ) response to questions and is a ( noun ) responder .

Related Quotation

• “ [R]esearchers frequently select a representative sample (a small group of respondents) from a larger population (the total group of people ) to answer questions about their attitudes, opinions, or behavior ” (Kendall 2006:31).

Related Video

Additional Information

• Qualitative Research Resources – Books, Journals, and Helpful Links
• Quantitative Research Resources – Books, Journals, and Helpful Links
• Word origin of “respondent” – Online Etymology Dictionary: etymonline.com
• Morse, Janice M. 1991. “Subjects, Respondents, Informants, and Participants?”  Qualitative Health Research  1(4):403–406. doi: 10.1177/104973239100100401 .

Related Terms

• qualitative research
• quantitative research
• reliability
• statistical analysis

Kendall, Diana. 2006. Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials . 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Works Consulted

Ferris, Kerry, and Jill Stein. 2010.  The Real World: An Introduction to Sociology . 2nd ed. New York: Norton.

Henslin, James M. 2012.  Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach . 10th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Jary, David, and Julia Jary. 2000. Collins Dictionary of Sociology . 3rd ed. Glasgow, Scotland: HarperCollins.

Kendall, Diana. 2011.  Sociology in Our Times . 8th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Macmillan. (N.d.) Macmillan Dictionary . ( https://www.macmillandictionary.com/ ).

Merriam-Webster. (N.d.) Merriam-Webster Dictionary . ( http://www.merriam-webster.com/ ).

Oxford University Press. (N.d.) Oxford Dictionaries . ( https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ ).

Cite the Definition of Respondent

ASA – American Sociological Association (5th edition)

Bell, Kenton, ed. 2013. “respondent.” In Open Education Sociology Dictionary . Retrieved September 16, 2024 ( https://sociologydictionary.org/respondent/ ).

APA – American Psychological Association (6th edition)

respondent. (2013). In K. Bell (Ed.), Open education sociology dictionary . Retrieved from https://sociologydictionary.org/respondent/

Chicago/Turabian: Author-Date – Chicago Manual of Style (16th edition)

Bell, Kenton, ed. 2013. “respondent.” In Open Education Sociology Dictionary . Accessed September 16, 2024. https://sociologydictionary.org/respondent/ .

MLA – Modern Language Association (7th edition)

“respondent.” Open Education Sociology Dictionary . Ed. Kenton Bell. 2013. Web. 16 Sep. 2024. < https://sociologydictionary.org/respondent/ >.

• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar
• Skip to footer
• QuestionPro

• Solutions Industries Gaming Automotive Sports and events Education Government Travel & Hospitality Financial Services Healthcare Cannabis Technology Use Case AskWhy Communities Audience Contactless surveys Mobile LivePolls Member Experience GDPR Positive People Science 360 Feedback Surveys
• Resources Blog eBooks Survey Templates Case Studies Training Help center

Home Market Research

Qualitative Research Methods: Types, Analysis + Examples

Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for in-depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their responses. The interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and feelings. Understanding how your audience makes decisions can help derive conclusions in market research.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication .

This method is about “what” people think and “why” they think so. For example, consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic observation concludes that more men are visiting this store. One good method to determine why women were not visiting the store is conducting an in-depth interview method with potential customers.

For example, after successfully interviewing female customers and visiting nearby stores and malls, the researchers selected participants through random sampling . As a result, it was discovered that the store didn’t have enough items for women.

So fewer women were visiting the store, which was understood only by personally interacting with them and understanding why they didn’t visit the store because there were more male products than female ones.

Gather research insights

Types of qualitative research methods with examples

Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that helps reveal the behavior and perception of a target audience with reference to a particular topic. There are different types of qualitative research methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, and case study research that are usually used.

The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive, and the inferences can be drawn quite easily from the obtained data .

Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral research sciences. Today, our world is more complicated, and it is difficult to understand what people think and perceive. Online research methods make it easier to understand that as it is a more communicative and descriptive analysis .

The following are the qualitative research methods that are frequently used. Also, read about qualitative research examples :

1. One-on-one interview

Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative research methods. It is a personal interview that is carried out with one respondent at a time. This is purely a conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in depth from the respondent.

One of the advantages of this method is that it provides a great opportunity to gather precise data about what people believe and their motivations . If the researcher is well experienced, asking the right questions can help him/her collect meaningful data. If they should need more information, the researchers should ask such follow-up questions that will help them collect more information.

These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on the phone and usually can last between half an hour to two hours or even more. When the in-depth interview is conducted face to face, it gives a better opportunity to read the respondents’ body language and match the responses.

2. Focus groups

A focus group is also a commonly used qualitative research method used in data collection. A focus group usually includes a limited number of respondents (6-10) from within your target market.

The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the “why, ” “what,” and “how” questions. One advantage of focus groups is you don’t necessarily need to interact with the group in person. Nowadays, focus groups can be sent an online survey on various devices, and responses can be collected at the click of a button.

Focus groups are an expensive method as compared to other online qualitative research methods. Typically, they are used to explain complex processes. This method is very useful for market research on new products and testing new concepts.

3. Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational research method that studies people in their naturally occurring environment.

This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences’ environments, which could be anywhere from an organization to a city or any remote location. Here, geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.

This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and settings that occur. Instead of relying on interviews and discussions, you experience the natural settings firsthand.

This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as it involves in-depth observation and collecting data on those grounds. It’s a challenging and time-consuming method and solely depends on the researcher’s expertise to analyze, observe, and infer the data.

4. Case study research

T he case study method has evolved over the past few years and developed into a valuable quality research method. As the name suggests, it is used for explaining an organization or an entity.

This type of research method is used within a number of areas like education, social sciences, and similar. This method may look difficult to operate; however , it is one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.

5. Record keeping

This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar sources of information as the data source. This data can be used in new research. This is similar to going to a library. There, one can go over books and other reference material to collect relevant data that can likely be used in the research.

6. Process of observation

Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic information or data. Since the focus on qualitative observation is the research process of using subjective methodologies to gather information or data. Qualitative observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.

Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning – sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead characteristics.

Explore Insightfully Contextual Inquiry in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research: data collection and analysis

A. qualitative data collection.

Qualitative data collection allows collecting data that is non-numeric and helps us to explore how decisions are made and provide us with detailed insight. For reaching such conclusions the data that is collected should be holistic, rich, and nuanced and findings to emerge through careful analysis.

• Whatever method a researcher chooses for collecting qualitative data, one aspect is very clear the process will generate a large amount of data. In addition to the variety of methods available, there are also different methods of collecting and recording the data.

For example, if the qualitative data is collected through a focus group or one-to-one discussion, there will be handwritten notes or video recorded tapes. If there are recording they should be transcribed and before the process of data analysis can begin.

• As a rough guide, it can take a seasoned researcher 8-10 hours to transcribe the recordings of an interview, which can generate roughly 20-30 pages of dialogues. Many researchers also like to maintain separate folders to maintain the recording collected from the different focus group. This helps them compartmentalize the data collected.
• In case there are running notes taken, which are also known as field notes, they are helpful in maintaining comments, environmental contexts, environmental analysis , nonverbal cues etc. These filed notes are helpful and can be compared while transcribing audio recorded data. Such notes are usually informal but should be secured in a similar manner as the video recordings or the audio tapes.

B. Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data analysis such as notes, videos, audio recordings images, and text documents. One of the most used methods for qualitative data analysis is text analysis.

Text analysis is a  data analysis method that is distinctly different from all other qualitative research methods, where researchers analyze the social life of the participants in the research study and decode the words, actions, etc. 

There are images also that are used in this research study and the researchers analyze the context in which the images are used and draw inferences from them. In the last decade, text analysis through what is shared on social media platforms has gained supreme popularity.

Characteristics of qualitative research methods

• Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight, where the participants are experiencing issues or research problems . These are real-time data and rarely bring the participants out of the geographic locations to collect information.
• Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data source .
• This type of research method works towards solving complex issues by breaking down into meaningful inferences, that is easily readable and understood by all.
• Since it’s a more communicative method, people can build their trust on the researcher and the information thus obtained is raw and unadulterated.

Qualitative research method case study

Let’s take the example of a bookstore owner who is looking for ways to improve their sales and customer outreach. An online community of members who were loyal patrons of the bookstore were interviewed and related questions were asked and the questions were answered by them.

At the end of the interview, it was realized that most of the books in the stores were suitable for adults and there were not enough options for children or teenagers.

By conducting this qualitative research the bookstore owner realized what the shortcomings were and what were the feelings of the readers. Through this research now the bookstore owner can now keep books for different age categories and can improve his sales and customer outreach.

Such qualitative research method examples can serve as the basis to indulge in further quantitative research , which provides remedies.

When to use qualitative research

Researchers make use of qualitative research techniques when they need to capture accurate, in-depth insights. It is very useful to capture “factual data”. Here are some examples of when to use qualitative research.

• Developing a new product or generating an idea.
• Studying your product/brand or service to strengthen your marketing strategy.
• To understand your strengths and weaknesses.
• Understanding purchase behavior.
• To study the reactions of your audience to marketing campaigns and other communications.
• Exploring market demographics, segments, and customer care groups.
• Gathering perception data of a brand, company, or product.

LEARN ABOUT: Steps in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research methods vs quantitative research methods

The basic differences between qualitative research methods and quantitative research methods are simple and straightforward. They differ in:

• Their analytical objectives
• Types of questions asked
• Types of data collection instruments
• Forms of data they produce
• Degree of flexibility

LEARN MORE ABOUR OUR SOFTWARE         FREE TRIAL

MORE LIKE THIS

Participant Engagement: Strategies + Improving Interaction

Sep 12, 2024

Employee Recognition Programs: A Complete Guide

Sep 11, 2024

A guide to conducting agile qualitative research for rapid insights with Digsite 

Cultural Insights: What it is, Importance + How to Collect?

Sep 10, 2024

Other categories

• Academic Research
• Artificial Intelligence
• Assessments
• Brand Awareness
• Case Studies
• Communities
• Consumer Insights
• Customer effort score
• Customer Engagement
• Customer Experience
• Customer Loyalty
• Customer Research
• Customer Satisfaction
• Employee Benefits
• Employee Engagement
• Employee Retention
• Friday Five
• General Data Protection Regulation
• Insights Hub
• Life@QuestionPro
• Market Research
• Mobile diaries
• Mobile Surveys
• New Features
• Online Communities
• Question Types
• Questionnaire
• QuestionPro Products
• Release Notes
• Research Tools and Apps
• Revenue at Risk
• Survey Templates
• Training Tips
• Tuesday CX Thoughts (TCXT)
• Uncategorized
• What’s Coming Up
• Workforce Intelligence

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Methodology
• Doing Survey Research | A Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Doing Survey Research | A Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Survey research means collecting information about a group of people by asking them questions and analysing the results. To conduct an effective survey, follow these six steps:

• Determine who will participate in the survey
• Decide the type of survey (mail, online, or in-person)
• Design the survey questions and layout
• Distribute the survey
• Analyse the responses
• Write up the results

Surveys are a flexible method of data collection that can be used in many different types of research .

Table of contents

What are surveys used for, step 1: define the population and sample, step 2: decide on the type of survey, step 3: design the survey questions, step 4: distribute the survey and collect responses, step 5: analyse the survey results, step 6: write up the survey results, frequently asked questions about surveys.

Surveys are used as a method of gathering data in many different fields. They are a good choice when you want to find out about the characteristics, preferences, opinions, or beliefs of a group of people.

Common uses of survey research include:

• Social research: Investigating the experiences and characteristics of different social groups
• Market research: Finding out what customers think about products, services, and companies
• Health research: Collecting data from patients about symptoms and treatments
• Politics: Measuring public opinion about parties and policies
• Psychology: Researching personality traits, preferences, and behaviours

Surveys can be used in both cross-sectional studies , where you collect data just once, and longitudinal studies , where you survey the same sample several times over an extended period.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Before you start conducting survey research, you should already have a clear research question that defines what you want to find out. Based on this question, you need to determine exactly who you will target to participate in the survey.

Populations

The target population is the specific group of people that you want to find out about. This group can be very broad or relatively narrow. For example:

• The population of Brazil
• University students in the UK
• Second-generation immigrants in the Netherlands
• Customers of a specific company aged 18 to 24
• British transgender women over the age of 50

Your survey should aim to produce results that can be generalised to the whole population. That means you need to carefully define exactly who you want to draw conclusions about.

It’s rarely possible to survey the entire population of your research – it would be very difficult to get a response from every person in Brazil or every university student in the UK. Instead, you will usually survey a sample from the population.

The sample size depends on how big the population is. You can use an online sample calculator to work out how many responses you need.

There are many sampling methods that allow you to generalise to broad populations. In general, though, the sample should aim to be representative of the population as a whole. The larger and more representative your sample, the more valid your conclusions.

There are two main types of survey:

• A questionnaire , where a list of questions is distributed by post, online, or in person, and respondents fill it out themselves
• An interview , where the researcher asks a set of questions by phone or in person and records the responses

Which type you choose depends on the sample size and location, as well as the focus of the research.

Questionnaires

Sending out a paper survey by post is a common method of gathering demographic information (for example, in a government census of the population).

• You can easily access a large sample.
• You have some control over who is included in the sample (e.g., residents of a specific region).
• The response rate is often low.

Online surveys are a popular choice for students doing dissertation research , due to the low cost and flexibility of this method. There are many online tools available for constructing surveys, such as SurveyMonkey and Google Forms .

• You can quickly access a large sample without constraints on time or location.
• The data is easy to process and analyse.
• The anonymity and accessibility of online surveys mean you have less control over who responds.

If your research focuses on a specific location, you can distribute a written questionnaire to be completed by respondents on the spot. For example, you could approach the customers of a shopping centre or ask all students to complete a questionnaire at the end of a class.

• You can screen respondents to make sure only people in the target population are included in the sample.
• You can collect time- and location-specific data (e.g., the opinions of a shop’s weekday customers).
• The sample size will be smaller, so this method is less suitable for collecting data on broad populations.

Oral interviews are a useful method for smaller sample sizes. They allow you to gather more in-depth information on people’s opinions and preferences. You can conduct interviews by phone or in person.

• You have personal contact with respondents, so you know exactly who will be included in the sample in advance.
• You can clarify questions and ask for follow-up information when necessary.
• The lack of anonymity may cause respondents to answer less honestly, and there is more risk of researcher bias.

Like questionnaires, interviews can be used to collect quantitative data : the researcher records each response as a category or rating and statistically analyses the results. But they are more commonly used to collect qualitative data : the interviewees’ full responses are transcribed and analysed individually to gain a richer understanding of their opinions and feelings.

Next, you need to decide which questions you will ask and how you will ask them. It’s important to consider:

• The type of questions
• The content of the questions
• The phrasing of the questions
• The ordering and layout of the survey

Open-ended vs closed-ended questions

There are two main forms of survey questions: open-ended and closed-ended. Many surveys use a combination of both.

Closed-ended questions give the respondent a predetermined set of answers to choose from. A closed-ended question can include:

• A binary answer (e.g., yes/no or agree/disagree )
• A scale (e.g., a Likert scale with five points ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree )
• A list of options with a single answer possible (e.g., age categories)
• A list of options with multiple answers possible (e.g., leisure interests)

Closed-ended questions are best for quantitative research . They provide you with numerical data that can be statistically analysed to find patterns, trends, and correlations .

Open-ended questions are best for qualitative research. This type of question has no predetermined answers to choose from. Instead, the respondent answers in their own words.

Open questions are most common in interviews, but you can also use them in questionnaires. They are often useful as follow-up questions to ask for more detailed explanations of responses to the closed questions.

The content of the survey questions

To ensure the validity and reliability of your results, you need to carefully consider each question in the survey. All questions should be narrowly focused with enough context for the respondent to answer accurately. Avoid questions that are not directly relevant to the survey’s purpose.

When constructing closed-ended questions, ensure that the options cover all possibilities. If you include a list of options that isn’t exhaustive, you can add an ‘other’ field.

Phrasing the survey questions

In terms of language, the survey questions should be as clear and precise as possible. Tailor the questions to your target population, keeping in mind their level of knowledge of the topic.

Use language that respondents will easily understand, and avoid words with vague or ambiguous meanings. Make sure your questions are phrased neutrally, with no bias towards one answer or another.

Ordering the survey questions

The questions should be arranged in a logical order. Start with easy, non-sensitive, closed-ended questions that will encourage the respondent to continue.

If the survey covers several different topics or themes, group together related questions. You can divide a questionnaire into sections to help respondents understand what is being asked in each part.

If a question refers back to or depends on the answer to a previous question, they should be placed directly next to one another.

Before you start, create a clear plan for where, when, how, and with whom you will conduct the survey. Determine in advance how many responses you require and how you will gain access to the sample.

When you are satisfied that you have created a strong research design suitable for answering your research questions, you can conduct the survey through your method of choice – by post, online, or in person.

There are many methods of analysing the results of your survey. First you have to process the data, usually with the help of a computer program to sort all the responses. You should also cleanse the data by removing incomplete or incorrectly completed responses.

If you asked open-ended questions, you will have to code the responses by assigning labels to each response and organising them into categories or themes. You can also use more qualitative methods, such as thematic analysis , which is especially suitable for analysing interviews.

Statistical analysis is usually conducted using programs like SPSS or Stata. The same set of survey data can be subject to many analyses.

Finally, when you have collected and analysed all the necessary data, you will write it up as part of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper .

In the methodology section, you describe exactly how you conducted the survey. You should explain the types of questions you used, the sampling method, when and where the survey took place, and the response rate. You can include the full questionnaire as an appendix and refer to it in the text if relevant.

Then introduce the analysis by describing how you prepared the data and the statistical methods you used to analyse it. In the results section, you summarise the key results from your analysis.

A Likert scale is a rating scale that quantitatively assesses opinions, attitudes, or behaviours. It is made up of four or more questions that measure a single attitude or trait when response scores are combined.

To use a Likert scale in a survey , you present participants with Likert-type questions or statements, and a continuum of items, usually with five or seven possible responses, to capture their degree of agreement.

Individual Likert-type questions are generally considered ordinal data , because the items have clear rank order, but don’t have an even distribution.

Overall Likert scale scores are sometimes treated as interval data. These scores are considered to have directionality and even spacing between them.

The type of data determines what statistical tests you should use to analyse your data.

A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analysing data from people using questionnaires.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2022, October 10). Doing Survey Research | A Step-by-Step Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 9 September 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/surveys/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, qualitative vs quantitative research | examples & methods, construct validity | definition, types, & examples, what is a likert scale | guide & examples.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• J Adv Pract Oncol
• v.6(2); Mar-Apr 2015

Understanding and Evaluating Survey Research

A variety of methodologic approaches exist for individuals interested in conducting research. Selection of a research approach depends on a number of factors, including the purpose of the research, the type of research questions to be answered, and the availability of resources. The purpose of this article is to describe survey research as one approach to the conduct of research so that the reader can critically evaluate the appropriateness of the conclusions from studies employing survey research.

SURVEY RESEARCH

Survey research is defined as "the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions" ( Check & Schutt, 2012, p. 160 ). This type of research allows for a variety of methods to recruit participants, collect data, and utilize various methods of instrumentation. Survey research can use quantitative research strategies (e.g., using questionnaires with numerically rated items), qualitative research strategies (e.g., using open-ended questions), or both strategies (i.e., mixed methods). As it is often used to describe and explore human behavior, surveys are therefore frequently used in social and psychological research ( Singleton & Straits, 2009 ).

Information has been obtained from individuals and groups through the use of survey research for decades. It can range from asking a few targeted questions of individuals on a street corner to obtain information related to behaviors and preferences, to a more rigorous study using multiple valid and reliable instruments. Common examples of less rigorous surveys include marketing or political surveys of consumer patterns and public opinion polls.

Survey research has historically included large population-based data collection. The primary purpose of this type of survey research was to obtain information describing characteristics of a large sample of individuals of interest relatively quickly. Large census surveys obtaining information reflecting demographic and personal characteristics and consumer feedback surveys are prime examples. These surveys were often provided through the mail and were intended to describe demographic characteristics of individuals or obtain opinions on which to base programs or products for a population or group.

More recently, survey research has developed into a rigorous approach to research, with scientifically tested strategies detailing who to include (representative sample), what and how to distribute (survey method), and when to initiate the survey and follow up with nonresponders (reducing nonresponse error), in order to ensure a high-quality research process and outcome. Currently, the term "survey" can reflect a range of research aims, sampling and recruitment strategies, data collection instruments, and methods of survey administration.

Given this range of options in the conduct of survey research, it is imperative for the consumer/reader of survey research to understand the potential for bias in survey research as well as the tested techniques for reducing bias, in order to draw appropriate conclusions about the information reported in this manner. Common types of error in research, along with the sources of error and strategies for reducing error as described throughout this article, are summarized in the Table .

Sources of Error in Survey Research and Strategies to Reduce Error

The goal of sampling strategies in survey research is to obtain a sufficient sample that is representative of the population of interest. It is often not feasible to collect data from an entire population of interest (e.g., all individuals with lung cancer); therefore, a subset of the population or sample is used to estimate the population responses (e.g., individuals with lung cancer currently receiving treatment). A large random sample increases the likelihood that the responses from the sample will accurately reflect the entire population. In order to accurately draw conclusions about the population, the sample must include individuals with characteristics similar to the population.

It is therefore necessary to correctly identify the population of interest (e.g., individuals with lung cancer currently receiving treatment vs. all individuals with lung cancer). The sample will ideally include individuals who reflect the intended population in terms of all characteristics of the population (e.g., sex, socioeconomic characteristics, symptom experience) and contain a similar distribution of individuals with those characteristics. As discussed by Mady Stovall beginning on page 162, Fujimori et al. ( 2014 ), for example, were interested in the population of oncologists. The authors obtained a sample of oncologists from two hospitals in Japan. These participants may or may not have similar characteristics to all oncologists in Japan.

Participant recruitment strategies can affect the adequacy and representativeness of the sample obtained. Using diverse recruitment strategies can help improve the size of the sample and help ensure adequate coverage of the intended population. For example, if a survey researcher intends to obtain a sample of individuals with breast cancer representative of all individuals with breast cancer in the United States, the researcher would want to use recruitment strategies that would recruit both women and men, individuals from rural and urban settings, individuals receiving and not receiving active treatment, and so on. Because of the difficulty in obtaining samples representative of a large population, researchers may focus the population of interest to a subset of individuals (e.g., women with stage III or IV breast cancer). Large census surveys require extremely large samples to adequately represent the characteristics of the population because they are intended to represent the entire population.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Survey research may use a variety of data collection methods with the most common being questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaires may be self-administered or administered by a professional, may be administered individually or in a group, and typically include a series of items reflecting the research aims. Questionnaires may include demographic questions in addition to valid and reliable research instruments ( Costanzo, Stawski, Ryff, Coe, & Almeida, 2012 ; DuBenske et al., 2014 ; Ponto, Ellington, Mellon, & Beck, 2010 ). It is helpful to the reader when authors describe the contents of the survey questionnaire so that the reader can interpret and evaluate the potential for errors of validity (e.g., items or instruments that do not measure what they are intended to measure) and reliability (e.g., items or instruments that do not measure a construct consistently). Helpful examples of articles that describe the survey instruments exist in the literature ( Buerhaus et al., 2012 ).

Questionnaires may be in paper form and mailed to participants, delivered in an electronic format via email or an Internet-based program such as SurveyMonkey, or a combination of both, giving the participant the option to choose which method is preferred ( Ponto et al., 2010 ). Using a combination of methods of survey administration can help to ensure better sample coverage (i.e., all individuals in the population having a chance of inclusion in the sample) therefore reducing coverage error ( Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2014 ; Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). For example, if a researcher were to only use an Internet-delivered questionnaire, individuals without access to a computer would be excluded from participation. Self-administered mailed, group, or Internet-based questionnaires are relatively low cost and practical for a large sample ( Check & Schutt, 2012 ).

Dillman et al. ( 2014 ) have described and tested a tailored design method for survey research. Improving the visual appeal and graphics of surveys by using a font size appropriate for the respondents, ordering items logically without creating unintended response bias, and arranging items clearly on each page can increase the response rate to electronic questionnaires. Attending to these and other issues in electronic questionnaires can help reduce measurement error (i.e., lack of validity or reliability) and help ensure a better response rate.

Conducting interviews is another approach to data collection used in survey research. Interviews may be conducted by phone, computer, or in person and have the benefit of visually identifying the nonverbal response(s) of the interviewee and subsequently being able to clarify the intended question. An interviewer can use probing comments to obtain more information about a question or topic and can request clarification of an unclear response ( Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). Interviews can be costly and time intensive, and therefore are relatively impractical for large samples.

Some authors advocate for using mixed methods for survey research when no one method is adequate to address the planned research aims, to reduce the potential for measurement and non-response error, and to better tailor the study methods to the intended sample ( Dillman et al., 2014 ; Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). For example, a mixed methods survey research approach may begin with distributing a questionnaire and following up with telephone interviews to clarify unclear survey responses ( Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). Mixed methods might also be used when visual or auditory deficits preclude an individual from completing a questionnaire or participating in an interview.

FUJIMORI ET AL.: SURVEY RESEARCH

Fujimori et al. ( 2014 ) described the use of survey research in a study of the effect of communication skills training for oncologists on oncologist and patient outcomes (e.g., oncologist’s performance and confidence and patient’s distress, satisfaction, and trust). A sample of 30 oncologists from two hospitals was obtained and though the authors provided a power analysis concluding an adequate number of oncologist participants to detect differences between baseline and follow-up scores, the conclusions of the study may not be generalizable to a broader population of oncologists. Oncologists were randomized to either an intervention group (i.e., communication skills training) or a control group (i.e., no training).

Fujimori et al. ( 2014 ) chose a quantitative approach to collect data from oncologist and patient participants regarding the study outcome variables. Self-report numeric ratings were used to measure oncologist confidence and patient distress, satisfaction, and trust. Oncologist confidence was measured using two instruments each using 10-point Likert rating scales. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) was used to measure patient distress and has demonstrated validity and reliability in a number of populations including individuals with cancer ( Bjelland, Dahl, Haug, & Neckelmann, 2002 ). Patient satisfaction and trust were measured using 0 to 10 numeric rating scales. Numeric observer ratings were used to measure oncologist performance of communication skills based on a videotaped interaction with a standardized patient. Participants completed the same questionnaires at baseline and follow-up.

The authors clearly describe what data were collected from all participants. Providing additional information about the manner in which questionnaires were distributed (i.e., electronic, mail), the setting in which data were collected (e.g., home, clinic), and the design of the survey instruments (e.g., visual appeal, format, content, arrangement of items) would assist the reader in drawing conclusions about the potential for measurement and nonresponse error. The authors describe conducting a follow-up phone call or mail inquiry for nonresponders, using the Dillman et al. ( 2014 ) tailored design for survey research follow-up may have reduced nonresponse error.

CONCLUSIONS

Survey research is a useful and legitimate approach to research that has clear benefits in helping to describe and explore variables and constructs of interest. Survey research, like all research, has the potential for a variety of sources of error, but several strategies exist to reduce the potential for error. Advanced practitioners aware of the potential sources of error and strategies to improve survey research can better determine how and whether the conclusions from a survey research study apply to practice.

The author has no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

• More from M-W
• To save this word, you'll need to log in. Log In

Definition of respondent

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of respondent  (Entry 2 of 2)

Examples of respondent in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'respondent.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Latin respondent-, respondens , present participle of respondēre

1528, in the meaning defined at sense 1

1726, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Dictionary Entries Near respondent

respondence

Cite this Entry

“Respondent.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/respondent. Accessed 16 Sep. 2024.

Medical Definition

Medical definition of respondent.

Medical Definition of respondent  (Entry 2 of 2)

Legal Definition

Legal definition of respondent, more from merriam-webster on respondent.

Thesaurus: All synonyms and antonyms for respondent

Nglish: Translation of respondent for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of respondent for Arabic Speakers

Subscribe to America's largest dictionary and get thousands more definitions and advanced search—ad free!

Can you solve 4 words at once?

Word of the day.

See Definitions and Examples »

Get Word of the Day daily email!

Popular in Grammar & Usage

Plural and possessive names: a guide, 31 useful rhetorical devices, more commonly misspelled words, absent letters that are heard anyway, how to use accents and diacritical marks, popular in wordplay, 8 words for lesser-known musical instruments, it's a scorcher words for the summer heat, 7 shakespearean insults to make life more interesting, 10 words from taylor swift songs (merriam's version), 9 superb owl words, games & quizzes.

Research Design Review

A discussion of qualitative & quantitative research design, qualitative research “participants” are not “respondents” (& other misplaced concepts from quantitative research).

But to assume that there is a direct relationship between qualitative and quantitative research would be a grave mistake. As discussed in an article posted in 2013 – “10 Distinctive Qualities of Qualitative Research” – the design, implementation, analysis, and interpretation of qualitative research make it unique and uniquely suited to go beyond survey research to study the complexities and meaning of the human experience.

And yet, researchers – both qualitative and quantitative – regularly overextend the applicability of quantitative ideas to qualitative research design. Although survey research informs the researcher of the basic elements of “good research” – and draws the researcher’s attention to core criteria dealing with sampling, error, bias, and so on – many quantitative concepts and techniques cannot and should not be considered in qualitative research. Here are just three examples:

Generalization. It may seem obvious to most researchers that the limited and highly variable nature of qualitative research makes it a poor predictor of things to come; however, many researchers have advocated the “generalizability” of qualitative data. Whether to further a budding theory or make assertions about an entire population segment, the concept of generalization in the context of qualitative research comes up often. In referring to the case study method, for instance, Earl Babbie, in his seventh edition of The Basics of Social Research (2016), laments “the limited generalizability of what is observed in a single instance of some phenomenon,” stating further that “this risk is reduced, however, when more than one case is studied in depth” (p. 312).

Qualitative research does not need generalization to be valuable but it does need transferability – i.e., the ability to transfer the qualitative design and/or outcomes to other highly specific contexts. Transferability is discussed in several Research Design Review articles, including this one posted in 2013 .

Percentages & data graphs. Qualitative researchers have been known to use percentages to report various aspects of their findings (Smith, 2011). There is also a tendency to use graphs or charts of some sort to display the data. Illustrations can be useful to help visualize qualitative data but there is no reason why the researcher needs to fall back on bar graphs or pie charts. Even when no percentages are used – e.g., the histograms of tagged content made available by online discussion platforms – the appearance of a quantitative-like data display not only hints that the researcher believes the qualitative data are quantifiable but also serves to ignore the whole point of qualitative research – i.e., the analysis of context and personal meaning – by reducing the data to a graphical configuration.

“Respondent.” The survey respondent is appropriately referred to as a “respondent” because that is exactly the role they play in the research process. They are responding to the researcher’s questions which are typically structured and closed-ended in format. Similarly, the qualitative research participant is suitably labeled “participant” because their role goes beyond simply replying to a series of questions to encompass participation in the research on many levels. The participant elaborates on the interviewer’s/moderator’s questions, changes the topic if need be to convey an idea, takes part in a social relationship with the interviewer/moderator, engages with other participants in a focus group discussion, is willingly observed in an ethnographic study, and, in some instances, is asked to aid in the analysis. For all of these reasons (and more), it is research participants that provide qualitative data not respondents.

Babbie, E. R. (2016). The basics of social research (7th ed.). Cengage learning.

Smith, K. (2011). Anxiety, Knowledge and Help: A Model for How Black and White College Students Search for HIV/AIDS Information on the Internet. The Qualitative Report , 16 (1), 103-125. Retrieved from https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol16/iss1/6

Share this:

• Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Tumblr (Opens in new window)
• Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)
• Click to print (Opens in new window)
• Pingback: Qualitative Research: A Collection of Articles from 2016 | Research Design Review

Good write up

Neither qualitative nor quantitative participants should be called respondents! They are people.

I find the use of graphs and percentages can provide a mixed method contribution, which Bridges the two approaches along a continuum rather than perceiving them as black and white. I do appreciate many of the points you have raised and have shared your article with my network. Worthy of discourse for sure.

Agreed, that is the beauty of the social sciences!

Leave a comment Cancel reply

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .

• Already have a WordPress.com account? Log in now.
• Subscribe Subscribed
• Copy shortlink
• Report this content
• View post in Reader
• Manage subscriptions
• Collapse this bar

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• Sampling Methods | Types, Techniques & Examples

Sampling Methods | Types, Techniques & Examples

Published on September 19, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample . The sample is the group of individuals who will actually participate in the research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you will select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is called a sampling method . There are two primary types of sampling methods that you can use in your research:

• Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
• Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in the methodology section of your paper or thesis, as well as how you approached minimizing research bias in your work.

Table of contents

Population vs. sample, probability sampling methods, non-probability sampling methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about sampling.

First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample , and identify the target population of your research.

• The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
• The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.

The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income, or many other characteristics.

It is important to carefully define your target population according to the purpose and practicalities of your project.

If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically dispersed, it might be difficult to gain access to a representative sample. A lack of a representative sample affects the validity of your results, and can lead to several research biases , particularly sampling bias .

Sampling frame

The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from. Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and nobody who is not part of that population).

Sample size

The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various factors, including the size and variability of the population and your research design. There are different sample size calculators and formulas depending on what you want to achieve with statistical analysis .

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research . If you want to produce results that are representative of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

2. Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

4. Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage sampling .

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole population.

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias . That means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research . In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.

1. Convenience sampling

A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias .

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased , as some people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias .

3. Purposive sampling

This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research , where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your arguments.

4. Snowball sampling

If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead to sampling bias .

5. Quota sampling

Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or proportion of units. This is called a quota.

You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Samples are used to make inferences about populations . Samples are easier to collect data from because they are practical, cost-effective, convenient, and manageable.

Probability sampling means that every member of the target population has a known chance of being included in the sample.

Probability sampling methods include simple random sampling , systematic sampling , stratified sampling , and cluster sampling .

In non-probability sampling , the sample is selected based on non-random criteria, and not every member of the population has a chance of being included.

Common non-probability sampling methods include convenience sampling , voluntary response sampling, purposive sampling , snowball sampling, and quota sampling .

In multistage sampling , or multistage cluster sampling, you draw a sample from a population using smaller and smaller groups at each stage.

This method is often used to collect data from a large, geographically spread group of people in national surveys, for example. You take advantage of hierarchical groupings (e.g., from state to city to neighborhood) to create a sample that’s less expensive and time-consuming to collect data from.

Sampling bias occurs when some members of a population are systematically more likely to be selected in a sample than others.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, June 22). Sampling Methods | Types, Techniques & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 14, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/sampling-methods/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, population vs. sample | definitions, differences & examples, simple random sampling | definition, steps & examples, sampling bias and how to avoid it | types & examples, get unlimited documents corrected.

✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

• Privacy Policy

Home » Questionnaire – Definition, Types, and Examples

Questionnaire – Definition, Types, and Examples

Table of Contents

Questionnaire

Definition:

A Questionnaire is a research tool or survey instrument that consists of a set of questions or prompts designed to gather information from individuals or groups of people.

It is a standardized way of collecting data from a large number of people by asking them a series of questions related to a specific topic or research objective. The questions may be open-ended or closed-ended, and the responses can be quantitative or qualitative. Questionnaires are widely used in research, marketing, social sciences, healthcare, and many other fields to collect data and insights from a target population.

History of Questionnaire

The history of questionnaires can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, who used questionnaires as a means of assessing public opinion. However, the modern history of questionnaires began in the late 19th century with the rise of social surveys.

The first social survey was conducted in the United States in 1874 by Francis A. Walker, who used a questionnaire to collect data on labor conditions. In the early 20th century, questionnaires became a popular tool for conducting social research, particularly in the fields of sociology and psychology.

One of the most influential figures in the development of the questionnaire was the psychologist Raymond Cattell, who in the 1940s and 1950s developed the personality questionnaire, a standardized instrument for measuring personality traits. Cattell’s work helped establish the questionnaire as a key tool in personality research.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the use of questionnaires expanded into other fields, including market research, public opinion polling, and health surveys. With the rise of computer technology, questionnaires became easier and more cost-effective to administer, leading to their widespread use in research and business settings.

Today, questionnaires are used in a wide range of settings, including academic research, business, healthcare, and government. They continue to evolve as a research tool, with advances in computer technology and data analysis techniques making it easier to collect and analyze data from large numbers of participants.

Types of Questionnaire

Types of Questionnaires are as follows:

Structured Questionnaire

This type of questionnaire has a fixed format with predetermined questions that the respondent must answer. The questions are usually closed-ended, which means that the respondent must select a response from a list of options.

Unstructured Questionnaire

An unstructured questionnaire does not have a fixed format or predetermined questions. Instead, the interviewer or researcher can ask open-ended questions to the respondent and let them provide their own answers.

Open-ended Questionnaire

An open-ended questionnaire allows the respondent to answer the question in their own words, without any pre-determined response options. The questions usually start with phrases like “how,” “why,” or “what,” and encourage the respondent to provide more detailed and personalized answers.

Close-ended Questionnaire

In a closed-ended questionnaire, the respondent is given a set of predetermined response options to choose from. This type of questionnaire is easier to analyze and summarize, but may not provide as much insight into the respondent’s opinions or attitudes.

Mixed Questionnaire

A mixed questionnaire is a combination of open-ended and closed-ended questions. This type of questionnaire allows for more flexibility in terms of the questions that can be asked, and can provide both quantitative and qualitative data.

Pictorial Questionnaire:

In a pictorial questionnaire, instead of using words to ask questions, the questions are presented in the form of pictures, diagrams or images. This can be particularly useful for respondents who have low literacy skills, or for situations where language barriers exist. Pictorial questionnaires can also be useful in cross-cultural research where respondents may come from different language backgrounds.

Types of Questions in Questionnaire

The types of Questions in Questionnaire are as follows:

Multiple Choice Questions

These questions have several options for participants to choose from. They are useful for getting quantitative data and can be used to collect demographic information.

• a. Red b . Blue c. Green d . Yellow

Rating Scale Questions

These questions ask participants to rate something on a scale (e.g. from 1 to 10). They are useful for measuring attitudes and opinions.

• On a scale of 1 to 10, how likely are you to recommend this product to a friend?

Open-Ended Questions

These questions allow participants to answer in their own words and provide more in-depth and detailed responses. They are useful for getting qualitative data.

• What do you think are the biggest challenges facing your community?

Likert Scale Questions

These questions ask participants to rate how much they agree or disagree with a statement. They are useful for measuring attitudes and opinions.

How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statement:

“I enjoy exercising regularly.”

• a . Strongly Agree
• c . Neither Agree nor Disagree
• d . Disagree
• e . Strongly Disagree

Demographic Questions

These questions ask about the participant’s personal information such as age, gender, ethnicity, education level, etc. They are useful for segmenting the data and analyzing results by demographic groups.

• What is your age?

Yes/No Questions

These questions only have two options: Yes or No. They are useful for getting simple, straightforward answers to a specific question.

Have you ever traveled outside of your home country?

Ranking Questions

These questions ask participants to rank several items in order of preference or importance. They are useful for measuring priorities or preferences.

Please rank the following factors in order of importance when choosing a restaurant:

• a. Quality of Food
• c. Ambiance
• d. Location

Matrix Questions

These questions present a matrix or grid of options that participants can choose from. They are useful for getting data on multiple variables at once.

Dichotomous Questions

These questions present two options that are opposite or contradictory. They are useful for measuring binary or polarized attitudes.

Do you support the death penalty?

How to Make a Questionnaire

Step-by-Step Guide for Making a Questionnaire:

• Define your research objectives: Before you start creating questions, you need to define the purpose of your questionnaire and what you hope to achieve from the data you collect.
• Choose the appropriate question types: Based on your research objectives, choose the appropriate question types to collect the data you need. Refer to the types of questions mentioned earlier for guidance.
• Develop questions: Develop clear and concise questions that are easy for participants to understand. Avoid leading or biased questions that might influence the responses.
• Organize questions: Organize questions in a logical and coherent order, starting with demographic questions followed by general questions, and ending with specific or sensitive questions.
• Pilot the questionnaire : Test your questionnaire on a small group of participants to identify any flaws or issues with the questions or the format.
• Refine the questionnaire : Based on feedback from the pilot, refine and revise the questionnaire as necessary to ensure that it is valid and reliable.
• Distribute the questionnaire: Distribute the questionnaire to your target audience using a method that is appropriate for your research objectives, such as online surveys, email, or paper surveys.
• Collect and analyze data: Collect the completed questionnaires and analyze the data using appropriate statistical methods. Draw conclusions from the data and use them to inform decision-making or further research.
• Report findings: Present your findings in a clear and concise report, including a summary of the research objectives, methodology, key findings, and recommendations.

Questionnaire Administration Modes

There are several modes of questionnaire administration. The choice of mode depends on the research objectives, sample size, and available resources. Some common modes of administration include:

• Self-administered paper questionnaires: Participants complete the questionnaire on paper, either in person or by mail. This mode is relatively low cost and easy to administer, but it may result in lower response rates and greater potential for errors in data entry.
• Online questionnaires: Participants complete the questionnaire on a website or through email. This mode is convenient for both researchers and participants, as it allows for fast and easy data collection. However, it may be subject to issues such as low response rates, lack of internet access, and potential for fraudulent responses.
• Telephone surveys: Trained interviewers administer the questionnaire over the phone. This mode allows for a large sample size and can result in higher response rates, but it is also more expensive and time-consuming than other modes.
• Face-to-face interviews : Trained interviewers administer the questionnaire in person. This mode allows for a high degree of control over the survey environment and can result in higher response rates, but it is also more expensive and time-consuming than other modes.
• Mixed-mode surveys: Researchers use a combination of two or more modes to administer the questionnaire, such as using online questionnaires for initial screening and following up with telephone interviews for more detailed information. This mode can help overcome some of the limitations of individual modes, but it requires careful planning and coordination.

Example of Questionnaire

Title of the Survey: Customer Satisfaction Survey

Introduction:

We appreciate your business and would like to ensure that we are meeting your needs. Please take a few minutes to complete this survey so that we can better understand your experience with our products and services. Your feedback is important to us and will help us improve our offerings.

Instructions:

Please read each question carefully and select the response that best reflects your experience. If you have any additional comments or suggestions, please feel free to include them in the space provided at the end of the survey.

1. How satisfied are you with our product quality?

• Very satisfied
• Somewhat satisfied
• Somewhat dissatisfied
• Very dissatisfied

2. How satisfied are you with our customer service?

3. How satisfied are you with the price of our products?

4. How likely are you to recommend our products to others?

• Very likely
• Somewhat likely
• Somewhat unlikely
• Very unlikely

5. How easy was it to find the information you were looking for on our website?

• Somewhat easy
• Somewhat difficult
• Very difficult

6. How satisfied are you with the overall experience of using our products and services?

7. Is there anything that you would like to see us improve upon or change in the future?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Conclusion:

Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. Your feedback is valuable to us and will help us improve our products and services. If you have any further comments or concerns, please do not hesitate to contact us.

Applications of Questionnaire

Some common applications of questionnaires include:

• Research : Questionnaires are commonly used in research to gather information from participants about their attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and experiences. This information can then be analyzed and used to draw conclusions and make inferences.
• Healthcare : In healthcare, questionnaires can be used to gather information about patients’ medical history, symptoms, and lifestyle habits. This information can help healthcare professionals diagnose and treat medical conditions more effectively.
• Marketing : Questionnaires are commonly used in marketing to gather information about consumers’ preferences, buying habits, and opinions on products and services. This information can help businesses develop and market products more effectively.
• Human Resources: Questionnaires are used in human resources to gather information from job applicants, employees, and managers about job satisfaction, performance, and workplace culture. This information can help organizations improve their hiring practices, employee retention, and organizational culture.
• Education : Questionnaires are used in education to gather information from students, teachers, and parents about their perceptions of the educational experience. This information can help educators identify areas for improvement and develop more effective teaching strategies.

Purpose of Questionnaire

Some common purposes of questionnaires include:

• To collect information on attitudes, opinions, and beliefs: Questionnaires can be used to gather information on people’s attitudes, opinions, and beliefs on a particular topic. For example, a questionnaire can be used to gather information on people’s opinions about a particular political issue.
• To collect demographic information: Questionnaires can be used to collect demographic information such as age, gender, income, education level, and occupation. This information can be used to analyze trends and patterns in the data.
• To measure behaviors or experiences: Questionnaires can be used to gather information on behaviors or experiences such as health-related behaviors or experiences, job satisfaction, or customer satisfaction.
• To evaluate programs or interventions: Questionnaires can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions by gathering information on participants’ experiences, opinions, and behaviors.
• To gather information for research: Questionnaires can be used to gather data for research purposes on a variety of topics.

When to use Questionnaire

Here are some situations when questionnaires might be used:

• When you want to collect data from a large number of people: Questionnaires are useful when you want to collect data from a large number of people. They can be distributed to a wide audience and can be completed at the respondent’s convenience.
• When you want to collect data on specific topics: Questionnaires are useful when you want to collect data on specific topics or research questions. They can be designed to ask specific questions and can be used to gather quantitative data that can be analyzed statistically.
• When you want to compare responses across groups: Questionnaires are useful when you want to compare responses across different groups of people. For example, you might want to compare responses from men and women, or from people of different ages or educational backgrounds.
• When you want to collect data anonymously: Questionnaires can be useful when you want to collect data anonymously. Respondents can complete the questionnaire without fear of judgment or repercussions, which can lead to more honest and accurate responses.
• When you want to save time and resources: Questionnaires can be more efficient and cost-effective than other methods of data collection such as interviews or focus groups. They can be completed quickly and easily, and can be analyzed using software to save time and resources.

Characteristics of Questionnaire

Here are some of the characteristics of questionnaires:

• Standardization : Questionnaires are standardized tools that ask the same questions in the same order to all respondents. This ensures that all respondents are answering the same questions and that the responses can be compared and analyzed.
• Objectivity : Questionnaires are designed to be objective, meaning that they do not contain leading questions or bias that could influence the respondent’s answers.
• Predefined responses: Questionnaires typically provide predefined response options for the respondents to choose from, which helps to standardize the responses and make them easier to analyze.
• Quantitative data: Questionnaires are designed to collect quantitative data, meaning that they provide numerical or categorical data that can be analyzed using statistical methods.
• Convenience : Questionnaires are convenient for both the researcher and the respondents. They can be distributed and completed at the respondent’s convenience and can be easily administered to a large number of people.
• Anonymity : Questionnaires can be anonymous, which can encourage respondents to answer more honestly and provide more accurate data.
• Reliability : Questionnaires are designed to be reliable, meaning that they produce consistent results when administered multiple times to the same group of people.
• Validity : Questionnaires are designed to be valid, meaning that they measure what they are intended to measure and are not influenced by other factors.

Advantage of Questionnaire

Some Advantage of Questionnaire are as follows:

• Standardization: Questionnaires allow researchers to ask the same questions to all participants in a standardized manner. This helps ensure consistency in the data collected and eliminates potential bias that might arise if questions were asked differently to different participants.
• Efficiency: Questionnaires can be administered to a large number of people at once, making them an efficient way to collect data from a large sample.
• Anonymity: Participants can remain anonymous when completing a questionnaire, which may make them more likely to answer honestly and openly.
• Cost-effective: Questionnaires can be relatively inexpensive to administer compared to other research methods, such as interviews or focus groups.
• Objectivity: Because questionnaires are typically designed to collect quantitative data, they can be analyzed objectively without the influence of the researcher’s subjective interpretation.
• Flexibility: Questionnaires can be adapted to a wide range of research questions and can be used in various settings, including online surveys, mail surveys, or in-person interviews.

Limitations of Questionnaire

Limitations of Questionnaire are as follows:

• Limited depth: Questionnaires are typically designed to collect quantitative data, which may not provide a complete understanding of the topic being studied. Questionnaires may miss important details and nuances that could be captured through other research methods, such as interviews or observations.
• R esponse bias: Participants may not always answer questions truthfully or accurately, either because they do not remember or because they want to present themselves in a particular way. This can lead to response bias, which can affect the validity and reliability of the data collected.
• Limited flexibility: While questionnaires can be adapted to a wide range of research questions, they may not be suitable for all types of research. For example, they may not be appropriate for studying complex phenomena or for exploring participants’ experiences and perceptions in-depth.
• Limited context: Questionnaires typically do not provide a rich contextual understanding of the topic being studied. They may not capture the broader social, cultural, or historical factors that may influence participants’ responses.
• Limited control : Researchers may not have control over how participants complete the questionnaire, which can lead to variations in response quality or consistency.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Ethnographic Research -Types, Methods and Guide

Triangulation in Research – Types, Methods and...

Survey Research – Types, Methods, Examples

Textual Analysis – Types, Examples and Guide

Explanatory Research – Types, Methods, Guide

Transformative Design – Methods, Types, Guide