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Business Research: Methods, Types & Examples

Business research can be done for anything . Generally , when discussing business research design, people ask research questions to determine where money can be spent to increase sales, profits, or market share.

Such research is critical to making wise and informed decisions. Because of this, business research plays a vital role in understanding various aspects of a business environment.

What Is Business Research

Business research is the process of acquiring detailed information on all business areas and using such information to maximize the business’s sales and profit. Such a study helps companies determine which product/service is most profitable or in demand.

It can be stated as acquiring information or knowledge for professional or commercial purposes to determine a business’s opportunities and goals.

For example, a mobile company wants to launch a new model in the market but needs to be made aware of the dimensions of a mobile that are in most demand. Hence, the company conducts business research using various methods to gather information and to test market demand , which is then evaluated. Conclusions are drawn as to what dimensions are most in demand.

This will enable the researcher to make wise decisions about positioning his phone at the right price in the market and, hence, acquire a larger market share.

Types of Business Research and Methodologies

Business research is part of the business intelligence process. It is usually conducted to determine whether a company can succeed in a new region, understand its competitors, or select a marketing approach for a product. This research can be carried out using the research process steps in qualitative or quantitative research methods.

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research methods deal with numbers. They are systematic empirical investigations using statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. Such methods usually start with data collection and then proceed to statistical analysis using various methods. The following are some research methods used to conduct business research.

1. Survey Research

Survey research is one of the most widely used methods of gathering data, especially for conducting business research. Surveys involve asking various survey questions to a set of audiences through various types, such as online polls, online surveys, questionnaires, etc. Nowadays, most major corporations use this method to gather data and use it to understand the market and make appropriate business decisions.

Various types of surveys, like cross-sectional studies , which need to collect data from a set of audiences at a given point in time, or longitudinal surveys, which need to collect data from a set of audiences across various time durations to understand changes in the respondents’ behavior, are used to conduct survey research. With technological advancement, surveys can now be sent online through email or social media .

For example: A company wants to know the NPS score for their website i.e. how satisfied are people who are visiting their website. An increase in traffic to their website or the audience spending more time on a website can result in higher rankings on search engines which will enable the company to get more leads as well as increase its visibility.

Hence, the company can ask people who visit their website a few questions through an online survey to understand their opinions or gain feedback and hence make appropriate changes to the website to increase satisfaction.

2. Correlational Research

Correlational research is conducted to understand the relationship between two entities and what impact each one of them has on the other. Using mathematical analysis methods, correlational research enables the researcher to correlate two or more variables .

Such research can help understand patterns, relationships, market research trends , etc. Manipulation of one variable can also yield the desired results. Generally, a conclusion cannot be drawn only based on correlational research.

For example, Research can be conducted to understand the relationship between colors and gender-based audiences. Using such research and identifying the target audience, a company can choose to produce particular-colored products for release in the market. This can enable the company to understand its products’ supply and demand requirements .

3. Causal-Comparative Research

Causal-comparative research is a method based on the comparison. It is used to deduce the cause-effect relationship between variables. Sometimes also known as quasi-experimental research, it involves establishing an independent variable and analyzing the effects on the dependent variable.

In such research, data manipulation is not done; however, changes are observed in the variables or groups under the influence of the same changes. Concluding such research is tricky as independent and dependent variables will always exist in a group. Hence, all other parameters must be considered before any inferences from the research are drawn .

For example: Research can be conducted to analyze the effect of good educational facilities in rural areas. Such a study can be done to analyze the changes in the group of people from rural areas when they are provided with good educational facilities and before that.

Another example is analyzing the effect of dams on farmers or crop production in an area.

4. Experimental Research

Experimental research is based on trying to prove a theory. Such research may be useful in business research as it can let the product company know some behavioral traits of its consumers, which can lead to more revenue. In this method, an experiment is carried out on a set of audiences to observe and later analyze their behavior when impacted by certain parameters.

For example: Experimental research was conducted recently to understand if particular colors have an effect on consumers’ hunger. A set of the audience was then exposed to those particular colors while they were eating, and the subjects were observed. It was seen that certain colors like red or yellow increase hunger.

Hence, such research was a boon to the hospitality industry. You can see many food chains like Mcdonalds, KFC, etc., using such colors in their interiors, brands, as well as packaging.

Another example of inferences drawn from experimental research, which is used widely by most bars/pubs across the world, is that loud music in the workplace or anywhere makes a person drink more in less time. This was proven through experimental research and was a key finding for many business owners across the globe.

5. Online Research / Literature Research

Literature research is one of the oldest methods available. It is very economical, and a lot of information can be gathered using such research. Online research or literature research involves gathering information from existing documents and studies, which can be available at Libraries, annual reports, etc.

Nowadays, with the advancement in technology, such research has become even more simple and accessible to everyone. An individual can directly research online for any information that is needed, which will give him in-depth information about the topic or the organization.

Such research is used mostly by marketing and salespeople in the business sector to understand the market or their customers. Such research is carried out using existing information that is available from various sources. However, care has to be taken to validate the sources from where the information is going to be collected.

For example , a salesperson has heard a particular firm is looking for some solution that their company provides. Hence, the salesperson will first search for a decision maker from the company, investigate what department he is from, and understand what the target company is looking for and what they are into.

Using this research, he can cater his solution to be spot on when he pitches it to this client. He can also reach out to the customer directly by finding a means to communicate with him by researching online.’

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research is a method that is highly important in business research. It involves obtaining data through open-ended conversational means of communication. Such research enables the researcher to not only understand what the audience thinks but also why they think it.

In such research, in-depth information can be gathered from the subjects depending on their responses. Various types of qualitative research methods, such as interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, and case study research, are widely used.

Such methods are of very high importance in business research as they enable the researcher to understand the consumer. What motivates the consumer to buy and what does not is what will lead to higher sales, and that is the prime objective for any business.

The following are a few methods that are widely used by most businesses in today’s world :

1. Interviews

Interviews are somewhat similar to surveys, like sometimes they may have the same types of questions used. The difference is that the respondent can answer these open-ended questions at length, and the direction of the conversation or the questions being asked can be changed depending on the response of the subject.

Such a method usually gives the researcher detailed information about the perspective or opinions of its subject. Interviewing subject matter experts can also provide important information critical to some businesses.

For example, a telecom manufacturer interviewed a group of women to understand why they have fewer female customers. After interviewing them, the researcher understood that some of the models had fewer feminine colors , and females preferred not to purchase them.

Such information can be critical to a business such as a telecom manufacturer. Hence, it can be used to increase its market share by targeting women customers by launching some feminine colors in the market.

Another example would be to interview a subject matter expert in social media marketing. Such an interview can enable a researcher to understand why certain types of social media advertising strategies work for a company and why some of them don’t.

2. Focus Groups

Focus groups are a set of individuals explicitly selected to understand their opinions and behaviors. They are usually a small group that is selected keeping in mind the parameters for their target market audience to discuss a particular product or service. Such a method enables a researcher to have a larger sample than an interview or a case study while taking advantage of conversational communication.

Focus groups are also one of the best examples of qualitative data in education . Nowadays, focus groups can also be sent online surveys to collect data and answer why, what, and how questions. Such a method is crucial for testing new concepts or products before they are launched in the market.

For example, Research is conducted with a focus group to understand what dimension of screen size is preferred most by the current target market. Such a method can enable a researcher to dig deeper to determine whether the target market focuses more on screen size, features, or phone colors . Using this data, a company can make wise decisions about its product line and secure a higher market share.

3. Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research is one of the most challenging research but can give extremely precise results. Such research is used quite rarely, as it is time-consuming and can be expensive as well. It involves the researcher adapting to the natural environment and observing its target audience to collect data. Such a method is generally used to understand cultures, challenges, or other things that can occur in that particular setting.

For example: The world-renowned show “Undercover Boss” would be an apt example of how ethnographic research can be used in businesses. In this show, the senior management of a large organization works in his own company as a regular employee to understand what improvements can be made, what is the culture in the organization, and to identify hard-working employees and reward them.

It can be seen that the researcher had to spend a good amount of time in the natural setting of the employees and adapt to their ways and processes. While observing in this setting, the researcher could find out the information he needed firsthand without losing any information or any bias and improve certain things that would impact his business.

4. Case Study Research

Case study research is one of the most important types of business research. Most businesses use it as marketing collateral to attract more clients. It is conducted to assess customer satisfaction and document the challenges faced and the solutions provided by the firm .

These inferences are made to point out the benefits that the customer enjoyed when choosing their specific firm. Such research is widely used in other fields like education, social sciences, and similar. Businesses provide case studies to new clients to showcase their capabilities, and hence, such research plays a crucial role in the business sector.

For example: A services company has provided a testing solution to one of its clients. A case study research is conducted to find out what were the challenges faced during the project, what was the scope of their work, what objective was to be achieved, and what solutions were given to tackle the challenges.

The study can end with the benefits that the company provided through its solutions, like reduced time to test batches, easy implementation or integration of the system, or even cost reduction. Such a study showcases the capability of the company, and hence it can be stated as empirical evidence of the new prospect.

5. Website Visitor Profiling/Research

Website intercept surveys or website visitor profiling/research are new and quite helpful in the business sector. They are an innovative approach to collecting direct feedback from your website visitors using surveys. In recent times, a lot of business generation has happened online, and hence, it is important to understand your website visitors as they are your potential customers.

Collecting feedback is critical to any business, as no business can be successful without understanding customers. To stay on top, a company has to keep its customers satisfied and try to make them loyal customers.

A website intercept survey is an online survey that allows you to target visitors to understand their intent and collect feedback to evaluate the customers’ online experience. This can collect information like visitor intention, behavior path, and satisfaction with the overall website.

Depending on the information a company seeks , multiple forms of website intercept surveys can be used to gather responses. Some popular ones are pop-ups, also called modular boxes, and on-page surveys.

For example , a prospective customer is looking for a particular product that a company is selling. Once he is directed to the website, an intercept survey starts noting his intent and path. Once the transaction has been made, a pop-up or an on-page survey is provided to the customer to rate the website.

Such research enables the researcher to use this data effectively, understand the customers’ intent and path, and improve any parts of the website depending on the responses. This, in turn, would lead to satisfied customers and, hence, higher revenues and market share.

Advantages of Business Research

Business research helps to identify opportunities and threats.
It helps identify research problems , and using this information, wise decisions can be made to tackle the issue appropriately.
It helps to understand customers better and can help communicate better with the customers or stakeholders.
Risks and uncertainties can be minimized by conducting business research in advance.
Financial outcomes and investments that will be needed can be planned effectively using business research.
Such research can help track competition in the business sector.
Business research can enable a company to make wise decisions as to where to spend and how much.
Business research can enable a company to stay up-to-date with the market and its trends, and appropriate innovations can be made to stay ahead.
Business research helps to measure reputation management .

Disadvantages of Business Research

Business research can be a high-cost affair
Most of the time, business research is based on assumptions
Business research can be time-consuming
Business research can sometimes give you inaccurate information because of a biased population or a small focus group.
Business research results can quickly become obsolete because of the fast-changing markets.

Importance of Business Research

Business research is one of the most effective ways to understand customers, the market, and competitors. It helps companies understand the market’s demand and supply. Using such research will help businesses reduce costs and create solutions or products that are targeted to the market’s demand and the correct audience.

In-house business research can enable senior management to build an effective team or train or mentor when needed. Business research enables the company to track its competitors and hence can give you the upper hand to stay ahead of them.

Conducting such research can avoid failures. It will give the researcher an idea of whether it is right to launch its product/solution and whether the audience is right. It will also help understand the brand value and measure customer satisfaction, essential to innovation and continuous customer demand.

This will help the company grow its revenue and market share. Business research also helps recruit ideal candidates for various company roles. By conducting such research, a company can conduct a SWOT analysis , i.e., understand its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. With this information, wise decisions can be made to ensure business success.

Business Research To Improve Company Strategy

A well-rounded business strategy relies on data-driven insights across various areas of operation, from understanding customer needs to staying competitive in the market. Businesses need to conduct research to make informed decisions.

Each component—from market and financial analysis to demand forecasting—requires a structured approach to gather, interpret, and apply information effectively.

Let’s explore how business research supports different aspects of a company’s strategy and decision-making process. You can uncover insights that drive growth, reduce risks, and enhance efficiency with the right tools and approach.

Market Analysis

Business research in market analysis helps companies understand the landscape in which they operate. This includes gathering information about customer demographics, buying behaviors, industry trends, and market size. By analyzing these factors, businesses can identify potential growth opportunities, understand market demand, and determine the best strategies for targeting their audience.

Accurate market research allows a company to understand its customers better, identify unmet needs, and tailor its products or services accordingly, while promoting retention. It’s the foundation for creating effective marketing and business development strategies.

Financial Analysis

Business research examines a company’s financial health and performance in financial analysis. This includes assessing income statements, balance sheets, cash flows, and financial ratios. Research helps businesses evaluate their profitability, liquidity, and overall economic stability. It also provides insight into investment viability and guides financial decision-making.

A thorough financial analysis is crucial for making informed budget decisions, ensuring sustainable growth, and attracting investors. Research-driven financial analysis can help pinpoint areas where costs can be reduced or investments optimized.

Brand Analysis

Business research in brand analysis assesses how customers perceive a brand and how it stands against competitors. This includes analyzing brand awareness, customer loyalty, reputation, and positioning. Research in this area often uses surveys , focus groups, and social listening.

Understanding brand perception enables companies to refine their branding strategies to resonate with their target audience. Effective brand research helps businesses build substantial brand equity, differentiate from competitors, and maintain customer loyalty.

Product Analysis

Product analysis involves researching a product’s performance, customer satisfaction, features, and competitive position. Research helps identify a product’s strengths and weaknesses, assess customer preferences, and determine potential for improvement or innovation.

Business research informs product development and innovation. By understanding customer needs and comparing the product against competitors, companies can improve their offerings, refine features, or introduce new products to meet evolving demands.

Risk Analysis

Risk analysis involves identifying, assessing, and prioritizing potential risks that could impact the business. Business research in this area examines factors such as market volatility, regulatory changes, operational risks, and economic conditions. It helps companies quantify and manage the risks they face.

Effective risk analysis protects a business from unforeseen disruptions and prepares it for potential challenges. Research in this area allows companies to develop risk management strategies, minimize losses, and ensure business continuity.

Competitor Analysis

Competitor analysis involves gathering and analyzing data about competitors, such as their products, pricing, marketing strategies, strengths, and weaknesses. This research helps companies understand the competitive landscape and identify their own competitive advantages.

By knowing what competitors are doing, businesses can strategize more effectively, capitalize on their own strengths, and exploit competitors’ weaknesses. Competitor analysis helps companies stay relevant and maintain a competitive edge.

Demand Analysis

Demand analysis assesses current and future demand for a product or service. Research in this area examines consumer purchasing patterns, economic factors, seasonal trends, and overall market demand.

Understanding demand helps companies adjust their production, pricing, and marketing efforts. It allows businesses to anticipate market needs, avoid overproduction or shortages, and make data-driven decisions to optimize supply chain management.

Distribution Analysis

Distribution analysis examines the most efficient ways to deliver products or services to the end customer. Research in this area evaluates distribution channels, logistics, transportation costs, and delivery times.

Efficient distribution is crucial for customer satisfaction and cost management. Business research helps companies select the right channels, optimize their supply chain, reduce delivery times, and improve customer experience.

Business research is the first step any business owner needs to take to establish his business and ensure its survival or excellence in the market. Such research is of the utmost importance because it helps companies grow in terms of revenue, market share, and brand value.

If you want to streamline your business research process, consider tools like QuestionPro to gather and analyze data effectively across all these critical areas. With specialized solutions to handle surveys, analysis, and reporting, you can make informed decisions to drive your business forward.

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Summary Business Research Methods

Business research methods tweede jaar (ava-ibms-011), avans hogeschool.

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Preview tekst, business research methods.

Chapter 1 - 10 bcs.wiley/he-bcs/Books?action=index&amp;itemId=0470744790&amp;bcsId=

Research: the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors. Business research: organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it.  It guides managers to make informed decisions to successfully deal with problems.  Data can be: o Quantitative: generally gathered through structured questions o Qualitative: generated from the broad answers to specific questions in interviews, or from responses to open-ended questions in a questionnaire, or through observation, or from already available information gathered from various sources.

Types of Business research: - Applied research: research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced in an organization. ( to solve a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting, demanding a timely solution.) - Basic/fundamental/pure research: research done chiefly to make a contribution to existing knowledge. (to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved.) Main distinction between applied and basic business research is that the former is specifically aimed at solving a currently experienced problem, whereas the latter has the broader objective of generating knowledge and understanding of phenomena and problems that occur in various organizational settings.

Being knowledgeable about research and research methods helps professional managers to: - Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting. - Know how to discriminate good from bad research - Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple influences and multiple effects of factors impinging on a situation - Take calculated risks in decision making, knowing full well the probabilities associated with the different possible outcomes. - Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence in a situation - Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively

The manager-researcher relationship:

While hiring researchers or consultants the manager should make sure that: 1. The roles and expectations of both parties are made explicit. 2. Relevant philosophies and value systems of the organization are clearly stated and constraints, if any, are communicated 3. A good rapport is established with the researchers, and between the researchers and the employees in the organization, enabling the full cooperation of the latter.

Internal versus external consultants/researchers Advantages of internal consultants/researchers:

The internal team stands a better chance of being readily accepted by the employees in the subunit of the organization where research needs to be done.
The team requires much less time to understand the structure, the philosophy and climate and the functioning and work systems of the organization.
They are available to implement their recommendations after the research findings have been accepted. This is very important because any “bugs” in the implementation of the recommendations may be removed with their help. They are also available to evaluate the effectiveness of the changes, and to consider further changes if and when necessary.
The internal team might cost considerably less than an external team for the department enlisting help in problem solving, because they will need less time to understand the system due to their continuous involvement with various units of the organization. For problems of low complexity, the internal team would be ideal.

Disadvantages of internal consultants/researchers: 1. In view of their long tenure (ambtsperiode) as internal consultants, the internal team may quite possibly fall into a stereotyped way of looking at the organization and its problems. This inhibits any fresh ideas and perspectives that might be needed to correct the problem. This is definitely a handicap for situations in which weighty issues and complex problems are to be investigated. 2. There is scope for certain powerful coalitions in the organization to influence the internal team to conceal, distort, or misrepresent certain facts. In other words, certain vested interests could dominate, especially in securing a sizable portion of the available scant resources. 3. There is also a possibility that even the most highly qualified internal research teams are not perceived as “experts” by the staff and management, and hence their recommendations may not get the consideration and attention they deserve. 4. Certain organizational biases of the internal research team might, in some instances, make the findings less objective and consequently less scientific.

Ethics in business: refers to a code of conduct or expected societal norm of behavior while conducting research.

Scientific research: focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step logical, organized, and rigorous method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze them, and draw valid conclusions from them.

Scientific investigation:  More objective than subjective  Helps managers to highlight the most critical factors at the workplace that need specific attention so as to avoid, minimize, or solve problems.  Applies to both basic and applied research.

Scientific investigation and managerial decision making are integral aspects of effective problem solving.

Main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research: 1. Purposiveness: research has a definite aim or purpose 2. Rigor : it indicates carefulness, scrupulousness (zorgvuldigheid), and the degree of exactitude (nauwkeurigheid) in research investigation. Rigorous research involves a good theoretical base and a carefully thought-out methodology. These factors enable the researcher to collect the right kind of information from an appropriate sample with the minimum degree of bias (vooringenomenheid), and facilitate suitable analysis of the data gathered. 3. Testability: scientific research thus lends itself to testing logically developed hypotheses to see whether or not the data support the educated conjectures (vermoedens) or hypotheses that are developed after a careful study of the problem situation. 4. Replicability: Results of tests of hypotheses should be supported again and yet again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumstances. Then we will gain confidence in the

Nature of information to be gathered; - Background information on the organization (the contextual factors; o Origin and history of the company o Size in terms of employees, assets or both o Charter (purpose and Ideology) o Location (regional, national or other) o Resources: human and other o Interdependent relationships with other institutions and the external environment. o Financial position during the previous five to ten years, and relevant financial data. o Information on structural factors o Information on the management philosophy - Prevailing knowledge on the topic (relevant findings from previous research) o Literature review: a step-by-step process that involves the identification of published and unpublished work from secondary data sources on the topic of interest, the evaluation of this work in relation to the problem, and the documentation of this work.  A good literature review ensures that:  Important variables that likely influence the problem situation are not left out.  Helps the development of the theoretical framework and hypotheses for testing  The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity  Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced.  One does not run the risk of wasting effort on trying to rediscover something that is already known.  The problem investigated is perceived by the scientific community as relevant and significant.

Conducting the literature review: - Data sources: Textbooks, Journals, Theses, Conference proceedings, Unpublished manuscripts, Reports, Newspapers, Internet - Searching for literature: Electronic journals, Full-text databases, Bibliographic databases, Abstract databases. - Evaluating the literature: Titles, Abstract, Introduction, Table of Content - Documenting the literature review: its important to convince the reader that the researcher is knowledgeable about the problem area and has done the preliminary homework that is necessary to conduct the research and the theoretical framework will be structured on work already done and will add to the solid foundation of existing knowledge.

Secondary data: data gathered through existing sources, data that already exist and do not have to be collected by the researcher. Primary data: data gained by observing events, people and objects or by administering questionnaires to individuals.

Defining the problem situation

Problem statement: a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the specific issue that a researcher wishes to investigate. Three criteria to assess the quality of the problem statement. It should be: - Relevant; o From a managerial perspective: research is relevant if it relates to (1) a problem that currently exist in an organizational setting or (2) an area that a manager believes needs to be improved in the organization.

o From an academic perspective: research is relevant if (1) nothing is known about a topic, (2) much is known about the topic, but the knowledge is scattered and not integrated, (3) much research on the topic is available, but the results are (partly) contradictory or (4) established relationships do not hold in certain situations.

Feasible: if you are able to answer the problem statement within the restrictions of the research project.
Interesting: to stay motivated throughout the entire research process

The Research Proposal

Research proposal: drawn p by the investigator is the result of a planned, organized and careful effort, and basically contains the following; 1. The purpose of the study 2. The specific problem to be investigated 3. The scope of the study 4. The relevance of the study 5. The research design offering details on: a. The sampling design b. Data collection methods c. Data analysis 6. Time frame of the study, including information on when the written report will be handed over to the sponsors 7. The budget, detailing the costs with reference to specific items of expenditure 8. Selected bibliography

Managerial implications  Managers’ input help researchers to define the broad problem area and confirm their own theories about the situational factors impacting the central problem.  To make sure that the objectives of the study are actually being achieved, managers must stay involved throughout the entire research process.

Theoretical framework: represents your beliefs on how certain phenomena (or variables or concepts) are related to each other (a model) and an explanation of why you believe that these variables are associated with each other (a theory).

The process of building a theoretical framework includes: 1. Introducing definitions of the concepts or variables in your model. 2. Developing a conceptual model that provides a descriptive representation of your theory. 3. Coming up with a theory that provides an explanation for relationships between the variables in your model.

 Testable hypotheses can be developed

Variable: anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at various times for the same object or person, or at the same time for different objects or persons.  F. production units, absenteeism, and motivation.

Four main types of variables: - Dependent variable (also known as the criterion variable) - Independent variable (also known as the predictor variable) - Moderating variable - Mediating variable

Hypothesis development: able to obtain information on what kinds of relationships exist among the variables operating in the problem statement, testable statements.

Hypothesis:  Can be defined as a tentative, yet testable, statement, which predicts what you expect to find in your empirical data.  Can be defined as logically conjectured relationships between two or more variables expressed in the form of testable statements.

Statement of Hypotheses: formats; - If-then statements: testing whether there are differences between two groups (or among several groups) o “Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave less frequently” o “If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick leave less frequently” - Directional and nondirectional hypotheses: o Directional: if in stating the relationship between two variables or comparing two groups, terms such as positive, negative, more than, less than, and the like are used. Because the direction of the relationship between the variables (positive/negative) is indicated. o Nondirectional hypotheses: those that do postulate a relationship or difference, but offer no indication of the direction of these relationships or differences. We may not be able to say whether the relationship is positive or negative.  “There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction”  There is a difference between the work ethics values of American and Asian employees. - Null and alternate hypotheses: Null hypothesis (Ho) a hypothesis set up to be rejected in order to support an alternate hypothesis, labelled Ha.  The null hypothesis is presumed true until statistical evidence, in the form of a hypothesis test, indicates otherwise.  The null statement is expressed in terms of there being no (significant) relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups. Alternate Hypothesis: the opposite of null, a statement expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups.  The null hypothesis is thus formulated so that ic can be tested for possible rejection. If we reject the null hypothesis, then all permissible alternate hypotheses relating to the particular relationship tested could be supported.

The steps to be followed in hypothesis testing are: 1. State the null and the alternate hypotheses 2. Choose the appropriate statistical test depending on whether the data collected are parametric on nonparametric 3. See if the output results from computer analysis indicate that the significance level is met

Hypothesis testing can be done both trough: - Deduction: the theoretical model is first developed, testable hypotheses are then formulated, data collection and then the hypotheses are tested. - Induction: new hypotheses are formulated based on what is known from the data already collected, which are then tested.

Hypothesis testing with qualitative research: negative case analysis:  After extensive interviews, a theoretical framework is developed, with three factors. To test the hypothesis that these tree factors are the primary ones that influence , the researcher should look for data to refute the hypothesis. When even a single case does not support the hypothesis, the theory needs revision.

The Research design

Purpose of the study: exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis testing (analytical and predictive), case study analysis.

Case study: an examination of studies done in other similar organizational situations, is also a method of solving problems, or for understanding phenomena of interest and generating further knowledge in that area.

Exploratory study: undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand, or no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past.  Extensive interviews, more rigorous research  Some qualitative studies where data are collected through observation or interviews, are exploratory in nature Also exploratory research, when some facts are known, but more information is needed for developing a viable theoretical framework. Exploratory studies are important for obtaining a good grasp of the phenomenon of interest and advancing knowledge through subsequent theory building and hypothesis testing. !!!!DOING A STUY FOR THE FIRST TIME IN A PARTICULAR ORGANIZATION DOES NOT MAKE THE RESEARCH EXPLORATRY IN NATURE; ONLY WHEN KNOWLEDGE IS SCANT, AND A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING IS SOUGHT, DOES THE STUDY BECOME EXPLORATORY!!!!

Descriptive study: undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation. Goal: to offer to the researcher a profile or to describe relevant aspects of the phenomenon of interest from an individual, organizational, industry-oriented, or other perspective.  Quantitative data; in terms of frequencies, or mean and standard deviations, become necessary for descriptive studies.

Hypothesis testing: usually explain the nature of certain relationships, or establish the differences among groups, or the independence of two or more factors in situation.  undertaken to explain the variance in the dependent variable or to predict organizational outcomes.

Case study analysis: involve in-depth, contextual analysis of matters relating to similar situations in other organizations.  Not frequently resorted, to in organizations because finding the same type of problem in another comparable setting is difficult due to the reluctance of companies to reveal their problems.  Case studies that are qualitative in nature are, however useful in applying solutions to current problems based on pas problem-solving experiences.

Type of investigation: Causal versus correlational

Causal: a study in which the researcher wants to delineate the cause of one or more problems. The intention of the researcher is to be able to state that variable X causes variable Y. So when variable X is removed or altered in some way, problem Y is solved. Correlational: When the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables associated with the problem. To see if a relationship does exist among the variables investigated.

Whether a study is causal or correlational thus depends on the type of research questions asked and how the problem is defined.

Extent of researcher interference with the study; A correlational study is conducted in the natural environment of the organization with minimal interference by the researcher with the normal flow of work. In studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationships, the researcher tries to manipulate certain variables so as to study the effects of such manipulation on the dependent variable of interest.  Researcher

Characteristics of objects: arousal-seeking, tendency, achievement motivation, organizational effectiveness, shopping enjoyment, length, weight, ethnic diversity, service quality, conditioning effects, and taste. !!!YOU CANNOT MEASURE OBJECTS; YOU MEASURE CHARACTERISTICS OR ATTRIBUTES OF OBJECTS!!

Certain variables lend themselves to easy measurement through the use of appropriate measuring instruments. But when we get into the realm of people’s subjective feelings, attitudes, and perceptions, the measurement of these factors of variables becomes more difficult. Two types of variables:  One lends itself to objective and precise measurement  The other is more nebulous and does not lend itself to accurate measurement because of its abstract and subjective nature.

Operationalizing the concepts: reduction of abstract concepts to render them measurable in a tangible way. E. measure thirsty; measure of quantity what they drink. Steps to operationalize a concept: 1. Definition of the construct that you want to measure. 2. Content of the measure; an instrument (one or more items or questions) that actually measures the concept that one wants to measure has to be developed. 3. Response format (e. rating scale)

Operationalization: dimensions and elements

A valid measurement scale includes quantitatively measurable questions or items that adequately represent the domain or universe of the construct; if the construct has more than one domain or dimension, we have to make sure that questions or items that adequately represent these domains or dimensions are included in our measure.

Operationalizing the (multidimensional) concept of achievement motivation

First defining the construct; measuring behavioural dimensions, facets or characteristics. Secondly, going through literature to find out whether there are any existing measures of the concept. ( scientific journals + scale handbooks) Advantages of the use of existing measurement scales: 1. Saves time and energy 2. It allows you to verify the findings of others and to build on the work of others (important in scientific used)

What operationalization is not?  Does not describe the correlates of the concept

Type of scales than can be applied to measure different variables and subsequently see how we actually apply them.

2 main categories of attitudinal scales: 1. Rating scales: have several response categories and are used to elicit responses with regard to the object, event, or person studied. 2. Ranking scales: make comparisons between or among objects, events, or persons and elicit the preferred choices and ranking among them.

Scale: a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest in our study. Four basic types of scales: Nominal Ordinal the degree of sophistication / power of scale to which the scales are fine- Interval tuned increases progressively as we move from the nominal to the ratio Ratio

Nominal scale: one that allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or groups.  Nominal scales categorize individuals or objects into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups.  Basic, categorical, gross information

Ordinal scale: not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in some meaningful way.  Ordered according to some preference  Helps the researcher to determine the percentage of respondents who consider interaction with others as most important.  More information than nominal; The ordinal scale goes beyond differentiating the categories to providing information on how respondents distinguish them by rank-ordering them.  However, it does not give any indication of the magnitude of the differences among the ranks.

Interval scale: allows to perform certain arithmetical operations on the data collected from the respondents. The interval scale measures the distance between any two points on the scale.  Helps to compute the means and the standard deviations of the responses on the variables.  The interval scale not only groups individuals according to certain categories and taps the order of these groups, it also measures the magnitude of the differences in the preferences among the individuals. E Strongly disagree Disagree Neither both Agree Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5

Ratio scale: not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale but also taps the proportions in the differences.  Most powerful of the four scales because it has a unique zero origin (not an arbitrary origin) and subsumes all the properties of the other three scales.  Actual age, income, number of organization individuals have worked for

Gender can only measured on the nominal scale Temperature can be measured on a nominal scale (high/low) or ordinal scale (hot/medium/low) or the interval scale through the thermometer.

RATING SCALES

Rating scales that are most often used in organization research:

Staple scale: measures both the direction and intensity of the attitude toward he items under study.  No absolute zero point, interval scale E. + + + Adopting modern technology - - -

Graphic rating scale: helps the respondents to indicate on this scale their answers to a particular question by placing a mark at the appropriate point on the line.  Ordinal scale

Consensus scale: where a panel of judges selects certain items, which in its view measure the relevant concept.

RANKING SCALES

Ranking scales: used to tap preference between two or among more objects or items (ordinal in nature)

Paired comparison: used when among a small number of objects, respondents are asked to choose between two objects at a time. Helps to assess preferences.

Forced choice: enables respondents to rank objects relative to one another, among the alternatives provided

Comparative scale: provides a benchmark or a point of references to assess attitudes toward the current object, event or situation under study.

Rating scales are used to measure most behavioural concepts. Ranking scales are used to make comparisons or rank the variables that have been tapped on a nominal scale.

International dimensions of scaling

Different cultures react differently to issues of scaling. Analyzing and interpreting data that are collected in multiple countries is an extremely challenging undertaking.

Goodness of measures: we need to be reasonably sure that the instruments we use in the our research do indeed measure the variables they are supposed to, and that they measure them accurately. How to examine? First, an item analysis of the responses to the questions tapping the variable is carried out, and then the reliability and validity of the measures are established. Item analysis  Each item is examined for its ability to discriminate between those subjects whose total scores are high, and those with low scores.  The means between the high-score group and the low-score group are tested to detect significant differences through the t-values. The items with a high t-value (test which is able to identify the highly discriminating items in the instrument) are then included in the instrument. Thereafter, tests for the reliability of the instruments are carried out and the validity of the measure is established.

Reliability: test of how consistently a measuring instrument measures whatever concept it is measuring Validity: test of how well an instrument that is developed measures the particular concepts it is intended to measure. Validity; do we measure the right concept?

Reliability; stability and consistency of measurement.

Testing goodness of measures: forms of reliability and validity

Validity:  Content validity  Criterion-related validity  Construct validity

Content validity: ensures that the measure includes an adequate and representative set of items that that tap the concept.  Content validity is a function of how well the dimensions and elements of a concept have been delineated  Face validity: indicates that the items that are intended to measure a concept, do, on the face of it, look like they measure the concept

Criterion-related validity: established when the measure differentiates individuals on a criterion it is expect to predict. Can be done by establishing:  Concurrent validity: when the scale discriminates individuals who are known to be different; that is, they should score differently on the instrument.  Predictive validity: indicates the ability of the measuring instrument to differentiate among individuals with reference to a future criterion

Construct validity: testifies to how well the results obtained from the use of the measure fits the theories around which the test is designed. Assessed through:  Convergent validity: established when the scores obtained with two different instruments measuring the same concept are highly correlated  Discriminant validity: established, when based on theory, two variables are predicted to be uncorrelated, and the scores obtained by measuring them are indeed empirically fund to be so.

Some of the ways in which the above forms of validity can be established are through: 1. Correlational analysis (establishing concurrent and predictive validity or convergent and discriminant validity.

 A scale that contains items that are not necessarily related  When a change in any on the indicators (dimensions) is expected to change score of the overall construct, regardless of the value of the other indicators (dimensions).  A good (a valid) formative scale is one that represents the entire domain of the construct. This means that a valid scale should represent all the relevant aspects of the construct of interest, even if these aspects do not necessarily correlate.

It makes sense to test the interitem consistency of reflective scales, it does not make sense to test interitim consistency of formative scales. Reason: we do not expect the items in a formative scale to be homogeneous, we do not expect all the items to correlate.

Data can be obtained by: 1. Primary data: information obtained first-hand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study a. Individuals b. Focus groups c. Panels of respondents: specifically set up by the researcher and from whom opinions may be sought on specific issues from time to time, or some unobtrusive sources such as trash can. d. Unobtrusive methods 2. Secondary data: refer to information gathered from sources that already exist. a. Company records b. Archives c. Government publications d. Industry analysis offered by the media e. Websites f. Internet g. Environment or particular settings and events may themselves be sources of data.

Primary sources of data:

Focus groups: consist of typically 8 – 10 members with a moderator leading the discussions for about 2 hours on a particular topic, concept, or product.  Aimed at obtaining respondents’ impressions, interpretations, and opinions, as the members talk about the event, concept, product, or service. - Role of the moderator: Never becomes an integral part of the discussions, but merely steers the group persuasively to obtain all the relevant information, and helps the group member to get through any impasse that might occur. - The nature of data obtained through focus groups: the content obtained provides only qualitative and quantitative information , their opinions cannot be considered to be truly representative. However, when exploratory information is collected as a basis for further scientific research, focus groups serve an important function. Focus groups are used for: o Exploratory studies o Making generalizations based on the information generate by them o Conducting sample surveys - Videoconferencing: if regional variations in responses are expected, several focus groups could be formed including trained moderators at different locations.

Panels: whereas focus groups meet for a one-time group session, panels (of members) meet more than once. Individuals are randomly chosen to serve as panel members for a research study. Panel study: a continuing set of “experts” serves as the sample base or the sounding board for assessing the effects of change. Such expert members compose the panel, and research that uses them is called a panel study. - Static and dynamic panels: o Static panels: the same members serve on the panel over extended periods of time

 Main advantage: it offers a good and sensitive measurement of the changes that take place between two points in time – much better alternative than using two different groups at two different times  Disadvantage: the panel members could become so sensitized to the changes as a result the endless contious interviews that their opinions might no longer be representative of what others in the population might hold o Dynamic panels: the panel members change from time to time as various phases of the study are in progress. Disadvantages and advantages the opposite of the Static panels.

The Delphi Technique: a forecasting methods that uses a cautiously selected panel of experts in a systematic, interactive manner. In the first round they are asked to answer a series of questions on the likelihood of a future scenario or any other issue about which there is unsure or incomplete knowledge. The contributions from all the experts are then collected, summarized, and fed back in the form of a second-round questionnaire. After reviewing the first-round results the experts assess the same issue once more, taking the opinions of other experts into account.

Unobtrusive measures (trace measures): primary source that does not involve people. Journals, company records etc.

Secondary Sources of data: refer to information gathered by someone other than the researcher conducting the current study.  Internal or external to the organization and accessed through the Internet or perusal of recorded or published information.  books and periodicals, government publications of economic indicators, census data, statistical abstracts, databases, the media, annual reports of company.  Advantage: saving in time and costs of acquiring information. Disadvantage: doesn’t meet the specific needs of the particular situation or setting

Data collection methods: 1. Interviewing 2. Questionnaires 3. Observation 4. Unobtrusive methods

Interviewing - Unstructured interviews: the interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the respondent o Objective: to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what variables need further in-depth investigation. - Structured interviews: when it is known at the outset what information needed. The researcher has a list of predetermined questions to be asked of the respondents either personally or by medium. o New factors may be identified, resulting in a deeper understanding o The interviewer must comprehend the purpose and goal of each question. How to minimize the biases; strategies?  Establishing credibility and rapport, and motivating individuals to respond  The questioning technique: o Funneling technique: the transition from broad to narrow themes o Unbiased questions: a loaded question with the interviewer’s own perception, through inappropriate suggestions is biased.  Clarifying issues: rephrasing, asking simpler way  Taking notes  Review of tips to follow when interviewing o Face-to-face and telephone interviews  Computer-assisted telephone interviews(CATI)  Advantages: researcher can adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubts, and ensure that the responses are properly understood by repeating or rephrasing the questions. Or pick up nonverbal cues  Disadvantages: geographical limitations and the vast resources needed if such surveys need to be done nationally or internationally.

Other methods of data collection - Observational studies  Researcher can play one of two roles while gathering field observational data o Nonparticipant-observer: without becoming an integral part of the organizational system. o Participant-observer: enters the company or research setting and becomes a part of the work team.  Structured observational study: where the observer has a predetermined set of categories of activities or phenomena to be studied  Unstructured observational study: observer will record practically everything that is observed - Projective methods o Word association o Thematic apperception tests (TAT): respondent waving a story around a picture o Inkblot tests

Issues in data collection in cross-cultural data collection 1. Response equivalence 2. Timing of data collection 3. Status of the individual collecting the data

In order to establish that a change in the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable, all four of the following conditions should be met: 1. The independent and the dependent variable should be covary 2. The independent variable (the presumed causal factor) should precede the dependent variable 3. No other factor should be a possible cause of the change in the dependent variable 4. A logical explanation (a theory) is needed about why the independent variable affects the dependent variable.

3 rd condition implies that to establish causal relationships between two variables in an organizational setting, several variables that might covary with the dependent variable have to be controlled.  Variable X alone causes the dependent variable Y. However, it is not always possible to control all the covarities while manipulating the causal factor (the independent variable that is causing the dependent variable) in organizational setting, where events flow or occur naturally and normally. It is however, possible to first isolate the effects of a variable in a tightly controlled artificial setting (lab setting, and after testing and establishing the cause-and-reflect relationship under these conditions.

Experimental designs fall into two categories: 1. Lab experiments: experiments done in an artificial or contrived environment 2. Field experiment: done in the natural environment in which activities regularly take place.

Lab experiment  The possible effects of other variables on the dependent variable have to be accounted for in some way, so that the actual causal effects of the investigated independent variable on the dependent variable can be determined.  It is also necessary to manipulate the independent variable so that the extent of its causal effects can be established. Best done in an artificial setting where the causal effects can be tested.  When control and manipulation are introduced to establish cause-and-effect relationships in an artificial setting, we have laboratory experimental design: lab experiments

Control  When we postulate cause-and-effect relationships between two variables X and Y, it is possible that some other factor, A, might also influence the dependent variable Y. In such a case it will not be possible to determine the extent to which Y occurred only because of X, since we do not know how much of the total variation in Y was caused by the presence of the other factor A.

Manipulation of the independent variable Manipulation: means that we create different levels of the independent variable to assess the impact on the dependent variable.

Treatment: in a case when the independent variable has been manipulated by exposing different groups to different degrees of changes in it. This manipulation of the independent variable is known as the treatment.

Controlling the contaminating exogenous or “nuisance” variables Matching groups: one way of controlling the contaminating or “nuisance” variables is to match the various groups by picking the confounding characteristics and deliberately spreading them across groups.

Randomization: the process by which individuals are drawn and their assignment to any particular group are both random. The process of randomization ideally ensures that each group is comparable to the others, and that all variables, including the effects of age, sex, and previous experience, are controlled.

Advantages of randomization Compared to randomization, matching might be less effective, since we may not know all the factors that could possibly contaminate the cause-and-effect relationship in any given situation, and hence fail to match some critical factors across all groups while conducting an experiment.

External validity or generalizability of lab experiments If we do find a cause-and-effect relationship after conducting a lab experiment, can we then confidently say that the same cause-and-effect relationship will also true in the organizational setting?

Field experiment: an experiment done in the natural environment in which work goes on as usual, but treatments are given to one or more groups.  the treatment can still be manipulated even though tits not possible to control all the nuisance variable because member cannot be either randomly assigned to groups.

External validity: refers to the extent of generalizibility of the results of a causal study to other settings, people, or events Internal validity: refers to the degree of our confidence in the causal effects (i. that variable X causes Y) Field experiments more external validity than internal validity. Lab experiment the internal validity is high but the external validity is rather law. Thus, in lab experiments we can be sure that variable X causes variable Y because we have beem able to keep the other confounding exogenous variables under control, but we have so tightly controlled several variables to establish the cause-and-effect relationships that we do not know to what extent the results of our study can be generalized, if it all to field setting. In other words, since the lab setting does not reflect the “real world” setting, we do not know to what extent the lab findings validly represent the realities in the outside world.

Factors affecting the validity of experiments: Some confounding factors might still be present that could offer rival explanations as to what is causing the dependent variable. These factors pose a threat to internal validity 1. History effects: certain events or factors that have an impact on the independent variable- dependent variable relationship might unexpectedly occur while the experiment is in progress, and this history of events would confound the cause-and-effect relationship between the two variables, thus affecting the internal validity. 2. Maturation effects: passage of time. The maturation effects are a function of the processes –both biological and psychological – operating within the respondents as a result of the passage time.

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Chapter-3 - Summary Business Research Methods

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Chapter 3: Research Designs Introduction 2 key decisions need to be made to progress research: choice of research design and research method Research methods can be and are associated with different kinds of research design Research design represents a structure that guides the execution of a research method and the analysis of the subsequent data Method do you observe? Do you conduct interviews?... Can choose multiple methods Furthermore, what counts as data straightforward (responses to questionnaire items, transcripts of public inquiry hearings, case 5 research designs in chapter: Experimental design and its variants (including or social survey design Longitudinal design Case study design Comparative design Some recurring issues in business research that cut across some or all designs Quality criteria in business research 3 most prominent: Reliability Replication Validity Reliability Whether results of study are repeatable Whether or not measures that are devised for concepts in business and management (such as teamworking, employee motivation, organisational effectiveness) are consistent Particularly at issue in connection with quantitative research: need consistency in results for one case to be sure it would work for many Replication Very close to reliability Speaks for itself Researcher must go into detail over method so that it can be replicated if needs be Oddly, quite rare in business: most people want to have own methods, so they would look original Nonetheless, replicability is sought after especially in quantitative research Validity In many ways the most important criterion The integrity of the conclusions that are generated from a piece of research Includes various facets that are typically distinguished: Measurement validity: Best for quantitative research and social sciences. Often referred to as construct validity. Def: whether or not a measure that is devised of a concept really does reflect the concept that it is supposed to be denoting. Ex: does an IQ test really measure intelligence? of measurement However, a true experiment is often used as a yardstick against which nonexperimental research is assessed It engenders considerable confidence in the robustness and trustworthiness of causal findings Manipulation So why business researchers use experiments more? order to conduct a true experiment, it is necessary to determine whether it does in fact have an influence on the dependent variable Subjects are allocated to groups which represent different types of the independent variable establish how far differences between the groups are responsible for variations in the level of the dependent variable Manipulation intervening in a situation to determine which of two or more things happens to subjects However, most independent variables cannot be manipulated Ex: if we are interested in effects of gender on work experience, cannot manipulate (modify) gender Laboratory experiment takes place in laboratory or contrived setting Field experiment setting (most interesting and used) Although, most of the time setting is staged Classic Experimental design 2 groups: group (receives treatment) vs control group Subjects are assigned randomly to each group Notation: Obs: An observation made in relation to the dependent there may well be two or more observations, before (the and after (the the experimental manipulation Exp: The experimental treatment (manipulation of the independent variable). No Exp refers to the absence of an experimental treatment and represents the experience of the control group T: The timing of the observations made in relation to the dependent variable results and Classic experimental design and validity Presence of control group gives us internal validity eliminating the following threats: Testing: Subjects have become sensitised to aims of experiment History: No events in the experimental environment unrelated to manipulation could have caused changes Maturation: No change in people that could affect dependent variable Selection: Random process so no variations from selection Ambiguity about direction of causal influence But there still could be for example measurement invalidity Is it externally valid? Cook and Campbell identify 5 threats: Interaction of selection and treatment: To what social and psychological groups can a finding be generalised? Interaction of setting and treatment: Can results be applied to other setting? Interaction of history and treatment: Can results be generalised to past and future? Interaction effects of could sensitise subjects to the treatment Reactive effects of experimental arrangements: Does awareness of being in experiment affect results? Are they ecologically valid? Field better than experimental Is it replicable? Depends on cases and researchers The laboratory experiment Logic of comparison help understand the phenomenon we are interested in better design Key elements: More than one case: Interested in variation need more than one case At a single point in time Quantitative or quantifiable data: Necessary to establish variation between cases Patterns of association: Can only examine relationship between variables. Because there is no time ordering, there can be a problem proving causal influence internal validity Reliability, replicability, and validity Issues of reliability and measurement validity: Poor quality of measures Replicability: Likely present in most research, researcher spells out procedures Internal validity: Typically weak as hard to establish causal direction External validity: Strong only when sample from which data are collected has been randomly selected Ecological validity: Use of many instruments disrupts natural setting variables Because of the impossibility of manipulating some variables, quantitative research uses this design over experimental But, they provide a clue as to how we can make causal inferences in research Structure of the design Not as simple as experimental Comprises collection of data on a series of variables at a single point in time Compare observations to each case rectangle (see p. 65) design and research strategy Quantitative research mainly but qualitative often entails its design Ex: interviews with many people Common to see in business a triangulated approach: use of different methods to cancel out each limitations Longitudinal design(s) Typically used to map change in business and management research Involved drawing on at vertical and horizontal levels of analysis and the interconnections between those levels through Little used because of time and cost Usually an extension of social survey research based on questionnaire or structured interview research Similar to validity, replicability, and reliability However, time order with variables allows causal inferences Study a sample at two different points in time 2 types: panel study and cohort study Panel study: a sample often randomly selected is the focus of data collection on at least two (and often more) occasions. Cohort study: selects either an entire cohort of people or a randomly selected sample of them as the focus of the data collection Cohort made up of people who share certain characteristic Rarely used in BM analysis of case allows distinction from other designs: idiographic approach (unlike others which are nomothetic) However, it is possible to have influence from multiple designs at once Stake (1995): selection of case should be based on anticipation of opportunity to learn where learning will be the greatest Distinguishes 3 different types of case: Intrinsic: gain insight into other cases or generic issues Instrumental: focus on using the case a means of understanding a broader issue or allowing generalisations to be challenged undertaken jointly to explore a general phenomenon However, notes that boundaries between them are blurred If quantitative research deductive orientation Qualitative inductive Reliability, replicability, and validity Depends on how far researcher feels that the previous criteria are relevant Disagreement in literature Quantitative yes Qualitative However, discussion over external How can a single case possibly be representative to others? However, sometimes claim degree of generalisability Strength of case study is hence to focus on particularity of case Types of case Yin (2003) distinguishes 5 The critical case: Clearly specified hypothesis and case chosen on grounds that it will allow a better understanding of circumstances in which hypothesis could hold or not The unique case: Common focus in clinical studies The revelatory case: Investigator has opportunity to observe and analyse phenomenon previously inaccessible to scientific investigation The case: Seeks to explore case that exemplifies everyday situation The longitudinal case Case study as intensive analysis Aim generate intensive examination of single case Central issue: quality of theoretical reasoning Can you argue that findings support theory? More than one case Comparing and contrast findings deriving from each case theoretical reflection on findings Difference between study and design? Focus of study If focus on cases and unique context: multiple case Producing general findings with little regard for unique context Longitudinal research and the case study Case study often includes longitudinal elements Investigates case over long period of time or comes back to case later on However, difficult for researcher to establish how far change over the two time periods is the result of other factors Comparative design In terms of reliability, validity, replicability and generalisability, to Essentially multiple studies at the same time Key to comparative design is ability to allow the distinguishing characteristics of two or more cases to act as a springboard for theoretical reflections about contrasting findings In quantitative research, extension of In qualitative, extension of case study Level of analysis What is the primary unit of measurement and analysis? Research might focus on: Individuals Groups Organisations Societies Differences in level of analysis referred to in terms of the SOGi model (societies...) However, can combine different levels (organisations and departments) Can we combine data from different levels to produce meaningful analysis? Risk of misattribution to make clear differences and switch from and to different levels of analysis Bringing research strategy and research together Distinctions not always perfect Not obvious which design being used Blurry distinctions between some Often use combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods

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Business Research: Types, Methods, Examples

Updated on
January 29, 2024

Ever wondered what it takes to build a flourishing business ? Aiming to provide maximum sales and profit, business research helps you to gather comprehensive information about your business and accordingly make relevant changes if required. So, in this process of being successful, we gather all types of data to better define our strategies and understand what products or services customers want. And in case, you’re planning to expand your business, research can help you determine your odds of positive results. In this blog, we’ll help you understand the basics of research and analysis .

“Whoever gets closer to the customer, wins.” – Bernadette Jiwa

This Blog Includes:

What is business research, business research example, importance of business research, types & methods, focus groups , case study research , ethnographic research, survey , correlation research , experimental research , advantages and disadvantages of business research, scope of business research, role of business research, business research books, business research report, top 10 tools for business research, business research partners, top 10 business research topics, career prospects , [bonus] best mba colleges in the world.

Business Research can be simply defined as a process of gathering comprehensive data and information on all the areas of business and incorporating this information for sales and profit maximization. If you are wondering what is Business Research, it is a systematic management activity helping companies to determine which product will be most profitable for companies to produce. Also, there are multiple steps in conducting research, with each thoroughly reviewed to ensure that the best decision is made for the company as a whole.

Also Read: Scope of MBA in International Business

Let’s say there’s an automobile company that is planning to launch a car that runs on CNG. To promote cleaner fuel, the company will be involved in developing different plans and strategies to identify the demand for the car they intend to launch. Other than this, the company will also look for competitors, and the target audience, keeping in mind the distribution of CNG in India. Hence the research is conducted on various ideas to formulate a sustainable and more efficient design.

When it comes to the question of why Business Research is important, it has an essential role to play in varied areas of business. Here are some of the reasons describing the importance of Business Research:

It helps businesses gain better insights into their target customer’s preferences, buying patterns, pain points, as well as demographics.
Business Research also provides businesses with a detailed overview of their target markets, what’s in trend, as well as market demand.
By studying consumers’ buying patterns and preferences as well as market trends and demands with the help of business research, businesses can effectively and efficiently curate the best possible plans and strategies accordingly.
The importance of business research also lies in highlighting the areas where unnecessary costs can be minimized and those areas in a business which need more attention and can bring in more customers and hence boost profits.
Businesses can constantly innovate as per their customers’ preferences and interests and keep their attention on the brand.
Business Research also plays the role of a catalyst as it helps businesses thrive in their markets by capturing all the available opportunities and also meeting the needs and preferences of their customers.

Also Read: Business Analyst vs Data Analyst

Business research plays an important role in the business intelligence process. This is usually conducted to determine if a company can succeed in a new region through competitive analyses and a better marketing approach. Due to this, this broad field has been distinguished into two types namely, Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research Method.

Here are the most important types of Business Research :

Qualitative Research Methods

It involves putting open-ended questions to the audience through different channels of communication to understand why researchers think in a particular manner. Stress is laid on understanding the intent, attitude, and beliefs to figure out the behaviour and response of the customers. Moreover, the goal of Qualitative Business Research is to get in-depth knowledge about the subjects of the research. Moreover, qualitative research enables us to put the perspective of the consumer in front of the researcher so that we can understand and see the alignment of the ideas between the market and the business.

The data collected in this type of business research is by the following methods:

Interviews
Case Study
Ethnographic Research
Website Visitor Profiling
Content Analysis

Also Read: Study MBA in Music Business at Berklee College of Music!

Let us take a detailed look at some of the ways-

Interviews and surveys are similar. The only difference lies in the fact that the responder can put a question in an interview whilst it is not possible during a survey. Through interviews, it is easier to understand the detailed perspective of the person concerning the subject of research. A mobile brand researched to understand why certain colours are preferred by male and female customers. The research revealed that since red is assumed to be a feminine colour, it is more preferred by females than males.

Focus groups are a type of business research that involves only a set of individuals. Each selected individual represents a particular category of the target market. The major difference between interviews and focus groups is the number of people that it involves. To launch a new product for a particular group of society, focus groups prove to be the best way to understand the needs of the local audience.

For example, Tesla decides to launch their latest car model in India. The company, therefore, will require feedback from the Indian audience only.

Did you know? Amazon, the internet giant changed its payment strategy to enter the Indian market. Since the Indian economy was not entirely ready for online modes of payment, amazon introduced a new payment method and came up with ‘ cash on delivery ’ to gain consumers’ trust.

One of the most effective ways for business research is conducting case studies. With the motive to understand customer satisfaction, challenges that usually the customers face while using the product and hence, providing them with the right solution can be achieved by analysing data secured through data secured by case studies. Case study researchers are conducted in many fields of business that ultimately aid organisations in improving their products or services.

Ethnographic Research refers to understanding people as a whole. One must be able to grok their consumers or target audience which will help identify patterns, flaws, etc. Ethnography is a branch of anthropology that is the study of what elements or features make us humans. How did people live? What aspect made us so dependent on smartphones and technology? Why would people buy one product over the other? It refers to asking questions about lifestyle, communities, etc., and trying to gain insight into consumer behaviour and buying patterns.

For example, consider a random product. Are people looking for that product? Do they need it? Is it a necessity or a luxury? Which class of people are most likely to buy it? People often cannot comprehend what they are looking for. Gaining different perceptions can help us tailor our products accordingly to the consumers. Who would have thought that the majority of humans will need face masks for survival?

Also Read: How to Become a Research Analyst?

Quantitative Research Methods

With the employment of mathematical, statistical and computational techniques, quantitative research is carried out to deal with numbers. This systematical empirical investigation starts with the acquisition of the data and then moves on to analyzing it with the help of different tools. The goal is to identify clientele and then meet the targets of the audience. As the method of business research employs a questionnaire to determine the audience’s response, the questions are built around the idea that the audience knows about the product or the services that the firm offers. Some of the key questions answered in quantitative research methods include, who is connected with your network, how they qualify for the ‘product’ or how regularly they visit your website.

The data is collected based on the following research:

Correlational
Online
Casual Comparative
Experimental

It is the most common method under quantitative research via which a huge amount of data can be collected concerning a product or service. A common set of questions are asked to the people and they are asked to provide their inputs. To understand the nature of the market in-depth, this method is massively used by leading organisations all across the globe. Analysing data recorded through service helps organisations make suitable decisions.

Under this research, usually two entities are put together to examine the impact they create on each other. As suggested by the name it is the best process to understand patterns, relationships and trends. the data grasped through correlation research is generally combined with other tools as one cannot achieve a firm conclusion using this type of business research.

Experimental research is purely based on proving a particular theory that is pre-assumed. True experimental research companies can understand varied behavioural traits of the customers that further assist them in generating more revenue. Exposing a set of audience to common parameters, their behaviour is recorded and hence analysed. This can be understood as the main basis of the experimental research.

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What is Business Research: Methods, Types & Examples

What is Business Research: Methods, Types & Examples

Defne Çobanoğlu

Every business owner wants their company always to be successful and profitable. And even if you have a successful business plan, that does not mean things will not need changing in the future. And trial and error may not be on the table when you can not afford to lose money and precious customers. Therefore, you need to be cautious before taking any steps and do your research .

In this article, we explained business research, its methods, and types to help business owners and inform those interested to know more. We also added some examples of scenarios any company may face. Let us get started with the definition of business research!

What is business research?

Business research is a type of research process where the main goal is to help a company thrive and collect data about the target audience, potential business plans, and marketing strategies . The data collection about possible risks and investment opportunities helps business owners make informed decisions about future plans.

The fields that can use business research include marketing, business, education, and social science . But of course, they are not the only ones that can benefit from business research. It is a helpful research type for all business needs. Now, let us see how we can further categorize this into methods and types of business research.

Methods and types of business research

Business research methods and types

In business research methodology, there are two main types. These are quantitative research and qualitative research. In the simplest terms, quantitative research is about collecting numerical and factual data, whereas qualitative research is about collecting data by using open-ended questions . These two methods can be divided into more specific parts. Let us get started with quantitative research methods.

A. Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research methods give the researchers factual and numerical evidence that can be effectively used in decision-making processes. There are numerous ways to collect quantitative data, and it is also possible to use more than one method to prove the credibility of the information. Let us start with the first one:

1. Survey research

Surveys are a great way to collect information from a targeted group, no matter how big or small. They can be done in the format of an online survey, phone survey or questionnaire . Surveys are usually close-ended or multiple-choice questions that are easy to group and analyze. The business doing the research can collect valuable information directly from its customers.

2. Correlational research

Correlational research focuses on the discovery of whether two different entities influence each other in any way. The main focus of this research method is not to make decisions. But rather, they can use the findings to explore further using other research methods.

3. Causal-comparative research

Causal-comparative research is similar to correlational research in that both of them compare two different elements and how they affect each other. But the main difference is that fact the focus of this research method is to draw conclusions on the cause-and-effect relationship of said entities.

4. Experimental research

Experimental research has a broad spectrum when it comes to what is taken as ‘experimental’. Basically, it is when businesses want to test a specific theory about the quality of a product or service. There are many methods that can be used, and it is decided by the researcher according to the theory that will be tested.

5. Literature research

Literature research is a very effective and economical research method to use. It is about using offline and online existing literature and going through them to analyze the data. It is mostly used in sales about consumer behaviors.

B. Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research is not about numbers like quantitative research. Instead, it is about emotions, opinions, and approaches. The target audience can be presented with a topic through open-ended questions. There is more than one method to go with, and it is even possible to use multiple methods at once. Let us see qualitative research methods:

1. Interviews

The interview method is mostly done on a smaller participant group about a specific subject. They consist of open-ended questions and can be in a structured or unstructured format. Interviews are one-on-one questions asked to the target audience to gain insight into the problem .

2. Focus Groups

A focus group is a pre-determined group of individuals who are chosen to participate in a study to answer specific questions. The researchers present them with a topic and encourage discussions with open-ended questions . Then, the findings are generalized to make decisions.

3. Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research is similar to conceptual research, and its main focus is to understand the culture and people of the target audience by using observation . This method is done by observing the people in their natural environment and seeing how they interact with one another and their surroundings.

4. Case Study

Businesses generally use a case study method to showcase to potential consumers how their product or service helped a certain individual or a group . It is a good way to attract new customers. This method helps highlight the company’s skill sets and assets.

5. Website visitor research

This research method is relatively newer than others. Its main focus is to collect feedback from individuals who use the company website and ask them about their opinions. A business can use this method by presenting a customer with a quick survey after their purchase on the website . Afterward, the company can improve user satisfaction by fixing existing problems.

Importance of business research

The reasons for conducting business research

Businesses grow by knowing their target market, potential customers, and competitors. And this is only possible by conducting market research to help make informed business decisions. The main goal of business research is to help stakeholders of the company make planned and informed decisions using the facts in the business research report. However, there are other reasons why business research is important. These are:

Gathering information on customers: A business research report provides data on consumers’ behavioral changes, their needs, preferences, and expectations. The managers and stakeholders can make informed decisions with this knowledge.
Performance evaluation: Research allows businesses to evaluate their success against industry standards and other competitors. This helps keep track while deciding how to differentiate themselves from others.
Market expansion: Business research topics include areas that were not explored before. Therefore, when the business wants to expand to new markets, the research provides information on the market’s dynamics and potential risks and profits .
Efficiency and cost-reduction: The data collected by business research helps identify any obstacles to productivity and cost excessiveness. That way, a more cost-effective and efficient approach can be taken.
Business research examples

Business research helps business managers make smart plans for the company and its future. They can make informed decisions about new marketing strategies, building new products or service branches, or improving customer satisfaction .

Business research example #1

Imagine a company making energy drinks wants to know if they can expand their market to the older part of the population. They do not know if they will be interested in their product or what kind of marketing strategies they can use to attract older people’s attention. They can make up a focus group and ask them about their opinions. The company can also conduct literature research to find out information about the competitors .

Business research example #2

Imagine a company that has a clothing store website wants to know if there is anything that makes shopping on their website difficult for customers. They can show a pop-up customer satisfaction survey and ask them if they can find what they are looking for easily and how the website visiting experience was. Then, they can collect customer feedback and see how they can improve their website to enhance customer satisfaction levels.

Frequently asked questions about business research

What are the 4 stages of business research?

Much like every other research, business research is also best done when it is preplanned and organized. And there is a 4 stage plan of business research. These are:

1 - Defining the problem

2 - Designing the research plan

3 - Collecting data and making an analysis

4 - Reporting on the findings

What is the purpose of business research?

The purpose of business research is to make sense of the existing elements of a business, such as consumers, product placement, marketing, innovation, etc . And using the data collected on these elements to make informed decisions and create smart business strategies to improve the success of the company.

When to use business research?

Business research is best used when a new approach is taken or a new product is launched, and the risks need to be assessed. It is essential to be mindful of all the negative and positive sides of a new strategy without risking the entirety of the company.

Final words

When you own a business, no matter how big or small, change can be intimidating. You can not go to new territories blindly. But, you can not stay the same either. In order to keep your existing customers and find new potential ones, you should be mindful of their habits and opinions. The best way of doing this is either to ask them directly ( using a survey, interviewing them, etc .) or to do your own research to draw conclusions.

In this article, we explained business research, quantitative and qualitative research methods, and business research types. We also included some examples of business research and what methods can be used for those problems. If you want to do your own business research but do not know where to start, you can check out quantitative research questions to get you started. Also, do not forget to check out other articles on research and so much more!

Defne is a content writer at forms.app. She is also a translator specializing in literary translation. Defne loves reading, writing, and translating professionally and as a hobby. Her expertise lies in survey research, research methodologies, content writing, and translation.

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Business Research Methods | Business Trove

Business Research Methods (Sixth Edition)

Business Research Methods contains new and revised chapters on quantitative methods and visual research, while cutting-edge material on inclusivity and bias in research, feminist perspectives, and decolonial and indigenous research is also introduced. The book is composed of four parts. The first part looks at the research process. It covers research strategies and designs, as well as ethics in business research and writing up business research. Part 2 looks at quantitative research and details the nature of quantitative research, sampling, structured interviewing, and questions. It also looks at secondary analysis and statistics. The next part is about qualitative research. This part examines ethnography, participant observation, interviewing, focus groups, language, and document data. The final part is about mixed methods of research.

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Learning Features
Acronyms and Abbreviations
About the Authors
About the Students and Supervisors
Guide to Using this Book
Resources for Lecturers
About the Book
Acknowledgments
Editorial Advisory Panel
Publisher Credits
1. The Nature and Process of Business Research
2. Business Research Strategies
3. Research Designs
4. Planning a Research Project and Developing Research Questions
5. Getting Started: Reviewing the Literature
6. Ethics in Business Research
7. Writing Up Business Research
8. The Nature of Quantitative Research
9. Sampling in Quantitative Research
10. Structured Interviewing
11. Self-Completion Questionnaires
12. Asking Questions
13. Quantitative Research using Naturally Occurring Data
14. Secondary Analysis and Official Statistics
15. Quantitative Data Analysis: Descriptive, Univariate, and Bivariate Statistics
16. Quantitative Data Analysis: Hypothesis Testing and Inferential Statistics
17. The Nature of Qualitative Research
18. Sampling in Qualitative Research
19. Ethnography and Participant Observation
20. Interviewing in Qualitative Research
21. Focus Groups
22. Language in Qualitative Research
23. Documentary Data
24. Visual Qualitative Research
25. Qualitative Data Analysis
26. Breaking Down the Quantitative/Qualitative Divide
27. Mixed Methods Research: Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Research
References
Name Index
Subject Index

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date: 17 December 2024

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Business Research: Methods, Types & Examples
Business research is carried out to understand the customer, market and the competitors. Such a research is important as it helps businesses to grow in terms of revenue, market share and brand value. This article talks about the methods, types, examples, advantages, disadvantages, and importance of business research.
Research Methods (pdf)
Business document from Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 14 pages, Comprehensive Summary: Research Methods for Business (Bougie & Sekaran, 2020) Chapter 1: Introduction to Research Key Concepts Definition of Research: A systematic and organized effort to investigate specific problems and find solutions. Types of Re
Chapter-7
Problem with characterising any research strategy, design or method is that it is ideal-typical approach Distinction between ideal and real arises through 2 considerations Firstly, those who write about and teach research methods cannot cover every eventuality talk about common features Second, when writing about and teaching research methods ...
Summary Business Research Methods
chapter 1-10 business research methods to study: chapter chapter research: the process of finding solutions to problem after. Meteen naar document. Universiteit; Middelbare School. ... Summary Business Research Methods. chapter 1-10. Vak Business Research Methods tweede jaar (AVA-IBMS-011) Universiteit Avans Hogeschool. Studiejaar: 2014/2015.
Chapter-3
65) design and research strategy Quantitative research mainly but qualitative often entails its design Ex: interviews with many people Common to see in business a triangulated approach: use of different methods to cancel out each limitations Longitudinal design(s) Typically used to map change in business and management research Involved drawing ...
Business Research: Types, Methods, Examples
Business Research also plays the role of a catalyst as it helps businesses thrive in their markets by capturing all the available opportunities and also meeting the needs and preferences of their customers. Also Read: Business Analyst vs Data Analyst. Types & Methods. Business research plays an important role in the business intelligence process.
What Is Business Research? (With Methods and Examples)
Quantitative research methods Quantitative business research methods are those that rely on large amounts of data and use various statistical and mathematical techniques to draw relevant conclusions from it. They usually involve a data collection phase and a data analysis phase. Some common types of quantitative business research are:
What is Business Research: Methods, Types & Examples
In business research methodology, there are two main types. These are quantitative research and qualitative research. In the simplest terms, quantitative research is about collecting numerical and factual data, whereas qualitative research is about collecting data by using open-ended questions.These two methods can be divided into more specific parts.
PDF Research Methods in Business Studies
Research Methods in Business Studies This accessible guide provides clear and practical explanations of key research methods in business studies, presenting a step-by-step approach to data collection, analysis, and problem solving. Readers will learn how to formulate a research question or problem, choose an appropriate research
Business Research Methods
Abstract. Business Research Methods contains new and revised chapters on quantitative methods and visual research, while cutting-edge material on inclusivity and bias in research, feminist perspectives, and decolonial and indigenous research is also introduced. The book is composed of four parts. The first part looks at the research process. It covers research strategies and designs, as well ...

Business Research: Methods, Types & Examples

What Is Business Research

Types of Business Research and Methodologies

Quantitative Research Methods

1. Survey Research

2. Correlational Research

3. Causal-Comparative Research

4. Experimental Research

5. Online Research / Literature Research

Qualitative Research Methods

1. Interviews

2. Focus Groups

3. Ethnographic Research

4. Case Study Research

5. Website Visitor Profiling/Research

Advantages of Business Research

Disadvantages of Business Research

Importance of Business Research

Business Research To Improve Company Strategy

Market Analysis

Financial Analysis

Brand Analysis

Product Analysis

Risk Analysis

Competitor Analysis

Demand Analysis

Distribution Analysis

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Business research example #1

Business research example #2

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What is the purpose of business research?

When to use business research?

Table of Contents

50+ Must-ask questions for your market research surveys

35 Great questions to ask in a quality of life questionnaire

The best form builder list for 2022

Business Research Methods (Sixth Edition)

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