scientific research introduction example

Writing an Introduction for a Scientific Paper

Dr. michelle harris, dr. janet batzli, biocore.

This section provides guidelines on how to construct a solid introduction to a scientific paper including background information, study question , biological rationale, hypothesis , and general approach . If the Introduction is done well, there should be no question in the reader’s mind why and on what basis you have posed a specific hypothesis.

Broad Question : based on an initial observation (e.g., “I see a lot of guppies close to the shore. Do guppies like living in shallow water?”). This observation of the natural world may inspire you to investigate background literature or your observation could be based on previous research by others or your own pilot study. Broad questions are not always included in your written text, but are essential for establishing the direction of your research.

Background Information : key issues, concepts, terminology, and definitions needed to understand the biological rationale for the experiment. It often includes a summary of findings from previous, relevant studies. Remember to cite references, be concise, and only include relevant information given your audience and your experimental design. Concisely summarized background information leads to the identification of specific scientific knowledge gaps that still exist. (e.g., “No studies to date have examined whether guppies do indeed spend more time in shallow water.”)

Testable Question : these questions are much more focused than the initial broad question, are specific to the knowledge gap identified, and can be addressed with data. (e.g., “Do guppies spend different amounts of time in water <1 meter deep as compared to their time in water that is >1 meter deep?”)

Biological Rationale : describes the purpose of your experiment distilling what is known and what is not known that defines the knowledge gap that you are addressing. The “BR” provides the logic for your hypothesis and experimental approach, describing the biological mechanism and assumptions that explain why your hypothesis should be true.

The biological rationale is based on your interpretation of the scientific literature, your personal observations, and the underlying assumptions you are making about how you think the system works. If you have written your biological rationale, your reader should see your hypothesis in your introduction section and say to themselves, “Of course, this hypothesis seems very logical based on the rationale presented.”

• A thorough rationale defines your assumptions about the system that have not been revealed in scientific literature or from previous systematic observation. These assumptions drive the direction of your specific hypothesis or general predictions.
• Defining the rationale is probably the most critical task for a writer, as it tells your reader why your research is biologically meaningful. It may help to think about the rationale as an answer to the questions— how is this investigation related to what we know, what assumptions am I making about what we don’t yet know, AND how will this experiment add to our knowledge? *There may or may not be broader implications for your study; be careful not to overstate these (see note on social justifications below).
• Expect to spend time and mental effort on this. You may have to do considerable digging into the scientific literature to define how your experiment fits into what is already known and why it is relevant to pursue.
• Be open to the possibility that as you work with and think about your data, you may develop a deeper, more accurate understanding of the experimental system. You may find the original rationale needs to be revised to reflect your new, more sophisticated understanding.
• As you progress through Biocore and upper level biology courses, your rationale should become more focused and matched with the level of study e ., cellular, biochemical, or physiological mechanisms that underlie the rationale. Achieving this type of understanding takes effort, but it will lead to better communication of your science.

***Special note on avoiding social justifications: You should not overemphasize the relevance of your experiment and the possible connections to large-scale processes. Be realistic and logical —do not overgeneralize or state grand implications that are not sensible given the structure of your experimental system. Not all science is easily applied to improving the human condition. Performing an investigation just for the sake of adding to our scientific knowledge (“pure or basic science”) is just as important as applied science. In fact, basic science often provides the foundation for applied studies.

Hypothesis / Predictions : specific prediction(s) that you will test during your experiment. For manipulative experiments, the hypothesis should include the independent variable (what you manipulate), the dependent variable(s) (what you measure), the organism or system , the direction of your results, and comparison to be made.

If you are doing a systematic observation , your hypothesis presents a variable or set of variables that you predict are important for helping you characterize the system as a whole, or predict differences between components/areas of the system that help you explain how the system functions or changes over time.

Experimental Approach : Briefly gives the reader a general sense of the experiment, the type of data it will yield, and the kind of conclusions you expect to obtain from the data. Do not confuse the experimental approach with the experimental protocol . The experimental protocol consists of the detailed step-by-step procedures and techniques used during the experiment that are to be reported in the Methods and Materials section.

Some Final Tips on Writing an Introduction

• As you progress through the Biocore sequence, for instance, from organismal level of Biocore 301/302 to the cellular level in Biocore 303/304, we expect the contents of your “Introduction” paragraphs to reflect the level of your coursework and previous writing experience. For example, in Biocore 304 (Cell Biology Lab) biological rationale should draw upon assumptions we are making about cellular and biochemical processes.
• Be Concise yet Specific: Remember to be concise and only include relevant information given your audience and your experimental design. As you write, keep asking, “Is this necessary information or is this irrelevant detail?” For example, if you are writing a paper claiming that a certain compound is a competitive inhibitor to the enzyme alkaline phosphatase and acts by binding to the active site, you need to explain (briefly) Michaelis-Menton kinetics and the meaning and significance of Km and Vmax. This explanation is not necessary if you are reporting the dependence of enzyme activity on pH because you do not need to measure Km and Vmax to get an estimate of enzyme activity.
• Another example: if you are writing a paper reporting an increase in Daphnia magna heart rate upon exposure to caffeine you need not describe the reproductive cycle of magna unless it is germane to your results and discussion. Be specific and concrete, especially when making introductory or summary statements.

Where Do You Discuss Pilot Studies? Many times it is important to do pilot studies to help you get familiar with your experimental system or to improve your experimental design. If your pilot study influences your biological rationale or hypothesis, you need to describe it in your Introduction. If your pilot study simply informs the logistics or techniques, but does not influence your rationale, then the description of your pilot study belongs in the Materials and Methods section.  

How will introductions be evaluated? The following is part of the rubric we will be using to evaluate your papers.

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What is a "good" introduction?

Citing sources in the introduction, "introduction checklist" from: how to write a good scientific paper. chris a. mack. spie. 2018..

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This is where you describe briefly and clearly why you are writing the paper. The introduction supplies sufficient background information for the reader to understand and evaluate the experiment you did. It also supplies a rationale for the study.

• Present the problem and the proposed solution
• Presents nature and scope of the problem investigated
• Reviews the pertinent literature to orient the reader
• States the method of the experiment
• State the principle results of the experiment

It is important to cite sources in the introduction section of your paper as evidence of the claims you are making. There are ways of citing sources in the text so that the reader can find the full reference in the literature cited section at the end of the paper, yet the flow of the reading is not badly interrupted. Below are some example of how this can be done:     "Smith (1983) found that N-fixing plants could be infected by several different species of Rhizobium."     "Walnut trees are known to be allelopathic (Smith 1949,  Bond et al. 1955, Jones and Green 1963)."     "Although the presence of Rhizobium normally increases the growth of legumes (Nguyen 1987), the opposite effect has been observed (Washington 1999)." Note that articles by one or two authors are always cited in the text using their last names. However, if there are more than two authors, the last name of the 1st author is given followed by the abbreviation et al. which is Latin for "and others". 

From:  https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/imrad-reports-introductions

• Indicate the field of the work, why this field is important, and what has already been done (with proper citations).
• Indicate a gap, raise a research question, or challenge prior work in this territory.
• Outline the purpose and announce the present research, clearly indicating what is novel and why it is significant.
• Avoid: repeating the abstract; providing unnecessary background information; exaggerating the importance of the work; claiming novelty without a proper literature search. 
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How to Write an Intro for a Scientific Research Paper

Last Updated: August 25, 2021 References

This article was co-authored by Alexander Ruiz, M.Ed. . Alexander Ruiz is an Educational Consultant and the Educational Director of Link Educational Institute, a tutoring business based in Claremont, California that provides customizable educational plans, subject and test prep tutoring, and college application consulting. With over a decade and a half of experience in the education industry, Alexander coaches students to increase their self-awareness and emotional intelligence while achieving skills and the goal of achieving skills and higher education. He holds a BA in Psychology from Florida International University and an MA in Education from Georgia Southern University. There are 11 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been viewed 4,230 times.

Scientific research tries to get at objective truth. That means that your most important job as the scientist writing about it is to communicate the facts thoroughly and clearly. An engaging writing style is always a plus, but you aren't expected to be a stellar wordsmith. If you're more comfortable doing the science than stringing words together, remember that you are writing for other people in your field. They are as interested in the topic as you are, and ready to hear what you have to say. Give it a try and get one step closer to adding your contribution to the worldwide scientific project!

Write the rest of the paper first to nail down its structure and content.

Describe the general field of research in a few sentences.

• "Existing research has established that..."
• "Researchers use data collected by these methods in order to..."
• "Recent studies have called earlier conclusions into question."
• "The field has recently adjusted its approach due to..."

State the motivation for your paper.

• "Previous studies have not focused on..."
• "Baker's analysis failed to take into account..."
• "Researchers have not yet established whether..."
• "Additional data in this area helps researchers understand..."
• "A long-standing problem in the field..."

Narrow down the focus to your specific niche.

• "We conducted this research to test a new research methodology..."
• "In order to test Jansen's conclusions, we investigate whether..."
• "This paper puts forward a new theoretical model..."
• "This experiment tests the hypothesis that...."

State the hypothesis or research question.

• You may include a brief summary of how you tested the hypothesis.
• Not all scientific papers have a hypothesis. Many exploratory studies, for example, skip this part of the introduction. [7] X Research source

Emphasize your paper's "story" in the intro.

• A light narrative structure helps engage your readers. Try to find a simple, clear message that runs through your paper. Is this the story of a routine experiment with surprising results? The importance of acting on your conclusions? The challenge of making sense of puzzling results? Instead of delivering all the information in the same flat style, emphasize the portions that were most interesting to you, or that moved the research forward in unexpected or productive directions. Although this focus mostly comes through in the methods and results sections, make sure your introduction includes the same elements you highlight later in the paper. [8] X Research source

Consider including a brief organizational overview.

• For example, if the results are surprising or have the potential to make a significant impact, draw attention to them here: "The results provide new evidence for..."
• If you used a novel technology or developed a new experimental setup, mention this here: "Based on our results, the change in experimental setup increased accuracy by 20%..."

Add in-text citations.

• For example, write "Murloc hunting behavior is dependent on the tides (Thrall 2006)."
• Only include the citations that are most helpful to the reader. If a graduate student in your field reads all the works you cited, they should have all the background information they need, and won't waste any time on redundant sources. Try to resist including citations just to show off your own knowledge or connect your paper to new, exciting results without justification. [12] X Research source

Edit for a simple, straightforward style.

• Break sentences with several clauses into separate sentences.
• Rewrite sentences in the simplest language possible. It's encouraged to use scientific terms, but avoid using other advanced vocabulary just to sound impressive.
• Aim for an introduction between 500 and 1000 words, unless the journal submission guidelines give different instructions. [15] X Research source
• Most scientific journals today prefer the active, first person voice ("I hypothesized" or "we studied"), especially in the intro. [16] X Research source Passive voice constructions ("It was hypothesized") are also valid, and some journals may prefer this.

Expert Q&A

• If you're a graduate student writing one of your first papers, pick up a journal in your field and read through the introductions. Try to identify how each author structures their info and includes all the relevant information. Bookmark the ones you think are successful, and use their templates as inspiration. This can also help you pick up on specific quirks in your field, such as preferred citation styles. [17] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• It's tempting to make your research results sound important, but this can backfire if you can't justify it. Do a thorough literature search before you claim that your paper is breaking new ground. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://dbis.rwth-aachen.de/~derntl/papers/misc/paperwriting.pdf
• ↑ https://guides.lib.uci.edu/c.php?g=334338&p=2249903
• ↑ https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/imrad-reports-introductions
• ↑ https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/gp-2018-0004
• ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309967516_Exploratory_research_in_the_social_sciences_what_is_exploration
• ↑ https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2435.13391
• ↑ https://www.thinkscience.co.jp/en/downloads/ThinkSCIENCE-Writing-an-effective-introduction.pdf
• ↑ https://spie.org/samples/9781510619142.pdf
• ↑ https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/bes2.1258#bes21258-bib-0010
• ↑ Alex Hong. Executive Chef & Restaurant Owner. Expert Interview. 8 February 2019.
• ↑ https://sites.duke.edu/scientificwriting/passive-voice-in-scientific-writing/

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How to Write a Scientific Paper Introduction

This blog post outlines the 7 most common mistakes I, as an academic writing coach, see researchers make when writing their scientific paper introduction. Learn how to write a scientific introduction instead.

The Introduction section is the part of a scientific paper that many researchers struggle with. It’s hard to know how many studies from your literature review you should cite, what not to include and how to make the scientific article introduction compelling by implementing a clear storyline.

If you don’t have a clear process for how to write a scientific introduction, it can result in a text that is unclear, and thus, difficult to read Even if you eventually get there, it can take time and feel like an emotional battle. If you have the hardest time with scientific paper introductions I can assure you, you are not alone.

Ok, let’s get to it! Here are seven mistakes I find authors make when writing an introduction for a scientific paper:

1. NOT including an element of tension in your scientific paper introduction

This is a big one. I’ve read countless scientific article introductions that only provide a literature review. But the main function of the Introduction section in a scientific paper is to contextualise your study. And the scientific paper introduction is also a great place to convince your reader (including your journal editor and peer-reviewers) that the topic you decided to study is an important one that needs investigating now.

A great way to contextualise the findings in your scientific paper introduction and to provide a strong motivation for your study is by using the concept of science storytelling . According to the principles of storytelling, the introduction for a scientific research paper serves to set the scene: it should present the main characters (what are you studying), the setting (where is this research field now), and an element of tension (what is still unknown).

That element of tension is some sort of problem, perhaps your research question, e.g., a debate in the research literature, a gap in the knowledge about a scientific topic, a contradiction in the literature, a disagreement between different scientific groups, a scientific claim that is only weakly evidenced etc.

The scientific paper introduction is the place where you can make a strong case for why the problem that you decided addressing is an important and urgent one. Use that space. This will make your whole scientific paper a lot more compelling.

2. The SCientific paper introduction is TOO LONG

Often, authors write Introduction sections that are simply too long. Sometimes scientific journals specify how long the introduction should be. Science , for example, doesn’t want you to write more than one or two paragraphs in a Research Article . And they don’t mean those kind of paragraphs that fill a whole page (see mistake #3). 😉

A common mistake is that authors of scientific papers are aiming to present a full review of the literature in their field. However, the goal isn’t to present all studies that are ever so slightly related to your research. It’s better to mention those aspects that are needed to contextualise the problem that your study is solving (see mistake # 1). And ONLY those aspects. I recommend this blog post for a guide on deciding who to cite and how to cite in the best way .

One tip I often give my clients inside our scientific writing course , the Researchers’ Writing Academy, is to go through every sentence in their introduction and analyse whether the reader would still get the whole story of the scientific paper if they deleted the sentence. If that’s the case, you can probably remove or rewrite it so that only the most essential information is left. Head here for more tips on how to cut your word count in your scientific paper .

Does it take you a long time to write the Introduction section of your scientific paper because you don’t have a clear process for it? Or do you struggle to get a clear story line in your introduction? Our free training covers both points and shows you how you can get published without lacking structure anywhere in the writing process.

3. The paragraphs of the scientific paper introduction are too long

Not only the whole introduction section of a scientific paper is frequently too long, also the paragraphs within often are. I know this may make some academics feel uncomfortable but permission granted to write short paragraphs in your scientific paper. You are not presenting less valuable information by doing so.

The optimal paragraph length for a scientific paper is 100-200 words. Nobody likes to read big walls of text (check your own reading behaviour if you don’t believe me). Short paragraphs also help people to skim read. And it ultimately helps you, the author, too. Writing a scientific paper introduction with short paragraphs efficiently requires you to plan the section in advance. By doing this, you’ll also achieve good flow in your Introduction section, which will help make it more readable too (see mistake #6). If you want more tips on writing great paragraphs in scientific papers , check out this recent blog post. PS: This paragraph is 110 words long.

4. The sentences of the scientific paper introduction are too long

Yes, sorry, the sentences too. 😁 You might find yourself trying to sound fancy in your scientific writing. But sounding like an expert is not what writing a scientific paper is about! Instead, we want our reader to quickly understand exactly what you want to say. Good scientific writing, therefore, is simple and clear. And sentences spanning several lines rarely are.

Writing shorter instead of longer sentences in your scientific article introduction is harder than it may seem at first. You may not know where to chop a sentence into two while maintaining flow. Practice will get you there. Here’s the rule of thumb I share with the course members inside our Researchers’ Writing Academy: Never write more than one main and one sub-ordinate clause. A sub-ordinate clause is the part of a sentence that begins with “that”, “which”, “although”, “because” and similar words.

And there’s a little trick that sometimes works to break up sentences in your scientific paper introduction: When you want to break off a sub-ordinate clause starting with “because”, you can do so easily by using the transition “This is owing to” at the start of the new sentence. A sub-ordinate clause starting with “which” can become a new sentence starting with “This” or “These”. It’s okay to cheat sometimes! 😉

5.  The first sentence of your scientific paper introduction is boring

The first sentence in any paragraph is a powerful position but the first sentence of your whole scientific paper is even more so. Therefore, it would be a shame if you threw away this chance. There is an art to writing first sentences. The first sentence in your scientific article introduction needs to capture your readers by signaling them why they need to care about your study. A great way of doing that is giving them a hint of the wider problem your study is motivated by.

One implication of this is that the first sentence in your scientific paper introduction needs to be tailored to the readership of the journal you are submitting your paper to. For Nature , Science and co, you will need a first sentence that describes a very broad scientific problem. For more specialist journals, you can start a little deeper into the matter.

6.  There’s no flow in your scientific paper introduction

What makes a scientific paper readable is when the writing flows. Flow means that the reader can easily follow from one sentence to the next one without getting stuck. This gives you as the author an advantage because your reader will be less likely to stop reading your Introduction section.

Once your reader stops reading (even if just to think about what exactly a word meant that you wrote), they may get distracted or deem it too much of an effort to weed through the text. In both scenarios, they may end up giving up on reading your scientific paper. A journal editor might even desk-reject your scientific paper when they don’t understand the point is you’re making in the introduction of your scientific paper.

That’s why I strongly recommend connecting your sentences and paragraphs so that your Introduction section flows. In fact, I think it’s a good idea to map out your scientific paper introduction before writing it. You can learn the whole process step by step inside our scientific writing course , the Researchers’ Writing Academy.

7. You use too many synonyms in your scientific paper introduction

When we write our Introduction sections, we often feel an urge to throw in as many synonyms as possible because we fear the reader may otherwise find our writing repetitive and get bored. The opposite is the case. Readers get bored when they don’t understand what’s going on and when they have to make an effort to understand what you’re trying to communicate. That’s when their minds starts to wander (see also mistake #6).

As the author, you are so familiar with the content of your scientific paper that it can be hard to realise how other people may fail to understand what is – to you – the most obvious synonym. But just think for a second about how much your reader has to process while reading your manuscript. The area might be new to them, or the methods, or your model system – or all those things. (This, by the way, is likely the case for your Nature or Science editor who receives manuscripts from a broader scientific spectrum.) They might never realise that your fancy abbreviation and what you call “the model system” are the same thing. And remember, a journal editor may make the decision to desk-reject your article straight away when what you studied isn’t clear to them.

There you have it, the 7 most common mistakes researchers make when writing their scientific paper introduction and how to write a scientific introduction instead.

If you found this blog post helpful, I highly recommend signing up for our free scientific writing training below where you will learn how to develop a scientific paper step by step.

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How to write an effective introduction for a scientific paper

The introduction is the first section of a scientific paper, and it is important to write it effectively. The introduction should clearly state the purpose of the paper, provide a brief overview of the topic, and explain the significance of the research.

What to Include in an Introduction

The introduction should include the following elements:

• A clear statement of the purpose of the paper. What are you trying to achieve with your research? What question are you trying to answer?
• A brief overview of the topic. What is the background of the research? What is already known about the topic?
• An explanation of the significance of the research. Why is your research important? What are the implications of your findings?

How to Write an Effective Introduction

To write an effective introduction, follow these tips:

• Start with a strong attention-grabbing sentence or paragraph. This will help to hook the reader’s attention and make them want to read more.
• Use clear and concise language. Avoid jargon and technical terms that the reader may not understand.
• Be specific. Don’t just provide a general overview of the topic. Provide specific details and examples to support your points.
• Use evidence to support your claims. Cite relevant sources to show that your research is based on sound evidence.

Example of an Effective Introduction

The following is an example of an effective introduction for a scientific paper:

Title: The Effects of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults

Older adults are at an increased risk for cognitive decline. Exercise has been shown to have a number of beneficial effects on cognitive function, including improving memory, attention, and processing speed. This study examined the effects of exercise on cognitive function in older adults.

Introduction:

Cognitive decline is a common problem in older adults. It can lead to a number of difficulties, including difficulty thinking clearly, remembering things, and making decisions. Exercise has been shown to have a number of beneficial effects on cognitive function, including improving memory, attention, and processing speed.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. The study involved a group of older adults who participated in a 12-week exercise program. The exercise program consisted of aerobic exercise, strength training, and flexibility exercises. The control group did not participate in any exercise program.

The results of the study showed that the exercise group had significant improvements in cognitive function compared to the control group. The exercise group had better memory, attention, and processing speed.

These findings suggest that exercise is a promising intervention for improving cognitive function in older adults.

This introduction is effective because it:

• Starts with a strong attention-grabbing sentence: “Cognitive decline is a common problem in older adults.”
• Uses clear and concise language: “Exercise has been shown to have a number of beneficial effects on cognitive function, including improving memory, attention, and processing speed.”
• Is specific: “The study involved a group of older adults who participated in a 12-week exercise program.”
• Uses evidence to support its claims: “The results of the study showed that the exercise group had significant improvements in cognitive function compared to the control group.”

The introduction is an important part of a scientific paper. By following the tips above, you can write an effective introduction that will help you to communicate your research effectively to your readers.

Tips for writing the methods section of a scientific paper

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How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper

Table of Contents

Writing an introduction for a research paper is a critical element of your paper, but it can seem challenging to encapsulate enormous amount of information into a concise form. The introduction of your research paper sets the tone for your research and provides the context for your study. In this article, we will guide you through the process of writing an effective introduction that grabs the reader's attention and captures the essence of your research paper.

Understanding the Purpose of a Research Paper Introduction

The introduction acts as a road map for your research paper, guiding the reader through the main ideas and arguments. The purpose of the introduction is to present your research topic to the readers and provide a rationale for why your study is relevant. It helps the reader locate your research and its relevance in the broader field of related scientific explorations. Additionally, the introduction should inform the reader about the objectives and scope of your study, giving them an overview of what to expect in the paper. By including a comprehensive introduction, you establish your credibility as an author and convince the reader that your research is worth their time and attention.

Key Elements to Include in Your Introduction

When writing your research paper introduction, there are several key elements you should include to ensure it is comprehensive and informative.

• A hook or attention-grabbing statement to capture the reader's interest.  It can be a thought-provoking question, a surprising statistic, or a compelling anecdote that relates to your research topic.
• A brief overview of the research topic and its significance. By highlighting the gap in existing knowledge or the problem your research aims to address, you create a compelling case for the relevance of your study.
• A clear research question or problem statement. This serves as the foundation of your research and guides the reader in understanding the unique focus of your study. It should be concise, specific, and clearly articulated.
• An outline of the paper's structure and main arguments, to help the readers navigate through the paper with ease.

Preparing to Write Your Introduction

Before diving into writing your introduction, it is essential to prepare adequately. This involves 3 important steps:

• Conducting Preliminary Research: Immerse yourself in the existing literature to develop a clear research question and position your study within the academic discourse.
• Identifying Your Thesis Statement: Define a specific, focused, and debatable thesis statement, serving as a roadmap for your paper.
• Considering Broader Context: Reflect on the significance of your research within your field, understanding its potential impact and contribution.

By engaging in these preparatory steps, you can ensure that your introduction is well-informed, focused, and sets the stage for a compelling research paper.

Structuring Your Introduction

Now that you have prepared yourself to tackle the introduction, it's time to structure it effectively. A well-structured introduction will engage the reader from the beginning and provide a logical flow to your research paper.

Starting with a Hook

Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing hook that captivates the reader's interest. This hook serves as a way to make your introduction more engaging and compelling. For example, if you are writing a research paper on the impact of climate change on biodiversity, you could start your introduction with a statistic about the number of species that have gone extinct due to climate change. This will immediately grab the reader's attention and make them realize the urgency and importance of the topic.

Introducing Your Topic

Provide a brief overview, which should give the reader a general understanding of the subject matter and its significance. Explain the importance of the topic and its relevance to the field. This will help the reader understand why your research is significant and why they should continue reading. Continuing with the example of climate change and biodiversity, you could explain how climate change is one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity, how it affects ecosystems, and the potential consequences for both wildlife and human populations. By providing this context, you are setting the stage for the rest of your research paper and helping the reader understand the importance of your study.

Presenting Your Thesis Statement

The thesis statement should directly address your research question and provide a preview of the main arguments or findings discussed in your paper. Make sure your thesis statement is clear, concise, and well-supported by the evidence you will present in your research paper. By presenting a strong and focused thesis statement, you are providing the reader with the information they could anticipate in your research paper. This will help them understand the purpose and scope of your study and will make them more inclined to continue reading.

Writing Techniques for an Effective Introduction

When crafting an introduction, it is crucial to pay attention to the finer details that can elevate your writing to the next level. By utilizing specific writing techniques, you can captivate your readers and draw them into your research journey.

Using Clear and Concise Language

One of the most important writing techniques to employ in your introduction is the use of clear and concise language. By choosing your words carefully, you can effectively convey your ideas to the reader. It is essential to avoid using jargon or complex terminology that may confuse or alienate your audience. Instead, focus on communicating your research in a straightforward manner to ensure that your introduction is accessible to both experts in your field and those who may be new to the topic. This approach allows you to engage a broader audience and make your research more inclusive.

Establishing the Relevance of Your Research

One way to establish the relevance of your research is by highlighting how it fills a gap in the existing literature. Explain how your study addresses a significant research question that has not been adequately explored. By doing this, you demonstrate that your research is not only unique but also contributes to the broader knowledge in your field. Furthermore, it is important to emphasize the potential impact of your research. Whether it is advancing scientific understanding, informing policy decisions, or improving practical applications, make it clear to the reader how your study can make a difference.

By employing these two writing techniques in your introduction, you can effectively engage your readers. Take your time to craft an introduction that is both informative and captivating, leaving your readers eager to delve deeper into your research.

Revising and Polishing Your Introduction

Once you have written your introduction, it is crucial to revise and polish it to ensure that it effectively sets the stage for your research paper.

Self-Editing Techniques

Review your introduction for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Ensure each paragraph introduces a new idea or argument with smooth transitions.

Check for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and awkward sentence structures.

Ensure that your introduction aligns with the overall tone and style of your research paper.

Seeking Feedback for Improvement

Consider seeking feedback from peers, colleagues, or your instructor. They can provide valuable insights and suggestions for improving your introduction. Be open to constructive criticism and use it to refine your introduction and make it more compelling for the reader.

Writing an introduction for a research paper requires careful thought and planning. By understanding the purpose of the introduction, preparing adequately, structuring effectively, and employing writing techniques, you can create an engaging and informative introduction for your research. Remember to revise and polish your introduction to ensure that it accurately represents the main ideas and arguments in your research paper. With a well-crafted introduction, you will capture the reader's attention and keep them inclined to your paper.

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How to Craft the Perfect Introduction for Your Scientific Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide

-with a nifty template.

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The introduction section is one of the most important parts of a scientific paper . It sets the stage for the entire paper and gives readers their first impression of your work. A well-written introduction quickly engages readers, establishes your credibility as a researcher, and convinces them that your study is worth reading about.

In this comprehensive guide, we provide science writers, researchers, and academics with a detailed walkthrough and template to follow how to write a compelling introduction that will wow journal editors and readers. 

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Why the Introduction Matters in Scientific Writing

The introduction is the first thing editors, reviewers, and readers will see when assessing your scientific paper. It acts as a gateway into the rest of your work.

Here are four key reasons why nailing your introduction is critical:

1. Creates a First Impression

The introduction is your chance to make a strong first impression. A vague, disorganized, or dull introduction sets off alarm bells and makes readers unsure about the quality of your research.

Crafting a crisp, engaging opening section shows editors and readers that you can communicate science effectively. It quickly convinces them your study is well-designed and your findings are significant.

2. Establishes Your Credibility

How you write your introduction establishes your scientific credibility and qualifications. It demonstrates your ability to synthesize large amounts of complex information and hone in on the most salient points.

When you showcase knowledge of the field and properly cite authoritative sources, you come across as an expert. This earns you the trust of editors, reviewers, and readers right from the start.

3. Contextualizes Your Research

A good introduction doesn't just describe your study; it contextualizes it. By summarizing current understanding and identifying knowledge gaps, you frame your research within the larger scientific field.

This context convinces readers that your work is relevant timely, and advances the field meaningfully. It helps establish the significance of your study.

4. Acts as a Roadmap

Finally, the introduction acts as a roadmap for the paper itself. A well-structured overview not only tells readers what to expect but helps guide them smoothly through the entirety of your work.

With a solid introduction as their guide, readers are primed to understand the key arguments and takeaways of your research.

Structure of an Effective Introduction

Introductions answer two questions: what is the gap of knowledge needed for this study, and how does this study fill that gap? The paper is a story that starts in the intro and ends in the discussion. In that way, the introduction is the. To phrase it differently, it needs to identify a knowledge gap, explain why this gap needs filling, and show how this study fills that gap. 

According to a study analyzing all papers in the jacc cardiology journal in 2013. Here is the breakdown of the length of each part of the paper according to their findings. Introductions are very compact and generally only 11% of the paper, or 1 page (ideally), maximum 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs (ideally 3) - some journals restrict this to 350 words (E.g., ABC); 5-10 references (Araújo, 2014) . 

Scientific introductions generally follow a standard structure consisting of four key elements. Let's look at each in detail:

Starts with a broad opening statement on the research field

Sets the overall scene and scope

Review previous work and current understanding of the topic

Summarizes relevant foundational/seminal research

Provides context for readers

Identifies limitations, contradictions, and gaps in existing research

States why certain key problems remain unsolved or underexplored

Highlight explicitly what your study aims to address

Study Overview

Outline the purpose, focus, and nature of your investigation

States research questions, hypotheses, and objectives

Briefly explain the methodology and approach

This basic framework allows you to establish relevance, orient readers, carve a niche for your work, and map out the ensuing paper. Let's see how to execute each section successfully.

Opening Section

The opening paragraph is crucial for grabbing the reader's attention right away. Avoid vague, general statements here. Be as specific as possible when introducing the broad research field.

For example:

Weak opening: "Cancer research is very important today."

Strong opening: "Lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide, responsible for over 1.7 million fatalities annually."

When drafting your opening:

Hook readers with an interesting fact/stat or thought-provoking question

Briefly explain why this field is significant, timely, or relevant

Keep it focused and specific to set the scope of the paper

Cite a reputable source if presenting a statistic or claim

This section should be concise - 1-2 paragraphs at most. It sets the stage for the background review.

Background Section

The background review summarizes existing work on your research topic to contextualize your study. It demonstrates your command of the field.

When conducting the literature review:

Include 5-8 of the most important papers or findings

Cover seminal/foundational research as well as recent studies

Organize chronologically or thematically as fits your narrative

Analyze; don't just summarize each paper separately

Synthesize; identify overarching trends/themes across papers

This section comprises the bulk of the introduction. Take 2-3 paragraphs to cover early work, then 3-4 paragraphs to discuss recent developments and the current state of the field.

Identifying the Gap

With the background established, the next task is identifying critical knowledge gaps. You need to convince readers that there is a compelling problem that your study addresses.

Common approaches include:

Pinpointing gaps in the literature

Revealing limitations of previous work

Identifying contradictions among existing findings

Explaining how certain research questions remain unanswered

Describing how practical problems remain unsolved

Phrase this section carefully. Avoid overly criticizing other researchers. Frame the gap as an opportunity for advancement rather than a flaw in current work.

This part is generally 1 paragraph explicitly setting up the need for and timeliness of your investigation.

Overview of Your Study

With the need established, clearly define the purpose and nature of your research.

Research aims, objectives, and questions

Specific hypotheses being tested, if applicable

Brief description of study methodology and design

Scope and limitations of your investigation

Avoid going into excessive detail or discussing actual findings here. The goal is to provide a broad preview and framing of your study, not give away results.

Keep this section to 1-2 concise paragraphs. You will expand on methods/results in subsequent sections.

Let's look at a sample introduction integrating these elements:

Common Pitfalls to Avoid

While introductions seem straightforward, many writers make mistakes that weaken their impact and credibility. Here are key pitfalls to avoid:

Don't Open with Broad, Vague Statements

Intro sentences like "Cancer is a major problem worldwide" are dull, offer no specific context and don't engage readers. Open with a compelling fact or statistic instead.

Don't Make Sweeping Claims

Avoid overstating the novelty or impact of your work. Stick to measured statements supported by citations. Let the study speak for itself.

Don't Go into Excessive Detail

Don't devote paragraphs to minor tangents or literature that isn't directly relevant. Stick to seminal and recent studies that set up your research.

Don't Just Summarize Previous Papers

The background shouldn't just be a series of summary paragraphs of past papers. Synthesize across papers to identify overarching themes/trends.

Don't Be Vague About the Gap

Explicitly state the specific gaps, limitations, contradictions, or unanswered questions you aim to address. Avoid vague statements about the need for more research.

Don't Use Overly Critical Language

Critiquing previous work is an important part of identifying gaps. However, avoid language that comes across as overly disparaging to other researchers.

Helpful Tips for Writing a Strong Introduction

Follow these tips to craft an introduction that hooks readers, establishes context, and clearly sets up the rationale for your study:

Spend time organizing your literature into a logical narrative flow before drafting.

Focus on landmark studies and recent developments; cite 5-8 key papers.

Synthesize; don't just summarize one paper at a time.

Be explicit in identifying gaps; say "however..." or "in contrast..."

Phrase the gap as an opportunity to advance understanding.

Keep background concise; aim for 400 words over 3-4 paragraphs.

Avoid technical terms/jargon unless absolutely necessary.

Be clear and specific when stating research aims and questions.

Ask a colleague to review your draft and provide feedback.

 Introduction template and guide 

Problem - What is Known?

Start with a broad opening sentence that sets the stage for the research area.

Briefly summarize the current state of knowledge in your field.

Use this section to introduce the general topic and its significance.

Example: "The field of [Your Research Area] has significantly expanded in the last decade, with notable advancements in [Specific Aspects]. Despite these developments, several critical areas remain unexplored."

Contextualization

Connect the identified problem to its broader implications.

Explain why this problem is important to your field or the wider world.

Address how this problem impacts relevant stakeholders or society.

Example: "Understanding [Specific Aspect] is crucial for [Reason], affecting [Stakeholders/Society] by [Implications]. This underscores the need for further research in this area."

Knowledge Gap - What is Not Known?

Identify and articulate the gaps in the existing literature or knowledge.

Highlight what is missing from the current understanding.

Use this to bridge what your research specifically addresses.

Example: "However, existing research lacks comprehensive insights into [Specific Aspect], particularly in the context of [Specific Context]. This gap in knowledge hinders our understanding of [Implications of the Gap]."

Definition and Purpose of the Study

Clearly state the purpose of your study.

Define the scope and objectives of your research.

Introduce your research question or hypothesis.

Example: "This study aims to address this gap by [Your Study's Aim]. Through [Methods/Approach], the research will explore [Specific Elements], thereby contributing to [Field/Understanding]."

Note:  This introduction should ideally be contained within 1 page, not exceeding 400 words, ideally structured into three paragraphs, and supported by 5-10 references.

Concluding thoughts 

The introduction serves a vital purpose in scientific writing. Crafting a compelling opening section requires brevity, organization, and clarity. Following the standard structure, along with the best practices discussed above, will help you write introductions that impress editors, engage readers, and enhance the impact of your published papers. Remember to start broad, review previous literature, highlight gaps, and clearly frame your study. Let us know in the comments if this guide helps you improve your scientific introductions moving forward!

References  

Araújo C. G. (2014). Detailing the writing of scientific manuscripts: 25-30 paragraphs.  Arquivos brasileiros de cardiologia ,  102 (2), e21–e23. https://doi.org/10.5935/abc.20140019

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How to Write the Introduction to a Scientific Paper?

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An Introduction to a scientific paper familiarizes the reader with the background of the issue at hand. It must reflect why the issue is topical and its current importance in the vast sea of research being done globally. It lays the foundation of biomedical writing and is the first portion of an article according to the IMRAD pattern ( I ntroduction, M ethodology, R esults, a nd D iscussion) [1].

I once had a professor tell a class that he sifted through our pile of essays, glancing at the titles and introductions, looking for something that grabbed his attention. Everything else went to the bottom of the pile to be read last, when he was tired and probably grumpy from all the marking. Don’t get put at the bottom of the pile, he said. Anonymous

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The Introduction Section

Abstract and Keywords

Writing the Abstract

1 what is the importance of an introduction.

An Introduction to a scientific paper familiarizes the reader with the background of the issue at hand. It must reflect why the issue is topical and its current importance in the vast sea of research being done globally. It lays the foundation of biomedical writing and is the first portion of an article according to the IMRAD pattern ( I ntroduction, M ethodology, R esults, a nd D iscussion) [ 1 ].

It provides the flavour of the article and many authors have used phrases to describe it for example—'like a gate of the city’ [ 2 ], ‘the beginning is half of the whole’ [ 3 ], ‘an introduction is not just wrestling with words to fit the facts, but it also strongly modulated by perception of the anticipated reactions of peer colleagues’, [ 4 ] and ‘an introduction is like the trailer to a movie’. A good introduction helps captivate the reader early.

2 What Are the Principles of Writing a Good Introduction?

A good introduction will ‘sell’ an article to a journal editor, reviewer, and finally to a reader [ 3 ]. It should contain the following information [ 5 , 6 ]:

The known—The background scientific data

The unknown—Gaps in the current knowledge

Research hypothesis or question

Methodologies used for the study

The known consist of citations from a review of the literature whereas the unknown is the new work to be undertaken. This part should address how your work is the required missing piece of the puzzle.

3 What Are the Models of Writing an Introduction?

The Problem-solving model

First described by Swales et al. in 1979, in this model the writer should identify the ‘problem’ in the research, address the ‘solution’ and also write about ‘the criteria for evaluating the problem’ [ 7 , 8 ].

The CARS model that stands for C reating A R esearch S pace [ 9 , 10 ].

The two important components of this model are:

Establishing a territory (situation)

Establishing a niche (problem)

Occupying a niche (the solution)

In this popular model, one can add a fourth point, i.e., a conclusion [ 10 ].

4 What Is Establishing a Territory?

This includes: [ 9 ]

Stating the general topic and providing some background about it.

Providing a brief and relevant review of the literature related to the topic.

Adding a paragraph on the scope of the topic including the need for your study.

5 What Is Establishing a Niche?

Establishing a niche includes:

Stating the importance of the problem.

Outlining the current situation regarding the problem citing both global and national data.

Evaluating the current situation (advantages/ disadvantages).

Identifying the gaps.

Emphasizing the importance of the proposed research and how the gaps will be addressed.

Stating the research problem/ questions.

Stating the hypotheses briefly.

Figure 17.1 depicts how the introduction needs to be written. A scientific paper should have an introduction in the form of an inverted pyramid. The writer should start with the general information about the topic and subsequently narrow it down to the specific topic-related introduction.

Flow of ideas from the general to the specific

6 What Does Occupying a Niche Mean?

This is the third portion of the introduction and defines the rationale of the research and states the research question. If this is missing the reviewers will not understand the logic for publication and is a common reason for rejection [ 11 , 12 ]. An example of this is given below:

Till date, no study has been done to see the effectiveness of a mesh alone or the effectiveness of double suturing along with a mesh in the closure of an umbilical hernia regarding the incidence of failure. So, the present study is aimed at comparing the effectiveness of a mesh alone versus the double suturing technique along with a mesh.

7 How Long Should the Introduction Be?

For a project protocol, the introduction should be about 1–2 pages long and for a thesis it should be 3–5 pages in a double-spaced typed setting. For a scientific paper it should be less than 10–15% of the total length of the manuscript [ 13 , 14 ].

8 How Many References Should an Introduction Have?

All sections in a scientific manuscript except the conclusion should contain references. It has been suggested that an introduction should have four or five or at the most one-third of the references in the whole paper [ 15 ].

9 What Are the Important Points Which Should be not Missed in an Introduction?

An introduction paves the way forward for the subsequent sections of the article. Frequently well-planned studies are rejected by journals during review because of the simple reason that the authors failed to clarify the data in this section to justify the study [ 16 , 17 ]. Thus, the existing gap in knowledge should be clearly brought out in this section (Fig. 17.2 ).

How should the abstract, introduction, and discussion look

The following points are important to consider:

The introduction should be written in simple sentences and in the present tense.

Many of the terms will be introduced in this section for the first time and these will require abbreviations to be used later.

The references in this section should be to papers published in quality journals (e.g., having a high impact factor).

The aims, problems, and hypotheses should be clearly mentioned.

Start with a generalization on the topic and go on to specific information relevant to your research.

10 Example of an Introduction

11 Conclusions

An Introduction is a brief account of what the study is about. It should be short, crisp, and complete.

It has to move from a general to a specific research topic and must include the need for the present study.

The Introduction should include data from a literature search, i.e., what is already known about this subject and progress to what we hope to add to this knowledge.

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Nundy, S., Kakar, A., Bhutta, Z.A. (2022). How to Write the Introduction to a Scientific Paper?. In: How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_17

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How to write a research paper introduction (with examples).

I hope you enjoy reading this blog post.

If you would like to learn more about research, check out this  Research Course .

Welcome to our comprehensive guide on crafting the perfect introduction for your research paper. In this blog, we’ll explore the crucial elements of a strong introduction, highlight common pitfalls to avoid, and provide practical tips to effectively set the stage for your study’s objectives and significance. 

Table of Contents

Lack of a clear thesis statement, lack of clear objectives and scope, failure to establish the research significance, insufficient background information, inadequate literature review, ignoring the research gap, overly technical language, poor organization and flow, neglecting the audience, the importance of a good introduction.

A strong introduction sets the tone for the entire paper, guiding the reader through the research journey. It provides context, establishes relevance, and ensures the reader understands the importance of the study.

Starting a research project is exciting, but getting the introduction right is key. It’s like opening the door to your study and inviting readers in. However, there are some common missteps that can trip you up along the way.

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Common mistakes to avoid.

A thesis statement is the central argument or claim that guides the entire research paper. It is a concise summary of the main point or claim of the paper and is typically found at the end of the introduction. A clear thesis statement helps to focus the research, provide direction, and inform the reader of the paper’s purpose. Expert reviewers may even skip the rest of the introduction (as they are well versed in the topic) and focus only on your thesis statement, so it’s vital to make sure it is perfect!

When a research introduction lacks a clear thesis statement, several issues can arise:

• Ambiguity : Without a clear thesis, the reader may be confused about the paper’s purpose and the main argument. Do not talk in vague terms. Whenever possible, use terminology established in recent literature. Narrow down the key aspects of the association that you are investigating (the study sample, the outcome and predictor measures) as much as possible.
• Lack of Focus : The paper can become unfocused and meander through unrelated topics, making it difficult for the reader to follow the argument. Do not try to have more than 1-2 main aims in a paper. Even if you have done supplementary analysis, it is better to say so in the discussion. As a rule of thumb, try to answer one major question only!
• Weak Argumentation : A well-defined thesis provides a strong foundation for building arguments. Without it, the arguments may appear weak and unsupported.

Let's be more practical:

1- In this paper, I will discuss climate change.

• Problem: This statement is too broad and vague. It does not provide a clear direction or specific argument.

2- This paper argues that climate change, measured by global average temperature change, is primarily driven by human activities, such as deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels, and proposes policy measures to mitigate its impact.(1)

• Strengths: – Specificity : It clearly states that the paper will focus on human activities as the main drivers of climate change. – Argument : It presents a specific claim that the paper will argue. – Direction : It hints at the structure of the paper by mentioning policy measures.

If you would like to learn more about introductions and other aspects of clinical research, check out the Medical Research Course from the Match Guy here .

Powerful Tips:

• Be Specific : Clearly define the main argument or claim. Avoid vague or broad statements.
• Be Concise : Keep the thesis statement concise, ideally one to two sentences.
• Provide Direction : Indicate the structure of the paper by hinting at the main points that will be discussed.
• Revise as Needed : Be prepared to revise the thesis statement as your research progresses and your understanding deepens.

Transform research ideas into published papers!

A clear statement of objectives and scope is crucial in a research paper introduction because it outlines what the study aims to achieve and defines the boundaries within which the research will be conducted.

Example of Lacking Clear Objectives and Scope: This paper examines the impacts of climate change on agriculture.

• Problem : This statement is too broad and vague. It does not specify what aspects of climate change or agriculture will be studied, nor does it define the geographical or temporal scope.

Example with Clear Objectives and Scope: This study aims to investigate the effects of rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns on crop yields in the Midwest United States from 2000 to 2010. The objectives are to (1) assess the impact of temperature changes on corn and soybean yields, (2) analyze how variations in precipitation affect crop growth, and (3) identify adaptive strategies employed by farmers in the region.(2)

Powerful tips:

• Be Specific : Clearly state what the study aims to achieve and avoid vague or broad statements.
• Identify Key Areas : Outline the main areas or aspects that the research will focus on.
• Set Boundaries : Define the geographical, temporal, and conceptual boundaries of the research.
• List Objectives : Clearly articulate specific research objectives or questions that the study will address.
• Stay Realistic : Ensure that the objectives and scope are achievable within the constraints of the research project.
• Make it flow : Make sure you are not repeating the same concepts as the thesis statement, as these two sections are often presented back-to-back in the final paragraph of the introduction! Remember: the thesis statement is your hypothesis or question, and your objectives are ‘how’ you are going to test your thesis.

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This mistake can result in the research appearing trivial or irrelevant, diminishing its potential impact. When the significance of the research is not well-established, readers may struggle to understand the value of the study and why they should care about it.

Example of Failure to Establish Research Significance: This study investigates the effects of social media usage on sleep patterns among teenagers.

• Problem : The significance of studying social media’s impact on sleep patterns is not explained. The reader may wonder why this research is important or what implications it has.

Example with Established Research Significance: This study investigates the effects of social media usage on sleep patterns among teenagers. Understanding this relationship is crucial because insufficient sleep is linked to numerous health issues, including decreased academic performance, heightened stress levels, and increased risk of mental health problems. With the pervasive use of social media among adolescents, identifying how it impacts sleep can inform strategies for promoting healthier habits and improving overall well-being in this vulnerable age group.(3)

• Link to Broader Issues : Connect the research topic to broader issues or trends that highlight its relevance and importance.
• Explain Practical Implications : Discuss the potential practical applications or benefits of the research findings.
• Address Gaps in Knowledge : Identify gaps in the existing literature that the research aims to fill.
• Highlight Potential Impact : Emphasize the potential impact of the research on the field, society, or specific populations.
• Use Concrete Examples : Provide concrete examples or scenarios to illustrate the significance of the research.

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Insufficient background information in the introduction of a research paper refers to failing to provide enough context for the reader to understand the research problem and its significance. Background information sets the stage for the research by offering necessary details about the topic, relevant theories, previous studies, and key terms.

This may lead to:

• Reader Confusion : Without adequate context, readers may struggle to understand the research question, its importance, and how it fits into the broader field of study.
• Weak Justification : Insufficient background can undermine the rationale for the research, making it difficult to justify why the study is necessary or valuable.
• Misinterpretation : Lack of context can lead to misinterpretation of the research objectives, methods, and findings.

Example of Insufficient Background Information: In recent years, many researchers have studied the effects of social media on teenagers. This paper explores the relationship between social media use and anxiety among teenagers.

• Problem : This introduction lacks specific details about the previous research, the theoretical framework, and key terms. It does not provide enough context for the reader to understand why the study is important.

Example of Adequate Background Information: Social media platforms have become an integral part of teenagers’ daily lives, with studies showing that 95% of teens have access to a smartphone and 45% are online almost constantly. Previous research has linked excessive social media use to various mental health issues, including anxiety and depression. However, the mechanisms underlying this relationship remain unclear. This paper explores the impact of social media use on anxiety levels among teenagers, focusing on the roles of social comparison and cyberbullying.(4)

If you would like to learn more about manuscript writing, check out the Comprehensive Research Course from the Match Guy here .

• Review Relevant Literature : Summarize key studies and theories related to your topic.
• Provide Context : Explain the broader context of your research problem.
• Define Key Terms : Ensure that any specialized terms or concepts are clearly defined.
• Identify the Research Gap : Highlight what is not yet known or understood about your topic.
• Be Concise : Provide enough information to set the stage without overwhelming the reader with details.

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This mistake can occur when the literature review is too brief, lacks depth, omits key studies, or fails to critically analyze previous work. An inadequate literature review can undermine the foundation of the research by failing to provide the necessary context and justification for the study.

Inadequate Literature Review: There has been some research on the relationship between exercise and mental health. This paper will investigate this relationship further.

• Problem : This review is too general and does not provide sufficient detail about the existing research or how it informs the current study.

Example with Adequate Literature Review: Research has consistently shown that regular physical activity has positive effects on mental health. For example, a study by Gujral et al. (2019) demonstrated that aerobic exercise can significantly reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety. Similarly, Smith and Lee (2020) found that strength training also contributes to improved mood and reduced stress levels. However, much of the existing research has focused on adult populations, with relatively few studies examining these effects in adolescents. Additionally, the specific types of exercise that are most beneficial for different mental health outcomes have not been thoroughly investigated. This study aims to explore the effects of various types of exercise on the mental health of high school students, thereby addressing these gaps in the literature.(5-6)

• Be Comprehensive : Review a broad range of studies related to the research topic to provide a thorough context.
• Be Specific : Cite specific studies, including their methodologies, findings, and relevance to the current research.
• Be Critical : Analyze and evaluate the existing research, identifying strengths, weaknesses, and gaps.
• Be Structured : Organize the literature review logically, grouping studies by themes or findings to create a coherent narrative.
• Be Relevant : Focus on the most relevant studies that directly relate to the research question and objectives.

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Ignoring the research gap in a research paper introduction means failing to identify and articulate what specific aspect of the topic has not been explored or adequately addressed in existing literature. The research gap is a critical component because it justifies the necessity and originality of the study. Without highlighting this gap, the research may appear redundant or lacking in significance.

How huge is this mistake?

• Lack of Justification : The study may not appear necessary or relevant, diminishing its perceived value.
• Redundancy : The research may seem to duplicate existing studies, offering no new insights or contributions to the field. Even if you are using methodology similar to previous studies, it is important to note why you are doing so e.g., few studies have used that specific methodology, and you would like to validate it in your sample population!
• Reader Disinterest : Readers may lose interest if they do not see the unique contribution or purpose of the research.

Example of Ignoring the Research Gap: Many studies have examined the effects of exercise on mental health. This paper looks at the relationship between physical activity and depression.

• Problem : This introduction does not specify what aspect of the relationship between physical activity and depression has not been studied, failing to highlight the unique contribution of the research.

Example of Identifying the Research Gap: Numerous studies have demonstrated the general benefits of physical activity on mental health, particularly its role in alleviating symptoms of depression. However, there is limited research on how different types of exercise (e.g., aerobic vs. anaerobic) specifically impact depression levels among various age groups. This study investigates the differential effects of aerobic and anaerobic exercise on depression in young adults, aiming to fill this gap in the literature.(6)

• Conduct a Thorough Literature Review : Understand the current state of research in your field to identify what has been studied and where gaps exist.
• Be Specific : Clearly articulate what specific aspect has not been covered in existing studies.
• Link to Your Study : Explain how your research will address this gap and contribute to the field.
• Use Evidence : Support your identification of the gap with references to previous studies.
• Emphasize Significance : Highlight why filling this gap is important for advancing knowledge or practical applications.

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Overly technical language refers to the excessive use of jargon, complex terms, and highly specialized language that may be difficult for readers, especially those not familiar with the field, to understand. While technical language is sometimes necessary in academic writing, overusing it in the introduction can create several problems:

• Reader Alienation : Readers may find the text intimidating or inaccessible, leading to disengagement.
• Lack of Clarity : The main points and significance of the research can become obscured by complex terminology.
• Reduced Impact : The research may fail to communicate its importance effectively if readers struggle to understand the introduction.

Example of Overly Technical Language: The present study examines the metacognitive strategies employed by individuals in the domain of second language acquisition, specifically focusing on the interaction between declarative and procedural memory systems in the process of syntactic parsing.

• Problem : This sentence is loaded with jargon (“metacognitive strategies,” “second language acquisition,” “declarative and procedural memory systems,” “syntactic parsing”), which can be overwhelming and confusing for readers not familiar with these terms.

Example with Simplified Language: This study looks at the thinking strategies people use when learning a second language. It focuses on how different types of memory, such as the knowledge of facts and the skills for doing things, help in understanding sentence structures.(7)

• Know Your Audience : Tailor the language to the intended audience, ensuring it is accessible to both specialists and non-specialists.
• Define Term s: When technical terms are necessary, provide clear definitions or explanations.
• Use Analogies : Simplify complex concepts using analogies or examples that are easy to understand.
• Avoid Jargon : Limit the use of jargon and specialized terms, especially in the introduction.
• Seek Feedback : Ask peers or non-experts to read the introduction and provide feedback on clarity and accessibility.

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Poor organization and flow in a research paper introduction refer to a lack of logical structure and coherence that makes the introduction difficult to follow. This can occur when ideas are presented in a haphazard manner, transitions between sections are weak or non-existent, and the overall narrative is disjointed. A well-organized introduction should smoothly guide the reader from the general context to the specific objectives of the study.

Example of Poor Organization and Flow: “Climate change affects agriculture in various ways. Many studies have looked at the impact on crop yields. This paper will discuss the economic implications of these changes. Climate models predict increased variability in weather patterns, which will affect water availability. Researchers have found that higher temperatures reduce the growing season for many crops.”

• Problem : The ideas are presented in a scattered manner without clear connections. The mention of economic implications seems out of place, and there are abrupt shifts between topics.

Example with Good Organization and Flow: Climate change poses significant challenges to agriculture by altering weather patterns, impacting crop yields, and affecting water availability. Numerous studies have shown that increased temperatures can shorten the growing season for many crops, leading to reduced yields. Additionally, climate models predict increased variability in weather patterns, which complicates water management for farmers. These changes not only affect food production but also have substantial economic implications for agricultural communities. This paper will examine the economic impacts of climate-induced changes in agriculture, focusing on crop yield variability and water resource management.(1)

• Create an Outline : Before writing, outline the main points you want to cover in the introduction.
• Think in terms of an inverted triangle : Begin broadly to introduce basic concepts related to your topic. As you progress through the introduction, you can introduce more and more specific topics until you have enough information to justify your thesis statement
• Use Transitional Phrases : Employ transitional phrases and sentences to connect ideas and sections smoothly.
• Follow a Logical Sequence : Present information in a logical order, moving from general context to specific objectives.
• Maintain Focus : Stay focused on the main topic and avoid introducing unrelated ideas.
• Revise for Coherence : Review and revise the introduction to ensure that it flows well and that each part contributes to the overall narrative.

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Neglecting the audience refers to failing to consider the background, knowledge level, and interests of the intended readers when writing the introduction of a research paper. This mistake can manifest in several ways, such as using overly technical language for a general audience, providing insufficient background information for readers unfamiliar with the topic, or failing to engage the readers’ interest.

Example of Neglecting the Audience: For experts in genomic sequencing, this study explores the epigenetic modifications resulting from CRISPR-Cas9 interventions, focusing on the methylation patterns and histone modifications observed in gene-edited cells.

• Problem : This introduction assumes a high level of expertise in genomic sequencing and epigenetics, which may alienate readers without this background.

Example with Audience Consideration: CRISPR-Cas9 is a groundbreaking tool in genetic research that allows scientists to edit DNA with precision. However, altering genes can lead to unexpected changes in how genes are expressed, known as epigenetic modifications. This study investigates these changes by looking at specific markers on DNA, such as methylation patterns, and how they affect gene activity in cells that have been edited using CRISPR-Cas9. Our goal is to understand the broader implications of gene editing on cellular functions, which is crucial for advancing medical research and treatments.(8)

• Identify the Audience : Determine who the intended readers are (e.g., experts, students, general public) and tailor the language and content accordingly. Read papers from the journals you are considering for submission. Professional editors curate the language used in these papers and are a great starting point to identify the level of expertise of your audience!
• Simplify Language : Use clear and straightforward language, avoiding jargon and technical terms unless they are necessary and well-explained.
• Provide Background Information : Include sufficient background information to help readers understand the context and significance of the research.
• Engage the Reader : Start with an engaging introduction that highlights the relevance and importance of the research topic.
• Anticipate Questions : Consider what questions or concerns the audience might have and address them in the introduction

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By following these guidelines and avoiding common pitfalls, you can create an introduction that not only grabs the attention of your readers but also sets the stage for a compelling and impactful research paper.

Final Tips:

• Revise and refine your introduction multiple times to ensure clarity and coherence.
• Seek feedback from peers, mentors, or advisors to identify areas for improvement.
• Keep your audience in mind and tailor your language and content to their needs and interests.
• Stay focused on your research objectives and ensure that every part of your introduction contributes to achieving them.
• Be confident in the significance of your research and its potential impact on your field or community.

Let your introduction be more than just words on a page. It’s a doorway to understanding. To help you along, we’ve created a practical course on writing and publishing research projects. It’s 100% risk-free, with a money-back guarantee if you’re not satisfied. Try it out now by clicking here .

Wishing you success on your research journey!

Marina Ramzy Mourid, Hamza Ibad, MBBS

Dr. Ibad graduated from the Aga Khan University Medical College and completed a post-doctoral research fellowship at Johns Hopkins in the Department of Radiology (Musculoskeletal Division). Dr. Ibad’s research and clinical interests include deep-learning applications for automated image interpretation, osteoarthritis, and sarcopenia-related health outcomes.

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About thematchguy, become a researcher in the united states, interested in learning more about literature search with examples from published literature, the comprehensive research course, the systematic review course, the medical statistics course, how to find research positions in the us.

1. Abbass K, Qasim MZ, Song H, Murshed M, Mahmood H, Younis I. A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2022;29(28):42539-42559. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-19718-6

2. Cai X, Wang D, Laurent R. Impact of climate change on crop yield: a case study of rainfed corn in central illinois. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 2009;48(9):1868-1881. doi:10.1175/2009JAMC1880.1

3. Van Den Eijnden RJJM, Geurts SM, Ter Bogt TFM, Van Der Rijst VG, Koning IM. Social media use and adolescents’ sleep: a longitudinal study on the protective role of parental rules regarding internet use before sleep. IJERPH. 2021;18(3):1346. doi:10.3390/ijerph18031346

4. Schmitt, M. (2021). Effects of social media and technology on adolescents: What the evidence is showing and what we can do about it. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Education, 38(1), 51-59.

5. Gujral S, Aizenstein H, Reynolds CF, Butters MA, Erickson KI. Exercise effects on depression: Possible neural mechanisms. General Hospital Psychiatry. 2017;49:2-10. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2017.04.012

6. Smith PJ, Merwin RM. The role of exercise in management of mental health disorders: an integrative review. Annu Rev Med. 2021;72(1):45-62. doi:10.1146/annurev-med-060619-022943

7. Sun Q, Zhang LJ. Understanding learners’ metacognitive experiences in learning to write in English as a foreign language: A structural equation modeling approach. Front Psychol. 2022;13:986301. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.986301

8. Kolanu ND. Crispr–cas9 gene editing: curing genetic diseases by inherited epigenetic modifications. Glob Med Genet. 2024;11(01):113-122. doi:10.1055/s-0044-1785234

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How to Write a Scientific Paper: Practical Guidelines

Edgard delvin.

1 Centre de recherche, CHU Sainte-Justine

2 Département de Biochimie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada

Tahir S. Pillay

3 Department of Chemical Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria

4 Division of Chemical Pathology, University of Cape Town

5 National Health Laboratory Service, CTshwane Academic Division, Pretoria, South Africa

Anthony Newman

6 Life Sciences Department, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Precise, accurate and clear writing is essential for communicating in health sciences, as publication is an important component in the university criteria for academic promotion and in obtaining funding to support research. In spite of this, the development of writing skills is a subject infrequently included in the curricula of faculties of medicine and allied health sciences. Therefore clinical investigators require tools to fill this gap. The present paper presents a brief historical background to medical publication and practical guidelines for writing scientific papers for acceptance in good journals.

INTRODUCTION

A scientific paper is the formal lasting record of a research process. It is meant to document research protocols, methods, results and conclusions derived from an initial working hypothesis. The first medical accounts date back to antiquity. Imhotep, Pharaoh of the 3 rd Dynasty, could be considered the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine as he has been credited with being the original author of what is now known as the Edwin Smith Papyrus ( Figure 1 ). The Papyrus, by giving some details on cures and anatomical observations, sets the basis of the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous diseases. Closer to the Common Era, in 460 BCE, Hippocrates wrote 70 books on medicine. In 1020, the Golden age of the Muslim Culture, Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna ( Figure 2a ), recorded the Canon of medicine that was to become the most used medical text in Europe and Middle East for almost half a millennium. This was followed in the beginning of the 12 th Century bytheextensivetreatiseofMaimonides( Figure 2b ) (Moses ben Maimon) on Greek and Middle Eastern medicine. Of interest, by the end of the 11 th Century Trotula di Ruggiero, a woman physician, wrote several influential books on women’s ailment. A number of other hallmark treatises also became more accessible, thanks to the introduction of the printing press that allowed standardization of the texts. One example is the De Humani Corporis Fabrica by Vesalius which contains hundreds of illustrations of human dissection. Thomas A Lang provides an excellent concise history of scientific publications [ 1 ]. These were the days when writing and publishing scientific or philosophical works were the privilege of the few and hence there was no or little competition and no recorded peer reviewing system. Times have however changed, and contemporary scientists have to compose with an increasingly harsh competition in attracting editors and publishers attention. As an example, the number of reports and reviews on obesity and diabetes has increased from 400 to close to 4000/year and 50 to 600/year respectively over a period of 20 years ( Figure 3 ). The present article, essentially based on TA Lang’s guide for writing a scientific paper [ 1 ], will summarize the steps involved in the process of writing a scientific report and in increasing the likelihood of its acceptance.

The Edwin Smith Papyrus (≈3000 BCE)

Avicenna and Maimonides

Annual publication load in the field of obesity and diabetes over 20 years.

Reasons for publishing are varied. One may write to achieve a post-graduate degree, to obtain funding for pursuing research or for academic promotion. While all 3 reasons are perfectly legitimate, one must ask whether they are sufficient to be considered by editors, publishers and reviewers. Why then should the scientist write? The main reason is to provide to the scientific community data based on hypotheses that are innovative and thus to advance the understanding in a specific domain. One word of caution however, is that if a set of experiments has not been done or reported, it does not mean that it should be. It may simply reflect a lack of interest in it.

DECIDING ON PUBLISHING AND TARGETING THE JOURNAL

In order to assist with the decision process, pres-ent your work orally first to colleagues in your field who may be more experienced in publishing. This step will help you in gauging whether your work is publishable and in shaping the paper.

Targeting the journal, in which you want to present your data, is also a critical step and should be done before starting to write. One hint is to look for journals that have published similar work to yours, and that aims readers most likely to be interested in your research. This will allow your article to be well read and cited. These journals are also those that you are most likely to read on a regular basis and to cite abundantly. The next step is to decide whether you submit your manuscript to a top-ranking impact factor journal or to a journal of lower prestige. Although it is tempting to test the waters, or to obtain reviewers comments, be realistic about the contribution your work provides and submit to a journal with an appropriate rank.

Do not forget that each rejection delays publication and that the basin of reviewers within your specialty is shallow. Thus repeated submission to different journals could likely result in having your work submitted for review to the same re-viewer.

DECIDING ON THE TYPE OF MANUSCRIPT

There are several types of scientific reports: observational, experimental, methodological, theoretical and review. Observational studies include 1) single-case report, 2) collective case reports on a series of patients having for example common signs and symptoms or being followed-up with similar protocols, 3) cross-sectional, 4) cohort studies, and 5) case-control studies. The latter 3 could be perceived as epidemiological studies as they may help establishing the prevalence of a condition, and identify a defined population with and without a particular condition (disease, injury, surgical complication). Experimental reports deal with research that tests a research hypothesis through an established protocol, and, in the case of health sciences, formulate plausible explanations for changes in biological systems. Methodological reports address for example advances in analytical technology, statistical methods and diagnostic approach. Theoretical reports suggest new working hypotheses and principles that have to be supported or disproved through experimental protocols. The review category can be sub-classified as narrative, systematic and meta-analytic. Narrative reviews are often broad overviews that could be biased as they are based on the personal experience of an expert relying on articles of his or her own choice. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses are based on reproducible procedures and on high quality data. Researchers systematically identify and analyze all data collected in articles that test the same working hypothesis, avoiding selection bias, and report the data in a systematic fashion. They are particularly helpful in asking important questions in the field of healthcare and are often the initial step for innovative research. Rules or guidelines in writing such report must be followed if a quality systematic review is to be published.

For clinical research trials and systematic reviews or meta-analyses, use the Consort Statement (Consolidated Standards Of Reporting Trials) and the PRISMA Statement (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) respectively [ 2 , 3 ]. This assures the editors and the reviewers that essential elements of the trials and of the reviews were tackled. It also speeds the peer review process. There are several other Statements that apply to epidemiological studies [ 4 ], non-randomized clinical trials [ 5 ], diagnostic test development ( 6 ) and genetic association studies ( 7 ). The Consortium of Laboratory Medicine Journal Editors has also published guidelines for reporting industry-sponsored laboratory research ( 8 ).

INITIAL STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF WRITING A SCIENTIFIC DOCUMENT

Literature review is the initial and essential step before starting your study and writing the scientific report based on it. In this process use multiple databases, multiple keyword combinations. It will allow you to track the latest development in your field and thus avoid you to find out that someone else has performed the study before you, and hence decrease the originality of your study. Do not forget that high-ranking research journals publish results of enough importance and interest to merit their publication.

Determining the authorship and the order of authorship, an ethical issue, is the second essential step, and is unfortunately often neglected. This step may avoid later conflicts as, despite existing guidelines, it remains a sensitive issue owing to personal biases and the internal politics of institutions. The International Committee of Medical Editors has adopted the following guidelines for the biomedical sciences ( 9 ).

“Authorship credit should be based only on: 1) Substantial contributions to the conception and design, or acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; 2) Drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; and 3) Final approval of the version to be published. Conditions 1, 2 and 3 must be all met. Acquisition of funding, the collections of data, or general supervision of the research group, by themselves, do not justify authorship.” ( 9 , 10 )

The order of authorship should reflect the individual contribution to the research and to the publication, from most to least ( 11 ). The first author usually carries out the lead for the project reported. However the last author is often mistakenly perceived as the senior author. This is perpetuated from the European tradition and is discouraged. As there are divergent conventions among journals, the order of authorship order may or may not reflect the individual contributions; with the exception that the first author should be the one most responsible for the work.

WRITING EFFECTIVELY

Effective writing requires that the text helps the readers 1) understand the content and the context, 2) remember what the salient points are, 3) find the information rapidly and, 4) use or apply the information given. These cardinal qualities should be adorned with the precise usage of the language, clarity of the text, inclu-siveness of the information, and conciseness. Effective writing also means that you have to focus on the potential readers’ needs. Readers in science are informed individuals who are not passive, and who will formulate their own opinion of your writing whether or not the meaning is clear. Therefore you need to know who your audience is. The following 4 questions should help you writing a reader-based text, meaning written to meet the information needs of readers [ 12 ].

What do you assume your readers already know? In other words, which terms and concepts can you use without explanation, and which do you have to define?

What do they want to know? Readers in science will read only if they think they will learn something of value.

What do they need to know? Your text must contain all the information necessary for the reader to understand it, even if you think this information id obvious to them.

What do they think they know that is not so? Correcting misconceptions can be an important function of communication, and persuading readers to change their minds can be a challenging task.

WRITING THE SCIENTIFIC PAPER

Babbs and Tacker ’ s advice to write as much of the paper before performing the research project or experimental protocol may, at first sight, seem unexpected and counterintuitive [ 13 ], but in fact it is exactly what is being done when writing a research grant application. It will allow you to define the authorship alluded to before. The following section will briefly review the structure of the different sections of a manuscript and describe their purpose.

Reading the instructions to authors of the Journal you have decided to submit your manuscript is the first important step. They provide you with the specific requirements such as the way of listing the authors, type of abstract, word, figure or table limits and citation style. The Mulford Library of University of Toledo website contains instructions to authors for over 3000 journals ( http://mulford.meduoiho.edu/instr/ ).

The general organization of an article follows the IMRAD format (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion). These may however vary. For instance, in clinical research or epidemiology studies, the methods section will include details on the subjects included, and there will be a statement of the limitation of the study. Although conclusions may not always be part of the structure, we believe that it should, even in methodological reports.

The tile page provides essential information so that the editor, reviewers, and readers will identify the manuscript and the authors at a glance as well as enabling them to classify the field to which the article pertains.

The title page must contain the following:

• The tile of the article – it is an important part of the manuscript as it is the most often read and will induce the interested readers to pursue further. Therefore the title should be precise, accurate, specific and truthful;
• Each author’s given name (it may be the full name or initials) and family name;
• Each author’s affiliation;
• Some journals ask for highest academic degree;
• A running title that is usually limited to a number of characters. It must relate to the full title;
• Key words that will serve for indexing;
• For clinical studies, the trial’s registration number;
• The name of the corresponding author with full contact information.

The abstract is also an important section of your manuscript. Importantly, the abstract is the part of the article that your peers will see when consulting publication databases such as PubMed. It is the advertisement to your work and will strongly influence the editor deciding whether it will be submitted to reviewers or not. It will also help the readers decide to read the full article. Hence it has to be comprehensible on its own. Writing an abstract is challenging. You have to carefully select the content and, while being concise, assure to deliver the essence of your manuscript.

Without going into details, there are 3 types of abstracts: descriptive, informative and structured. The descriptive abstract is particularly used for theoretical, methodological or review articles. It usually consists of a single paragraph of 150 words or less. The informative abstract, the most common one, contains specific information given in the article and, are organized with an introduction (background, objectives), methods, results and discussion with or without conclusion. They usually are 150 to 250 words in length. The structured abstract is in essence an informative abstract with sections labeled with headings. They may also be longer and are limited to 250 to 300 words. Recent technology also allows for graphical or even video abstracts. The latter are interesting in the context of cell biology as they enable the investigator to illustrate ex vivo experiment results (phagocytosis process for example).

Qualities of abstracts:

• Understood without reading the full paper. Shoul dcontain no abbreviations.lf abbreviations are used, they must be defined. This however removes space for more important information;
• Contains information consistent with the full report. Conclusions in the abstract must match those given in the full report;
• Is attractive and contains information needed to decide whether to read the full report.

Introduction

The introduction has 3 main goals: to establish the need and importance of your research, to indicate how you have filled the knowledge gap in your field and to give your readers a hint of what they will learn when reading your paper. To fulfil these goals, a four-part introduction consisting of a background statement, a problem statement, an activity statement and a forecasting statement, is best suited. Poorly defined background information and problem setting are the 2 most common weaknesses encountered in introductions. They stem from the false perception that peer readers know what the issue is and why the study to solve it is necessary. Although not a strict rule, the introduction in clinical science journals should target only references needed to establish the rationale for the study and the research protocol. This differ from more basic science or cell biology journals, for which a longer and elaborate introduction may be justified because the research at hand consists of several approaches each requiring background and justification.

The 4-part introduction consists of:

• A background statement that provides the context and the approach of the research;
• A problem statement that describes the nature, scope and importance of the problem or the knowledge gap;
• An activity statement, that details the research question, sets the hypothesis and actions undertaken for the investigation;
• A forecasting statement telling the readers whattheywillfìndwhen readingyourarticle [ 14 ].

Methods section

This section may be named “Materials and Methods”, “Experimental section” or “Patients and Methods” depending upon the type of journal. Its purpose to allow your readers to provide enough information on the methods used for your research and to judge on their adequacy. Although clinical and “basic” research protocols differ, the principles involved in describing the methods share similar features. Hence, the breadth of what is being studied and how the study can be performed is common to both. What differ are the specific settings. For example, when a study is conducted on humans, you must provide, up front, assurance that it has received the approval of you Institution Ethics Review Board (IRB) and that participants have provided full and informed consent. Similarly when the study involves animals, you must affirm that you have the agreement from your Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). These are too often forgotten, and Journals (most of them) abiding to the rules of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and World Association of Medical Editors (WAME) will require such statement. Although journals publishing research reports in more fundamental science may not require such assurance, they do however also follow to strict ethics rules related to scientific misconduct or fraud such as data fabrication, data falsification. For clinical research papers, you have to provide information on how the participants were selected, identify the possible sources of bias and confounding factors and how they were diminished.

In terms of the measurements, you have to clearly identify the materials used as well as the suppliers with their location. You should also be unambiguous when describing the analytical method. If the method has already been published, give a brief account and refer to the original publication (not a review in which the method is mentioned without a description). If you have modified it, you have to provide a detailed account of the modifications and you have to validate its accuracy, precision and repeatability. Mention the units in which results are reported and, if necessary, include the conversion factors [mass units versus “système international” (S.I.)]. In clinical research, surrogate end-points are often used as biomarkers. Under those circumstances, you must show their validity or refer to a study that has already shown that are valid.

In cases of clinical trials, the Methods section should include the study design, the patient selection mode, interventions, type of outcomes.

Statistics are important in assuring the quality of the research project. Hence, you should consult a biostatistician at the time of devising the research protocol and not after having performed the experiments or the clinical trial.

The components of the section on statistics should include:

• The way the data will be reported (mean, median, centiles for continuous data);
• Details on participant assignments to the different groups (random allocation, consecutive entry);
• Statistical comparison tools (parametric or non parametric statistics, paired or unpaired t-tests for normally distributed data and so on);
• The statistical power calculation when determining the sample size to obtain valid and significant comparisons together with the a level;
• The statistical software package used in the analysis.

Results section

The main purpose of the results section is to report the data that were collected and their relationship. It should also provide information on the modifications that have taken place because of unforeseen events leading to a modification of the initial protocol (loss of participants, reagent substitution, loss of data).

• Report results as tables and figures whenever possible, avoid duplication in the text. The text should summarize the findings;
• Report the data with the appropriate descriptive statistics;
• Report any unanticipated events that could affect the results;
• Report a complete account of observations and explanations for missing data (patient lost).

The discussion should set your research in context, reinforce its importance and show how your results have contributed to the further understanding of the problem posed. This should appear in the concluding remarks. The following organization could be helpful.

• Briefly summarize the main results of your study in one or two paragraphs, and how they support your working hypothesis;
• Provide an interpretation of your results and show how they logically fit in an overall scheme (biological or clinical);
• Describe how your results compare with those of other investigators, explain the differences observed;
• Discuss how your results may lead to a new hypothesis and further experimentation, or how they could enhance the diagnostic procedures.
• Provide the limitations of your study and steps taken to reduce them. This could be placed in the concluding remarks.

Acknowledgements

The acknowledgements are important as they identify and thank the contributors to the study, who do not meet the criteria as co-authors. They also include the recognition of the granting agency. In this case the grant award number and source is usually included.

Declaration of competing interests

Competing interests arise when the author has more than one role that may lead to a situation where there is a conflict of interest. This is observed when the investigator has a simultaneous industrial consulting and academic position. In that case the results may not be agreeable to the industrial sponsor, who may impose a veto on publication or strongly suggest modifications to the conclusions. The investigator must clear this issue before starting the contracted research. In addition, the investigator may own shares or stock in the company whose product forms the basis of the study. Such conflicts of interest must be declared so that they are apparent to the readers.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Thomas A Lang, for his advice in the preparation of this manuscript.

How to Write an Effective Introduction Section of a Scientific Article

An effective introduction section of a scientific article will form a good first impression by the readers or reviewers. This introduction section contains background information about your research.

For many journals with the IMRAD (introduction, methods, results, and discussion) structure, the purpose of the introduction is to answer these questions:

• What is the study about?
• Why is this study important for the scientific community?

If the reviewers don’t understand your study and the significant contribution of the research, they are more likely to reject it (Ahlstrom, 2017).

The IMRAD structuring of a scientific manuscript commonly frames the introduction this way (Nadim, 2005):

• The background information of the study
• The reasoning that leads to experimental hypothesis (gap analysis)
• The goal of the study and research hypothesis
• The results and the significance of the findings

Familiarize yourself with the introduction of other published works within your journal of interest before you start writing your introduction section.

Some Helpful Steps to Write the Introduction Section of your Scientific Article

1. complete a rough draft of your other sections of the manuscript..

Make sure you have a rough draft of your manuscript with your methods, results and discussions. This draft will guide you when you organize the entire content of your introduction.

2. Perform your literature review. Search by focusing on specific questions.

Your literature search will help shape a foundation for your introduction. The references that you use in your background information should be relevant to your research topic and up to date. This background information contains all information you need to know about your study.

When searching supplemental literature, try to answer these specific questions:

• What is the background of my study?
• What are published works related to my study?
• Why are those studies relevant to my study?
• What is the background information for my methods?

3. Search more literature to answer questions that are more extensive.

After you search relevant literature to provide basic information that you need to know about your own research, search more literature to answer broader questions.

For this step, your literature search should be focused on collecting additional background information that your readers need to know. This information will help your readers to understand more about your research.

For this part, try to answer these questions:

• What are the gaps in our present understanding of my field of study?
• Why is it important for researchers in my field of study to fill in the gaps?
• What did other published studies find and what did I discover?
• How would my findings fill in those gaps?

4. Start to write an outline of your introduction section.

The goal on this step is to organize your introduction section by using an outline. Before you start, make sure you check and include commonly used structures of the introduction section for the journal of interest. Use information from your literature reviews to create the background portion of your outline.

5. Begin writing a list of important keywords for your first paragraph.

To start, list keywords that will be relevant to your first paragraph(s). Keywords are words that represent your research topic and the content of your manuscript. They act like a code, helping readers connect context to commonly used terms.

For example: the name of the human disease and the virus in your study are keywords.

This approach will grab the attention of the readers and help you to focus on your topic. In addition, these keywords will help your paper get entered into various research databases (including Google Scholar).

6. Write the background information of your study using your keywords and important, relevant articles as references.

The purpose of this step is to provide guidance for your readers who are not familiar with your study. Use information gathered from your literature reviews in step 3 and step 2 in the first three sentences of your first paragraph. Also include relevant keywords from step 5.

Readers generally have an expectation that information presented will move from broadly presented to narrowly presented. Consider a funnel as you being writing - broad at the top, and very narrow at the bottom (A. Hofmann, 2013).

7. Purge irrelevant sentences and references from your introduction’s background.

Include only important articles related to your research topic in the background. For example, if your study is about a human virus, you may include references about other viruses from the same family that cause human diseases as long as it’s pertinent to your research.

8. Present your gap analysis and a brief review of your research goal or working hypothesis.

Discuss the earlier research/theoretical framework and how it leads you to your research goal or hypothesis (gap analysis).

For example, mention the limitations of previously published works. Then write about your research goal, explain why your research is the next logical step to fill the gaps in those studies, and briefly state your research hypothesis and methods.

9. Mention a summary of your findings or results.

Now you begin your transition from background to your research questions, your methods, justification of your findings and then to the impact of your research.

The purpose of this step is to convince the reviewers that your research is worth publishing by explaining the need, methodology and impact. It also helps readers understand how your work relates to their own or will answer their questions.

This summary should show what you discovered from your results and the significance of your findings. If possible, you may also mention the possible future impact of your research.

10. Start putting it all together.

Evaluate your entire introduction section. Make sure it follows ‘the funneling of information’. Your paragraphs should start with broader issues then narrow down, and from background information to the impact of your study.

11. Refine the paragraphs, check off your outline, and polish your introduction section.

Make sure your introduction section has all the four common components:

1. The background information of the study

2. The reasoning that leads to experimental hypothesis (gap analysis)

3. The goal of the study and research hypothesis

4. The results and the significance of the findings

In addition, read your introduction section again to make sure it is clear and logical.

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How to Write a Research Introduction

Last Updated: December 6, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,656,239 times.

The introduction to a research paper can be the most challenging part of the paper to write. The length of the introduction will vary depending on the type of research paper you are writing. An introduction should announce your topic, provide context and a rationale for your work, before stating your research questions and hypothesis. Well-written introductions set the tone for the paper, catch the reader's interest, and communicate the hypothesis or thesis statement.

Introducing the Topic of the Paper

• In scientific papers this is sometimes known as an "inverted triangle", where you start with the broadest material at the start, before zooming in on the specifics. [2] X Research source
• The sentence "Throughout the 20th century, our views of life on other planets have drastically changed" introduces a topic, but does so in broad terms.
• It provides the reader with an indication of the content of the essay and encourages them to read on.

• For example, if you were writing a paper about the behaviour of mice when exposed to a particular substance, you would include the word "mice", and the scientific name of the relevant compound in the first sentences.
• If you were writing a history paper about the impact of the First World War on gender relations in Britain, you should mention those key words in your first few lines.

• This is especially important if you are attempting to develop a new conceptualization that uses language and terminology your readers may be unfamiliar with.

• If you use an anecdote ensure that is short and highly relevant for your research. It has to function in the same way as an alternative opening, namely to announce the topic of your research paper to your reader.
• For example, if you were writing a sociology paper about re-offending rates among young offenders, you could include a brief story of one person whose story reflects and introduces your topic.
• This kind of approach is generally not appropriate for the introduction to a natural or physical sciences research paper where the writing conventions are different.

Establishing the Context for Your Paper

• It is important to be concise in the introduction, so provide an overview on recent developments in the primary research rather than a lengthy discussion.
• You can follow the "inverted triangle" principle to focus in from the broader themes to those to which you are making a direct contribution with your paper.
• A strong literature review presents important background information to your own research and indicates the importance of the field.

• By making clear reference to existing work you can demonstrate explicitly the specific contribution you are making to move the field forward.
• You can identify a gap in the existing scholarship and explain how you are addressing it and moving understanding forward.

• For example, if you are writing a scientific paper you could stress the merits of the experimental approach or models you have used.
• Stress what is novel in your research and the significance of your new approach, but don't give too much detail in the introduction.
• A stated rationale could be something like: "the study evaluates the previously unknown anti-inflammatory effects of a topical compound in order to evaluate its potential clinical uses".

Specifying Your Research Questions and Hypothesis

• The research question or questions generally come towards the end of the introduction, and should be concise and closely focused.
• The research question might recall some of the key words established in the first few sentences and the title of your paper.
• An example of a research question could be "what were the consequences of the North American Free Trade Agreement on the Mexican export economy?"
• This could be honed further to be specific by referring to a particular element of the Free Trade Agreement and the impact on a particular industry in Mexico, such as clothing manufacture.
• A good research question should shape a problem into a testable hypothesis.

• If possible try to avoid using the word "hypothesis" and rather make this implicit in your writing. This can make your writing appear less formulaic.
• In a scientific paper, giving a clear one-sentence overview of your results and their relation to your hypothesis makes the information clear and accessible. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• An example of a hypothesis could be "mice deprived of food for the duration of the study were expected to become more lethargic than those fed normally".

• This is not always necessary and you should pay attention to the writing conventions in your discipline.
• In a natural sciences paper, for example, there is a fairly rigid structure which you will be following.
• A humanities or social science paper will most likely present more opportunities to deviate in how you structure your paper.

Research Introduction Help

Community Q&A

• Use your research papers' outline to help you decide what information to include when writing an introduction. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 1
• Consider drafting your introduction after you have already completed the rest of your research paper. Writing introductions last can help ensure that you don't leave out any major points. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• Avoid emotional or sensational introductions; these can create distrust in the reader. Thanks Helpful 50 Not Helpful 12
• Generally avoid using personal pronouns in your introduction, such as "I," "me," "we," "us," "my," "mine," or "our." Thanks Helpful 31 Not Helpful 7
• Don't overwhelm the reader with an over-abundance of information. Keep the introduction as concise as possible by saving specific details for the body of your paper. Thanks Helpful 24 Not Helpful 14

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• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185916
• ↑ https://www.aresearchguide.com/inverted-pyramid-structure-in-writing.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/introduction
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html
• ↑ https://dept.writing.wisc.edu/wac/writing-an-introduction-for-a-scientific-paper/
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178846/

About This Article

To introduce your research paper, use the first 1-2 sentences to describe your general topic, such as “women in World War I.” Include and define keywords, such as “gender relations,” to show your reader where you’re going. Mention previous research into the topic with a phrase like, “Others have studied…”, then transition into what your contribution will be and why it’s necessary. Finally, state the questions that your paper will address and propose your “answer” to them as your thesis statement. For more information from our English Ph.D. co-author about how to craft a strong hypothesis and thesis, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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• 10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project

10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project

Published on October 30, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on October 19, 2023.

The research question is one of the most important parts of your research paper , thesis or dissertation . It’s important to spend some time assessing and refining your question before you get started.

The exact form of your question will depend on a few things, such as the length of your project, the type of research you’re conducting, the topic , and the research problem . However, all research questions should be focused, specific, and relevant to a timely social or scholarly issue.

Once you’ve read our guide on how to write a research question , you can use these examples to craft your own.

Note that the design of your research question can depend on what method you are pursuing. Here are a few options for qualitative, quantitative, and statistical research questions.

Other interesting articles

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, October 19). 10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project. Scribbr. Retrieved August 16, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-question-examples/

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A 10-15 Minute Scientific Presentation, Part 1: Creating an Introduction

For many young scientists, the hardest part of a presentation is the introduction. How do you set the stage for your talk so your audience knows exactly where you're going?

Here's how: follow the the CCQH pattern -- C ontext, C omplication, Q uestion, H ypothesis. Fit your research into this pattern, and you will be able to introduce your work in just a few minutes, using just 1 or 2 slides.

The video below show how to use the CCQH pattern using an example of published scientific research. You will see how powerful -- and how adapatable -- the CCQH pattern is.

Make sure you select 720p HD on the video (bottom right corner) for best resolution and so scientific illustrations and figures are clear.

You can also find this video, and others related to scientific communication, at the CLIMB youtube channel: http://www.youtube.com/climbprogram

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How to Write a Research Proposal: (with Examples & Templates)

Table of Contents

Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers’ plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed research that you intend to undertake. It provides readers with a snapshot of your project by describing what you will investigate, why it is needed, and how you will conduct the research.  

Your research proposal should aim to explain to the readers why your research is relevant and original, that you understand the context and current scenario in the field, have the appropriate resources to conduct the research, and that the research is feasible given the usual constraints.  

This article will describe in detail the purpose and typical structure of a research proposal , along with examples and templates to help you ace this step in your research journey.  

What is a Research Proposal ?  

A research proposal¹ ,²  can be defined as a formal report that describes your proposed research, its objectives, methodology, implications, and other important details. Research proposals are the framework of your research and are used to obtain approvals or grants to conduct the study from various committees or organizations. Consequently, research proposals should convince readers of your study’s credibility, accuracy, achievability, practicality, and reproducibility.   

With research proposals , researchers usually aim to persuade the readers, funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors to approve the proposal. To achieve this, the report should be well structured with the objectives written in clear, understandable language devoid of jargon. A well-organized research proposal conveys to the readers or evaluators that the writer has thought out the research plan meticulously and has the resources to ensure timely completion.  

Purpose of Research Proposals  

A research proposal is a sales pitch and therefore should be detailed enough to convince your readers, who could be supervisors, ethics committees, universities, etc., that what you’re proposing has merit and is feasible . Research proposals can help students discuss their dissertation with their faculty or fulfill course requirements and also help researchers obtain funding. A well-structured proposal instills confidence among readers about your ability to conduct and complete the study as proposed.  

Research proposals can be written for several reasons:³  

• To describe the importance of research in the specific topic  
• Address any potential challenges you may encounter  
• Showcase knowledge in the field and your ability to conduct a study  
• Apply for a role at a research institute  
• Convince a research supervisor or university that your research can satisfy the requirements of a degree program  
• Highlight the importance of your research to organizations that may sponsor your project  
• Identify implications of your project and how it can benefit the audience  

What Goes in a Research Proposal?    

Research proposals should aim to answer the three basic questions—what, why, and how.  

The What question should be answered by describing the specific subject being researched. It should typically include the objectives, the cohort details, and the location or setting.  

The Why question should be answered by describing the existing scenario of the subject, listing unanswered questions, identifying gaps in the existing research, and describing how your study can address these gaps, along with the implications and significance.  

The How question should be answered by describing the proposed research methodology, data analysis tools expected to be used, and other details to describe your proposed methodology.   

Research Proposal Example  

Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject.  

Structure of a Research Proposal  

If you want to know how to make a research proposal impactful, include the following components:¹  

1. Introduction  

This section provides a background of the study, including the research topic, what is already known about it and the gaps, and the significance of the proposed research.  

2. Literature review  

This section contains descriptions of all the previous relevant studies pertaining to the research topic. Every study cited should be described in a few sentences, starting with the general studies to the more specific ones. This section builds on the understanding gained by readers in the Introduction section and supports it by citing relevant prior literature, indicating to readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject.  

3. Objectives  

Once the background and gaps in the research topic have been established, authors must now state the aims of the research clearly. Hypotheses should be mentioned here. This section further helps readers understand what your study’s specific goals are.  

4. Research design and methodology  

Here, authors should clearly describe the methods they intend to use to achieve their proposed objectives. Important components of this section include the population and sample size, data collection and analysis methods and duration, statistical analysis software, measures to avoid bias (randomization, blinding), etc.  

5. Ethical considerations  

This refers to the protection of participants’ rights, such as the right to privacy, right to confidentiality, etc. Researchers need to obtain informed consent and institutional review approval by the required authorities and mention this clearly for transparency.  

6. Budget/funding  

Researchers should prepare their budget and include all expected expenditures. An additional allowance for contingencies such as delays should also be factored in.  

7. Appendices  

This section typically includes information that supports the research proposal and may include informed consent forms, questionnaires, participant information, measurement tools, etc.  

8. Citations  

Important Tips for Writing a Research Proposal  

Writing a research proposal begins much before the actual task of writing. Planning the research proposal structure and content is an important stage, which if done efficiently, can help you seamlessly transition into the writing stage. 3,5  

The Planning Stage  

• Manage your time efficiently. Plan to have the draft version ready at least two weeks before your deadline and the final version at least two to three days before the deadline.
• What is the primary objective of your research?  
• Will your research address any existing gap?  
• What is the impact of your proposed research?  
• Do people outside your field find your research applicable in other areas?  
• If your research is unsuccessful, would there still be other useful research outcomes?  

  The Writing Stage  

• Create an outline with main section headings that are typically used.  
• Focus only on writing and getting your points across without worrying about the format of the research proposal , grammar, punctuation, etc. These can be fixed during the subsequent passes. Add details to each section heading you created in the beginning.   
• Ensure your sentences are concise and use plain language. A research proposal usually contains about 2,000 to 4,000 words or four to seven pages.  
• Don’t use too many technical terms and abbreviations assuming that the readers would know them. Define the abbreviations and technical terms.  
• Ensure that the entire content is readable. Avoid using long paragraphs because they affect the continuity in reading. Break them into shorter paragraphs and introduce some white space for readability.  
• Focus on only the major research issues and cite sources accordingly. Don’t include generic information or their sources in the literature review.  
• Proofread your final document to ensure there are no grammatical errors so readers can enjoy a seamless, uninterrupted read.  
• Use academic, scholarly language because it brings formality into a document.  
• Ensure that your title is created using the keywords in the document and is neither too long and specific nor too short and general.  
• Cite all sources appropriately to avoid plagiarism.  
• Make sure that you follow guidelines, if provided. This includes rules as simple as using a specific font or a hyphen or en dash between numerical ranges.  
• Ensure that you’ve answered all questions requested by the evaluating authority.  

Key Takeaways   

Here’s a summary of the main points about research proposals discussed in the previous sections:  

• A research proposal is a document that outlines the details of a proposed study and is created by researchers to submit to evaluators who could be research institutions, universities, faculty, etc.  
• Research proposals are usually about 2,000-4,000 words long, but this depends on the evaluating authority’s guidelines.  
• A good research proposal ensures that you’ve done your background research and assessed the feasibility of the research.  
• Research proposals have the following main sections—introduction, literature review, objectives, methodology, ethical considerations, and budget.  

Frequently Asked Questions  

Q1. How is a research proposal evaluated?  

A1. In general, most evaluators, including universities, broadly use the following criteria to evaluate research proposals . 6  

• Significance —Does the research address any important subject or issue, which may or may not be specific to the evaluator or university?  
• Content and design —Is the proposed methodology appropriate to answer the research question? Are the objectives clear and well aligned with the proposed methodology?  
• Sample size and selection —Is the target population or cohort size clearly mentioned? Is the sampling process used to select participants randomized, appropriate, and free of bias?  
• Timing —Are the proposed data collection dates mentioned clearly? Is the project feasible given the specified resources and timeline?  
• Data management and dissemination —Who will have access to the data? What is the plan for data analysis?  

Q2. What is the difference between the Introduction and Literature Review sections in a research proposal ?  

A2. The Introduction or Background section in a research proposal sets the context of the study by describing the current scenario of the subject and identifying the gaps and need for the research. A Literature Review, on the other hand, provides references to all prior relevant literature to help corroborate the gaps identified and the research need.  

Q3. How long should a research proposal be?  

A3. Research proposal lengths vary with the evaluating authority like universities or committees and also the subject. Here’s a table that lists the typical research proposal lengths for a few universities.  

Q4. What are the common mistakes to avoid in a research proposal ?  

A4. Here are a few common mistakes that you must avoid while writing a research proposal . 7  

• No clear objectives: Objectives should be clear, specific, and measurable for the easy understanding among readers.  
• Incomplete or unconvincing background research: Background research usually includes a review of the current scenario of the particular industry and also a review of the previous literature on the subject. This helps readers understand your reasons for undertaking this research because you identified gaps in the existing research.  
• Overlooking project feasibility: The project scope and estimates should be realistic considering the resources and time available.   
• Neglecting the impact and significance of the study: In a research proposal , readers and evaluators look for the implications or significance of your research and how it contributes to the existing research. This information should always be included.  
• Unstructured format of a research proposal : A well-structured document gives confidence to evaluators that you have read the guidelines carefully and are well organized in your approach, consequently affirming that you will be able to undertake the research as mentioned in your proposal.  
• Ineffective writing style: The language used should be formal and grammatically correct. If required, editors could be consulted, including AI-based tools such as Paperpal , to refine the research proposal structure and language.  

Thus, a research proposal is an essential document that can help you promote your research and secure funds and grants for conducting your research. Consequently, it should be well written in clear language and include all essential details to convince the evaluators of your ability to conduct the research as proposed.  

This article has described all the important components of a research proposal and has also provided tips to improve your writing style. We hope all these tips will help you write a well-structured research proposal to ensure receipt of grants or any other purpose.  

References  

• Sudheesh K, Duggappa DR, Nethra SS. How to write a research proposal? Indian J Anaesth. 2016;60(9):631-634. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037942/  
• Writing research proposals. Harvard College Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships. Harvard University. Accessed July 14, 2024. https://uraf.harvard.edu/apply-opportunities/app-components/essays/research-proposals  
• What is a research proposal? Plus how to write one. Indeed website. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-proposal  
• Research proposal template. University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/MediaLibraries/URMCMedia/pediatrics/research/documents/Research-proposal-Template.pdf  
• Tips for successful proposal writing. Johns Hopkins University. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://research.jhu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Tips-for-Successful-Proposal-Writing.pdf  
• Formal review of research proposals. Cornell University. Accessed July 18, 2024. https://irp.dpb.cornell.edu/surveys/survey-assessment-review-group/research-proposals  
• 7 Mistakes you must avoid in your research proposal. Aveksana (via LinkedIn). Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/7-mistakes-you-must-avoid-your-research-proposal-aveksana-cmtwf/  

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Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

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• Published: 16 August 2024

The carbon emission reduction effect of China’s national high-tech industrial development zones

• Shen Zhong 1 ,
• Yaqian Wu 1 &
• Junzhi Li 2  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  18963 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

• Climate change
• Climate-change impacts

The double carbon goal is a wide and profound economic and social systematic change. It is also crucial to China's sustainable development. How to promote emission reduction, the National High-Tech Industrial Development Zones(NHTDZs) policy is the key to addressing this problem. Based on urban data from 2003 to 2019 from China, this paper uses the multi-time point asymptotic difference method to explore the impact of the NHTDZs establishment on carbon emissions. The establishment of NHTDZs reduces CO2 emissions, which remains valid through robustness tests. The mechanism analysis demonstrated that the construction of NHTDZs reduces CO2 emissions by increasing innovation levels, increasing research expenditures and emphasizing human capital. Further analysis shown that geographic location, initial resource endowment, population size, and level of green finance development are difference in different cities. This provides guidance promoting the development of NHTDZs and future layout.

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Introduction.

Since the Industrial Revolution, the overexploitation of natural resources by human beings in pursuit of rapid economic development has led to a rise in the content of CO2 in the atmosphere 1 , causing global warming. Global warming triggers extreme weather such as glacier melting, sea level rise, extreme heat and drought 2 , which seriously threatens the human survival. The effects of global 1warming on the ecological environment have gradually emerged, and CO2 emissions have attracted worldwide attention 3 . Approximately 200 countries and organizations around the world have signed the Paris Agreement to jointly limit rapid temperature increases and make commitments to reduce emissions. The U.S. has enacted the Clean Air Act 4 etc. The EU has formulated carbon pricing policies. China has built a “one + N” policy system of emission reduction goals and has formed a carbon pricing mechanism 5 . In addition, relevant emission reduction policies, such as pilot low carbon cities, green credit policies and environmental protection tax laws, have been introduced. Among them, NHTDZs also play a vital role in facilitating emission reduction and green low-carbon development.

To accelerate green low-carbon development, NHTDZs play a leading and radiating role in this process. It has become a model of economic transformation and an important engine of green low carbon development. NHTDZs converge many National High-tech Enterprises(HNTEs), forming a strong atmosphere of innovation and possessing fruitful innovation results. In recent years, the innovation capacity and the quantity of patents in NHTDZs have been steadily increasing, indicating that technology is constantly advancing. Technological progress can reduce energy costs and energy service prices 6 , decreasing the use of energy and reducing CO2 emissions 7 , 8 , 9 . According to the staffing structure in the NHTDZs, the education level of personnel is climbing, which indicates that human capital is accumulating. The accumulation of human capital can inspire inventions 10 , replace inputs between fossil and non-fossil energy sources 11 , and reduce energy consumption 10 and CO2 emissions. CO2 emission reduction is a continuous process that requires continuous capital investment. The capital investment within the NHTDZs has been increasing annually. Science expenditures promote the advancement of energy-saving technology, which promotes emission reduction 12 . It also promotes the development of low-carbon transportation systems, improves traffic management and logistics patterns, increases transportation efficiency and reduces carbon emissions. In addition, government financial subsidies for NHTDZs can guide enterprises toward low-carbon development and promote the production of greening products 3 . Therefore, clarifying the role played by NHTDZs in low-carbon economic transformation provides the necessary empirical support for realizing the win–win goal of ecological protection and economic development.

Studies on CO2 emission reduction have focused on the following aspects. Some scholars argue that the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic growth satisfies the EKC hypothesis. CO2 emissions decrease as economic growth 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 . Others argue that the relationship between economic growth and CO2 emissions are positive correlation 17 , 18 , 19 . From the macroeconomic perspective, some studies have considered the effects of human capital level 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , urbanization 25 , 26 , foreign inward investment(FID) 27 , 28 , 29 , the digital economy 30 , digital finance 31 , population aging 32 , green innovation 33 , 34 , industrial structure optimization 35 and energy structure adjustment 36 on CO2 emissions. Zhang Tao's study showed that technology transfer in European countries can reduce their own carbon emissions, but increase carbon emissions in Asian countries 37 . In addition, policies are one of the influencing factors. Cheng J et al. illustrated that low-carbon city pilots reduce carbon emissions through the transformation of technological effects into green technological progress and structural effects 38 . Allocating resources to green technology innovations can improve environmental sustainability 39 . Studies by Cheng Z et al. and Xu A et al. have shown that smart cities have a carbon reduction effect 40 , 41 . Lingxuan Liu found that industrial symbiosis and renewable energy use can reduce carbon emissions in parks 42 . Yizheng Lyu studied the impact of four typical industrial parks in China on carbon emission reduction based on the land-industry-carbon integration model 43 . Xiang Yu et al. studied the effects of 20 national low-carbon pilot zones on CO2 emissions during 2012–2016 44 . Qian L et al. found that there is a suppression effect between NHTDZs and urban carbon emissions. This suppression effect has some lag and spatial spillover effects 45 . Sun Y and Woldesilassie found that NHTDZs improve innovation capacity to reduce CO2 emissions under government guidance 46 , 47 . Li X, and Wang (2023) showed that the NHTDZs policy will reduce per capita CO2 emissions 48 .

The research on carbon emission reduction is relatively rich. This study establishes a framework for further study. Considering the variations in research contents and perspectives, there is still some research space. This study empirically investigated the effects of establishing NHTDZs on CO2 emissions in China, using a multitemporal asymptotic difference approach. This demonstrates that the establishment of NHTDZs clearly reduces CO2 emissions about 2.53% after controlling influence factors. This indicates that NHTDZs achieve the goal of decreasing CO2 emissions.

The research contributions are as follows. First, the environmentally friendly and sustainable development of NHTDZs has become a key topic of study in recent years. The literature has been conducted in foreign countries, while little literature has been transferred to the Chinese context. This paper focused on the importance of the environmental aspects of establishing NHTDZs and systematically explored the CO2 emission reduction effect of NHTDZs policy, supplementing the assessment of the effect of establishing NHTDZs. Second, this paper adopts apparent carbon emission data from the China Carbon Accounting Database (CADS) to provide more evidence for the CO2 emission reduction effect of NHTDZs. Third, this research reveals the mechanism by which NHTDZs reduce CO2 emissions. Existing studies mainly focus on innovation level, environmental regulations 49 and energy 48 . This paper additionally analyzes this topic from the perspective of human capital level and R&D investment. This approach supplements the transmission mechanism. This study provides certain reference opinions for the government on the development of NHTDZs.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows: part two provides the policy background and theoretical analysis; part three presents the research data and econometric modeling setup; part four reports the empirical results and robustness tests; part five conducts the mechanism test; part six conducts the heterogeneity analysis; and part seven presents the conclusions and policy recommendations.

Policy context and theoretical mechanisms

Policy context of nhtdzs.

As an effective way to promote the integration of science technology industries, science technology parks first appeared in the United States and gradually became popular around the world. To grasp the scientific and technological revolution, China gave birth to the idea of establishing NHTDZs. In 1988, the State Council encouraged the establishment of NHTDZs in intellectually intensive areas. NHTDZs rely on domestic science and technology, economic strength, the reform of preferential policies, and the ability to fully absorb advanced foreign scientific technological resources, to achieve local optimization of hard and soft environments. In the same year, the State Council approved the establishment of the first Beijing NHTDZ and carried out the Torch Plan. Under the impetus of the Torch Program, various places have combined local characteristics and conditions to actively create NHTDZs, which opened the prelude to the construction of NHTDZs.

After that, in 1991 and 1992, the State Council approved the construction of 51 NHTDZs in two stages, which formed the preliminary scale of construction of NHTDZs. After 2007, the State Council approved the construction of new NHTDZs at different stages. Especially after 2012, the speed of construction of NHTDZs further accelerated. By the end of 2022, the number of NHTDZs will reach 173. The time of establishment are shown in Fig.  1 .

Number of NHTDZs number.

At the early stage of reform and opening to the outside world, China's industrial base was weak. The high-tech industry was basically blank, taking the development path of "industry first". At this stage, the construction of NHTDZs focused on production factors. The construction path is to create hard conditions for parks to carry out production and attract investment, with the formation of the industrial base and economic scale as the main construction goals. China's economy started to develop. CO2 emissions were low. With the expanding scale of economic construction, the state began to realize the initial purpose of constructing NHTDZs. In 2001, the slogan of second ventures was proposed. It was proposed that the construction of NHTDZs should focus on promoting the "five transformations". NHTDZs around the world choose reasonable leading industries according to their own development characteristics and resource endowments.

For example, Xiamen Torch NHTDZ focuses on the development of strategic emerging industries; Jining NHTDZ focuses on the allocation of human resources and innovation platform resources; and Suzhou NHTDZ focuses on incubating environmentally friendly innovative enterprises.

During this period, NHTDZs achieved significant results in terms of innovation, talent introduction, and the transformation of scientific and technological fruits. Figures 2 , 3 , 4 present the NHTDZs in terms of innovation, talent accumulation and R&D expenditures.

Innovation.

NHTDZs staff.

Expenditures.

As a "testing ground" for national progressive reform, the NHTDZs are driven by the national mission 23 , 48 . This process realizes the efficient recycling of resources with the specialized agglomeration of HNTEs. It adheres to circular economy and intensive development as a means of promoting coordinated environmental and ecological development. In recent years, NHTDZs have vigorously developed in term of atmospheric control, greening and energy conservation. For air pollution management, the Wuhan East Lake NHTDZ is at the leading level in air management in China. Nanning NHTDZ has greatly reduced CO2 emissions, sulfur dioxide and other gases by replacing coal with biomass as boiler fuel. On the greening side, Suzhou NHTDZ has created green projects to realize 2.5 million square meters of new urban green space. On the energy conservation front, the Zhaoqing NHTDZ vigorously promoted photovoltaic power generation; and the Guiyang NHTDZ introduced energy-saving science technology enterprises, realizing an annual emission reduction of 1.1 million tons of CO2. By strengthening ecological construction and environmental protection, NHTDZs are actively promoting low-carbon economic development.

In view of this, the authors used the establishment of NHTDZs as a natural experiment and selected samples collected between 2003 and 2019 to explore carbon emission reduction effects. After 2019, due to the new coronavirus epidemic, restrictions on economic activity and production resulted in reduced CO2 emissions 50 , 51 , 52 , which need to be excluded from this shock.

Theoretical mechanisms

NHTDZs, as entrepreneurial highlands, talent highlands and science technology bases, are important for China's strategic development. Its core competitiveness is innovation capacity. NHTDZs can improve the environment by combining human capital with innovation 53 , reducing carbon emissions 54 . Human capital has a positive moderating effect on the environmental impact of green innovation 53 .

Human capital stimulates society's willingness to use energy saving and environmental technologies. It increases individual productivity to achieve emission reductions 55 . The improvement in China's human capital is largely attributable to increased educational attainment 56 . The education level of practitioners in China's NHTDZs is international first-class and team structure is constantly optimized (see Fig. 4 ). NHTDZs drive regional transformation and upgrading through the improvement of the human capital structure and industrial structure from labor-intensive and low-value-added industries to capital-intensive and high-value-added industries, realizing green development.

NHTDZs have attracted ample HNTEs and innovative talent through preferential policies. Through financial incentives, loan interest subsidies, project grants, the transfer of rights and interests and risk compensation, NHTDZs are growing quickly. For example, the Changsha NHTDZ arranges 500 million yuan annually as a science technology innovation and industrial development fund. In addition, government subsidies are considered labels that increase companies’ recognition of capital markets, and enterprises will go further into green development planning 57 . The following hypothesis is proposed.

H1: The establishment of NHTDZs can reduce CO2 emissions.

HNTEs are the main innovation force. Technological innovation can transform traditional factor-driven approaches into innovation-driven development approaches 58 . According to Schumpeter, technological change enters the production process in the form of invention. It is possible to improve environmental quality when production processes are optimized 59 . Endogenous growth theory suggests that the function of technological change is crucial in the economic growth process. In the past, nonrenewable energy sources were used more frequently. Economic growth may increase in carbon emissions, leading to environmental degradation 60 . As an effective means to combat climate change, innovation can improve the efficiency of energy utilization 61 , promote industrial upgrading 62 and reduce carbon emissions by replacing fossil fuels with cleaner energy sources 63 .

From the perspective of technological innovation, through the implementation of green innovation strategy, enterprises carry out comprehensive greening. They reduced carbon emissions through end-of-pipe technologies, cleaner production technologies, carbon capture and other "negative emission" technologies 64 , 65 . The application of clean energy decreases public health risks 66 , 67 and the consumption of solid fuel and improves air and water quality 66 , 67 , thereby reducing air pollution 68 . The distributed photovoltaic power generation project promoted by the Zhaoqing NHTDZ optimized the energy structure. The annual power generation will reach 21.33 million kWh, which will reduce CO2 emissions by 17,512 tons of annually. The following hypothesis is proposed.

H2: The establishment of NHTDZs facilitates CO2 reduction by enhancing innovation levels.

Human capital, as a country's soft power, can also reduce CO2 emissions 69 , 70 . Human capital theory suggests that the evolution of factor endowment structure changes regional production patterns and development trends. Endogenous growth theory suggests that knowledge spillovers can generate innovations that promote economic development 71 .

The most intuitive manifestation of human capital is investment in higher education 10 . Formal education is the main way of acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities. It also affects people’s attitudes and behaviors toward environmental ecology 72 . An increased education level produces income effects and changes cognitive abilities. The Energy consumption structure changes, which reduces the use of nonrenewable energy sources 73 , 74 . The inputs of energy can decrease with increasing human resources, while the total output remains constant 75 .

Human resources improve industrial structure, shifting from primary industry senior human capital and industrial primary technology to secondary and tertiary senior human capital and new cutting-edge technology, optimizing the allocation of production factors and promoting energy conservation 77 . The knowledge spillover effect and teamwork effect of human capital enhance the knowledge stock of enterprises and promote the absorption of foreign pollution control and clean technology. According to Nelson and Phelps, a country's ability to introduce and use new technology comes from its domestic human capital stock. A high level of human resources can drive the realization of emission reduction targets 78 . The following hypothesis is proposed.

H3: The establishment of NHTDZs contributes to carbon emission reduction by increasing the level of human capital.

A green low-carbon transition is a continuous process that requires substantial financial support, active policy support, adequate subsidized funding and diversified financing channels. Government spending on R&D reduces the CO2 emissions of countries 79 and decreases the CO2 emissions of other countries 80 .

First, R&D is costly, long and risky. Most enterprises do not have enough capital to invest and have excessive concerns 81 . The government not only provides public services, but also provides policies that promote enterprises to expand strategic investment 82 . For example, Hefei city has taken the lead in taking the green low-carbon industry as the new growth momentum of the NHTDZ, skillfully handling the relationship between carbon emission reduction and economic development.

Second, the government fosters the development of new energy and low-carbon industries through industrial policies, in which enterprises establish positive linkages with energy and technology industries and promote green consumption 3 . This further provides reliable sources of funding for clean, energy-efficient and low-carbon technologies 83 which enhances environmental quality and combats climate change.

Once again, financial technology spending improves the regional digital economy, facilitating regional greening 84 . Monitoring environmental change by reducing energy usage and carbon pollution 85 . Improving the efficiency of energy use in other sectors and reducing the burden of natural resource use 86 .

Finally, there is a relationship between external investment and CO2 54 . According to opportunity cost theory, R&D investment is generally countercyclical 87 . Because of financing constraints, R&D investment increases with the prosperity of business operations 88 . External investment can transform from theory into profitable projects that generate profits and are supported by sustaining capital. The environmental quality will improve when commerce operations prosper 89 , 90 . The following hypothesis is proposed.

H4: The establishment of NHTDZs can promote carbon emission reduction by increasing investment in scientific research.

Materials and methods

Econometric methodology.

This paper adopts an asymptotic double difference model to measure the emission reduction function of NHTDZs and the model is set as follows:

In the above equation, the dependent variable \({lnco2}_{it}\) denotes the CO2 emissions of city i in year t plus 1 to take the logarithm, from the CADS.

\({park}_{it}\) indicates that city i established an NHTDZ in year t. If city i established an NHTDZ for the first time in year t, then \({park}_{it}\) =1, and conversely \({park}_{it}\) =0. The coefficient \({\alpha }_{1}\) is attention, which indicates the policy effect. \({\sigma }_{i}\) is the control city fixed effect. \({\pi }_{t}\) is the year fixed effect. \({\varepsilon }_{it}\) is the random error and is clustered at the city level. The list of NHTDZs from the Ministry of Science and Technology Torch High Technology Industry Development Center.

After 2019, due to the new coronavirus epidemic, restrictions on economic activity and production resulted in reduced CO2 emissions 50 , 51 , 52 , which need to be excluded from this shock. Furthermore, the explanatory variable data comes from the CADS database, which is updated to 2019. Therefore, the data from 2003 to 2019 are selected as the sample.

Referring to the literature, this paper incorporates a series of city-level control variables from the Statistical Yearbook of China's Cities. See Supplementary table 1.1 of part one of appendix 1 for details.

Empirical results

Baseline regression.

Table 1 shows the regression results, with each column controlling for city and year fixed effects. The negative effect gradually increases after the gradual addition of control variables and is significant at the 1% level, indicating that the establishment of NHTDZS can reduce carbon emissions at the city level. The coefficient of the core explanatory variable is − 0.0253, indicating that after the establishment of the NHTDZS, the total carbon emissions of the regions decreased by approximately 3.49%. H1 is verified.

Parallel trend testing

Is the discrepancy in total carbon emissions resulting from the establishment of NHTDZs itself? The impacts of other factors are difficult to observe. The following model is constructed for testing:

The park still indicates whether the region established an NHTDZ, so j i indicates the year in which region i obtained the first NHTDZ. Park(− 7) = 1 when t-j <  = − 7, otherwise it is 0; park(k) = 1; when t-j <  = k, k = − 6, k = -5, k = -4, k = -3, k = − 2, k = − 1, k = 0, k = 1, k = 2, k = 3, k = 4, k = 5, k = 5, k = 6; park(7) = 1, when t-j >  = − 7; otherwise it is 0. Drawing on the classic literature, the regression equation is based on the establishment of the previous year as the benchmark group, and the rest are consistent with Model 1.

The results of the parallel trend test are shown in Fig. 5 , which demonstrates the treatment trend in seven periods before and after the event, with the horizontal axis showing the years, the vertical axis showing coefficients and dashed lines indicating the confidence intervals at the 90% level. Figure  5 shows that the model satisfies the assumption of parallel trends.

Parallel trend testing.

Robustness test

Using propensity score matching methods mitigates conclusion bias due to sample selection. In this research, 1:1 and 1:4 proximity matching and kernel matching are utilized for sample matching. The regression results are shown in Supplementary table 1.2 of part one of appendix 1 . It suggests that the conclusion is robust.

Placebo test

This paper performed the following 4 aspects of the placebo test to exclude random interference. First, a time placebo test is conducted. The establishment of NHTDZs was preceded by phases 1 to 10 as a pseudo-processing group to examine the significance of the placebo effect. Second, conducting spatial placebo, a number of individuals are randomly selected from the full sample and the pseudo-processing time is set to t 1 . The remaining sample pseudo-processing time was set to t 2 , which included 1000 samples. Finally, placebo tests were conducted with and without constraints, with randomized pseudo-treatment times for each individual in the sample within a specified range, without maintaining the community structure (without constraints) and with maintaining the community structure (with constraints). The results of the tests are shown in Supplementary Fig. 1.1 – 1.4 in of part one of appendix 1.

Excluding contemporaneous policies

To exclude the interference of related policies, this paper excludes low-carbon city pilot areas, key air pollution control areas, emissions trading areas, and carbon emissions trading areas. The regression results are shown in Table 2 . After excluding relevant interference policies, the conclusion is still robust.

Incorporation of predetermined variables

When establishing NHTDZs, areas with better initial environmental conditions may be chosen. Referring to Hua yue et al. 49 , the cross-multiplication terms of municipal wastewater emissions, the comprehensive utilization rate of general industrial solid wastes, SO2 emissions, nitrogen oxide emissions and the initial time are added to model(1). The results are shown in column (1) of Table 3 . The core coefficients are negative. The conclusion is still robust.

Replacing the explanatory variables

Considering possible measure error, the explanatory variables are reconstructed and included in the regression. Specifically, the ratio of total CO2 emissions to household population, the ratio of total CO2 emissions to urban area and the ratio of GDP to CO2 emissions were regressed separately into the baseline equation. The results are shown in columns (2)-(4) of Table 3 . The park coefficients are significantly negative.

Bacon decomposition

In order to estimate the carbon emission reduction effect of the pilot policy of the NHTDZs by using the two-way fixed-effect model, it is necessary to ensure that the treatment effect of the treatment group does not change with time in addition to satisfying the parallel trend。If the treatment effect is likely to vary over time, two-way fixed-effect model should not be used to summarize the estimated effect. Bacon decomposition helps provide a way to judge whether two-way fixed-effect model can provide meaningful causal estimates. Following the approach of Goodman-Bacon (2021) 91 , the estimators obtained from the two-way effect estimation are decomposed into a weighted average of all the classical 2*2DID estimators. If the estimated effects obtained by multiplying the coefficients of all type groups with the weights and summing them are essentially the same as the treatment effects obtained in the baseline regression model (1), this indicates that the two-way fixed-effects model has meaningful causality. The decomposition results are shown in Table 4 . Samples are divided into 12 timing group (Fig.  6 ), including an always-treated group and a never-treated group. There are two types of treatment in the timing groups, the early treatment group (experimental group) vs. the late treatment group (control group), and the late treatment group (experimental group) vs. the early treatment group (control group). The sum of weighted treatment effect is − 0.0253(P = 0.062, consistent with the results estimated from two-way fixed effects). Two-way fixed model provides meaningful causal estimates.

Bacon decomposition.

Reselection of samples

First, the research retains only the treatment group that establishes a NHTDZ for the regression. Multiple NHTDZs may have a stacking effect. Column 1 of Table 5 shows the results. Second, municipalities were deleted. Municipalities are at the same administrative level as the provincial level. They differ in terms of their built-up areas, population, resources, economic vitality and so on. After, excluding the municipality samples for regression, See column 2 of Table 5 for the results. Third, the sample size was adjusted. The NHTDZS establishment time was concentrated between 1988–1997 and 2007-present. Therefore, this paper excludes the NHTDZS established in 1988–1997. The regression results are shown in column 3 of Table 5 . The above tests are significantly negative, demonstrating that the findings are credible.

Transmission mechanism analysis

Technology upgrading effect.

The innovation data come from the statistical yearbook of each city. The green innovation data come from the China Research Data Service Platform (CNRDS). patents granted, utility patents, appearance patents and green utility patents indicate a city's innovation level respectively. The results are shown in columns (1) -(4) of Table 6 . In addition, the invention score of the Peking University Enterprise Big Data Research Center(PUEBDRC) indicates a city’s innovation level. The results are shown in column (5) of Table 6 . All of the above results show that the creation of NHTDZs significantly improves the city's innovation level. H2 is valid.

In summary, measuring the level of innovation in different dimensions suggests that the establishment of NHTDZs improves a city’s innovation capacity, further reducing carbon emissions. The impact of the setting of NHTDs on carbon dioxide emissions has a technological improvement effect. It refers to that the establishment of NHTDs increase technological progress. Technological progress reduces the total amount of carbon dioxide emissions or the production of more alternative products to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The greater the ability to innovate, the lower the CO2 emissions, which may be due to: (1) Technological innovation is NHTDs’ core competitiveness. Low-carbon technology and carbon-free technology reduce the total carbon dioxide emissions; (2) Technological innovation can replace energy-consuming products by producing new environmentally friendly products, so as to achieve the effect of energy conservation and emission reduction. Shao Shuai et al. (2022) showed that the improvement of China's technological innovation capability has a restraining effect on carbon dioxide emissions 76 . Compared to provincial development zones or other special economic zones, NHTDs have a special status and establishment goals. They can play a better role in reducing CO2 emissions through innovative channels.

• Human capital

College graduates are an important force for national scientific technological innovation. Scientific technological talent is an important part of scientific research. This approach is crucial for improving the construction of a scientific research governance system and capacity. The NHTDs is an important platform for high-quality entrepreneurship and employment, and has become a base for continuously attracting high-level innovative talents, bringing together two-thirds of the entrepreneurial talents in the national entrepreneurship plan. The number of fresh graduates from colleges and universities increased from 472,000 in 2012 to 800,000 in 2021. The improvement in Chinese's human capital is mainly due to the increase in educational attainment 56 . The most visible manifestation of investment in human capital is investment in higher education 10 . By improving the structure of human capital and industrial structure, we will drive regional transformation and upgrading, shift from labor-intensive industries to capital-intensive industries, and evolve from low-value-added industries to high-value-added industries, so as to achieve green development. To test H3, education expenditures in government finance from the China Urban Statistical Yearbook are selected as proxy variables. The results in column (1) of Table 7 show that the creation of NHTDZs improved the government's financing of education emphasis, promoting human capital accumulation. If human capital is high, technological progress is very significant 78 , and carbon reduction targets can be effectively promoted. H3 is verified.

Research expenditure mechanisms

Technological progress is conducive to CO2 reduction. R&D expenditure is the key element in promoting technological progress. When R&D investment increases, the more advanced energy-saving and emission reduction technologies and equipment will be acquired, reducing CO2 emissions. Technological transformation is an ongoing process. The innovation of enterprises in the NHTDZs has a stable source of funding, a competitive external environment and policy support, etc. Under the condition of government cultivation and subsidies, venture capital has broken through the counter-cyclical nature and accelerated the turnover speed, which eased the constraints on R&D funds and accelerated the investment process of enterprises, thereby promoting carbon emission reduction. Whether the NHTDZs can promote carbon emission reduction by increasing investment in scientific research, the following steps are taken to verify hypothesis 4. The ratio of government expenditure to science technology expenditure indicates the degree of R&D support. The FDI score and ranking from PUEBDRC measure the degree of foreign investment attraction. The results are shown in columns (2)-(4) of Table 7 , indicating that NHTDZs increase their investment in science technology R&D by obtaining government support which promotes carbon emission reduction. H4 is tested.

Heterogeneity analysis

Regional heterogeneity.

First, due to differences in administrative level, urban vitality and informatization level, cities are divided into central and peripheral cities. The results are shown in columns (1) and (2) of Table 8 . The NHTDZs in the central city have more R&D capital and personnel, which produces a rainbow effect, reducing emissions. Second, the cities were divided into large and small cities according to the median population. It has been shown that larger populations in cities have a greater demand for resource consumption, which generates more CO2. As shown in columns (3)-(4) of Table 8 . NHTDZs in large cities have certain advantages in term of their technological level, human capital, openness, and basic transportation, and they can better reduce emissions. Finally, the cities are divided into coastal and inland areas, as shown in columns (5)-(6) of Table 8 . The carbon reduction in coastal cities is better. Because coastal cities are developed and are engaged in light industry and the industrial structure is more reasonable, coastal city carbon reduction is better. All the results were subjected to 1000 bootstrap intergroup coefficient difference tests (Subsequent tests for heterogeneity were also examined) , and the results were considered significant.

Resource Heterogeneity

According to the classification criteria of the National Sustainable Development Plan for Resource-Based Cities (2013–2020), cities are divided into resource-based and non-resource-based cities. Columns (1)-(2) of Table 9 show the regression results. The effect of nonresource cities is greater 92 . It may be that resource-based cities depend on resources in the initial stages. This leads to a development model dominated by resource-based industries, which produce more CO2.

Green finance heterogeneity

Green finance can formulate green standards and principles. It provides credit support for low-carbon projects, which helps enterprises in NHTDZs obtain more funds, reducing carbon emissions. Green credit, green investment, green bonds and green support indicate green finance. The results are shown in columns (3) and (4) of Table 9 and Table 10 . The emission reduction effect is more obvious in regions with a higher level of green finance.

Discussion, conclusion and insights

NHTDZs can achieve the goal of protecting the environment and ecology on the basis of economic growth 93 . Unlike previous studies that focused on economic impacts, NHTDZs policy is included in the analytical framework for influencing CO2 emissions. Hua Y et al. (2023) combined provincial high-tech zones and NHTDZs to study their environmental effects 94 . In this paper, NHTDZs have the advantages of being high grade and enjoying strong policies, only these zones are taken as the research objects for examining emission reduction intensity. Li X (2023) showed that NHTDZs can reduce CO2 emissions through scale effects and technological innovations 48 . This paper further enriches the knowledge on the transmission mechanism of human capital stock, research investment and attractiveness of venture capital, and the Bacon decomposition of emission reductions in NHTDZs.

The research in this paper has great practical significance, but there are some limitations. In terms of data use, this study uses the CADS, which only has carbon emission data up to 2019. the data for subsequent years is missing and cannot be estimated, resulting in a sample date that can only be used to 2019. In addition, although the reliability of the results has been verified by various robustness tests, there may be factors that cannot be completely ruled out and have a potential impact on the results.

In future research, the following aspects can be strengthened: in terms of data, the data source of the explanatory variables is only a single database. for example, the reliability of the conclusions can be tested by using the measured values of other databases. In terms of the depth of research on the NHTDZs; As an important base for high-tech industries, the NHTDZs need to study its actual role in the process of China's green development from more angles, so as to provide a theoretical basis for reality.

Conclusion and inspiration

The establishment of NHTDZs is an important initiative to implement the new development concept to realize sustainable development. It has great potential compared with other traditional policies. This paper verifies the impact of the establishment of NHTDZs on carbon emissions based on city-level data in China from 2003 to 2019. This study revealed that the construction of NHTDZs is effective at reducing carbon emissions. The conclusion remains robust after a series of tests such as the exclusion of contemporaneous policies and Bacon decomposition. The mechanism results show that NHTDZs facilitate carbon emission reduction by improving innovation levels, accumulating human capital, and promoting R&D expenditures. The heterogeneity analysis revealed that the carbon emission reduction effect was greater in the central city, which has a high level of green financial development, inland areas and nonresource cities.

The construction of NHTDZs can effectively reduce regional carbon emissions, and has a positive effect on improving the level of regional innovation, research capabilities and strict conditions. Therefore, the regional government should provide certain support to the provincial development zones and economic development zones and add national inspection targets to the assessment system, to meet the conditions for application in the NHTDZs. The importance of NHTDZs for emission reduction is highlighted.

Different cities should be supported to jointly apply to the NHTDZs. Research shows that different geographic locations of NHTDZs have different emission reduction effects. The approval conditions for NHTDZs are generally more stringent. If a joint application can be made across cities, the probability of success increases. This can not only lead to sustainable development, but also competition, increasing synergistic development.

The establishment of NHTDZs has occurred for more than 30 years. Earlier-established NHTDZs may outperform later-established NHTDZs. In addition, the NHTDZs’ targets are also various. In the subsequent research, NHTDZs can be divided into specific divisions with different development goals, highlighting the national policy of "one park, one policy".

This study appreciates support for a fund: Researches on the Optimization Path of Forest and Grassland Carbon Sink Policy in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region under the Goal of “Double Carbon” (Project Approval No. GXKY22203).

Data availability

All data used in this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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