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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

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• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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The case study creation process

Types of case studies, benefits and limitations.

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case study , detailed description and assessment of a specific situation in the real world created for the purpose of deriving generalizations and other insights from it. A case study can be about an individual, a group of people, an organization, or an event, among other subjects.

By focusing on a specific subject in its natural setting, a case study can help improve understanding of the broader features and processes at work. Case studies are a research method used in multiple fields, including business, criminology , education , medicine and other forms of health care, anthropology , political science , psychology , and social work . Data in case studies can be both qualitative and quantitative. Unlike experiments, where researchers control and manipulate situations, case studies are considered to be “naturalistic” because subjects are studied in their natural context . ( See also natural experiment .)

The creation of a case study typically involves the following steps:

• The research question to be studied is defined, informed by existing literature and previous research. Researchers should clearly define the scope of the case, and they should compile a list of evidence to be collected as well as identify the nature of insights that they expect to gain from the case study.
• Once the case is identified, the research team is given access to the individual, organization, or situation being studied. Individuals are informed of risks associated with participation and must provide their consent , which may involve signing confidentiality or anonymity agreements.
• Researchers then collect evidence using multiple methods, which may include qualitative techniques, such as interviews, focus groups , and direct observations, as well as quantitative methods, such as surveys, questionnaires, and data audits. The collection procedures need to be well defined to ensure the relevance and accuracy of the evidence.
• The collected evidence is analyzed to come up with insights. Each data source must be reviewed carefully by itself and in the larger context of the case study so as to ensure continued relevance. At the same time, care must be taken not to force the analysis to fit (potentially preconceived) conclusions. While the eventual case study may serve as the basis for generalizations, these generalizations must be made cautiously to ensure that specific nuances are not lost in the averages.
• Finally, the case study is packaged for larger groups and publication. At this stage some information may be withheld, as in business case studies, to allow readers to draw their own conclusions. In scientific fields, the completed case study needs to be a coherent whole, with all findings and statistical relationships clearly documented.

Case studies have been used as a research method across multiple fields. They are particularly popular in the fields of law, business, and employee training; they typically focus on a problem that an individual or organization is facing. The situation is presented in considerable detail, often with supporting data, to discussion participants, who are asked to make recommendations that will solve the stated problem. The business case study as a method of instruction was made popular in the 1920s by instructors at Harvard Business School who adapted an approach used at Harvard Law School in which real-world cases were used in classroom discussions. Other business and law schools started compiling case studies as teaching aids for students. In a business school case study, students are not provided with the complete list of facts pertaining to the topic and are thus forced to discuss and compare their perspectives with those of their peers to recommend solutions.

In criminology , case studies typically focus on the lives of an individual or a group of individuals. These studies can provide particularly valuable insight into the personalities and motives of individual criminals, but they may suffer from a lack of objectivity on the part of the researchers (typically because of the researchers’ biases when working with people with a criminal history), and their findings may be difficult to generalize.

In sociology , the case-study method was developed by Frédéric Le Play in France during the 19th century. This approach involves a field worker staying with a family for a period of time, gathering data on the family members’ attitudes and interactions and on their income, expenditures, and physical possessions. Similar approaches have been used in anthropology . Such studies can sometimes continue for many years.

Case studies provide insight into situations that involve a specific entity or set of circumstances. They can be beneficial in helping to explain the causal relationships between quantitative indicators in a field of study, such as what drives a company’s market share. By introducing real-world examples, they also plunge the reader into an actual, concrete situation and make the concepts real rather than theoretical. They also help people study rare situations that they might not otherwise experience.

Because case studies are in a “naturalistic” environment , they are limited in terms of research design: researchers lack control over what they are studying, which means that the results often cannot be reproduced. Also, care must be taken to stay within the bounds of the research question on which the case study is focusing. Other limitations to case studies revolve around the data collected. It may be difficult, for instance, for researchers to organize the large volume of data that can emerge from the study, and their analysis of the data must be carefully thought through to produce scientifically valid insights. The research methodology used to generate these insights is as important as the insights themselves, for the latter need to be seen in the proper context. Taken out of context, they may lead to erroneous conclusions. Like all scientific studies, case studies need to be approached objectively; personal bias or opinion may skew the research methods as well as the results. ( See also confirmation bias .)

Business case studies in particular have been criticized for approaching a problem or situation from a narrow perspective. Students are expected to come up with solutions for a problem based on the data provided. However, in real life, the situation is typically reversed: business managers face a problem and must then look for data to help them solve it.

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• Roberta Heale 1 ,
• Alison Twycross 2
• 1 School of Nursing , Laurentian University , Sudbury , Ontario , Canada
• 2 School of Health and Social Care , London South Bank University , London , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Roberta Heale, School of Nursing, Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON P3E2C6, Canada; rheale{at}laurentian.ca

https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2017-102845

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What is it?

Case study is a research methodology, typically seen in social and life sciences. There is no one definition of case study research. 1 However, very simply… ‘a case study can be defined as an intensive study about a person, a group of people or a unit, which is aimed to generalize over several units’. 1 A case study has also been described as an intensive, systematic investigation of a single individual, group, community or some other unit in which the researcher examines in-depth data relating to several variables. 2

Often there are several similar cases to consider such as educational or social service programmes that are delivered from a number of locations. Although similar, they are complex and have unique features. In these circumstances, the evaluation of several, similar cases will provide a better answer to a research question than if only one case is examined, hence the multiple-case study. Stake asserts that the cases are grouped and viewed as one entity, called the quintain . 6  ‘We study what is similar and different about the cases to understand the quintain better’. 6

The steps when using case study methodology are the same as for other types of research. 6 The first step is defining the single case or identifying a group of similar cases that can then be incorporated into a multiple-case study. A search to determine what is known about the case(s) is typically conducted. This may include a review of the literature, grey literature, media, reports and more, which serves to establish a basic understanding of the cases and informs the development of research questions. Data in case studies are often, but not exclusively, qualitative in nature. In multiple-case studies, analysis within cases and across cases is conducted. Themes arise from the analyses and assertions about the cases as a whole, or the quintain, emerge. 6

Benefits and limitations of case studies

If a researcher wants to study a specific phenomenon arising from a particular entity, then a single-case study is warranted and will allow for a in-depth understanding of the single phenomenon and, as discussed above, would involve collecting several different types of data. This is illustrated in example 1 below.

Using a multiple-case research study allows for a more in-depth understanding of the cases as a unit, through comparison of similarities and differences of the individual cases embedded within the quintain. Evidence arising from multiple-case studies is often stronger and more reliable than from single-case research. Multiple-case studies allow for more comprehensive exploration of research questions and theory development. 6

Despite the advantages of case studies, there are limitations. The sheer volume of data is difficult to organise and data analysis and integration strategies need to be carefully thought through. There is also sometimes a temptation to veer away from the research focus. 2 Reporting of findings from multiple-case research studies is also challenging at times, 1 particularly in relation to the word limits for some journal papers.

Examples of case studies

Example 1: nurses’ paediatric pain management practices.

One of the authors of this paper (AT) has used a case study approach to explore nurses’ paediatric pain management practices. This involved collecting several datasets:

Observational data to gain a picture about actual pain management practices.

Questionnaire data about nurses’ knowledge about paediatric pain management practices and how well they felt they managed pain in children.

Questionnaire data about how critical nurses perceived pain management tasks to be.

These datasets were analysed separately and then compared 7–9 and demonstrated that nurses’ level of theoretical did not impact on the quality of their pain management practices. 7 Nor did individual nurse’s perceptions of how critical a task was effect the likelihood of them carrying out this task in practice. 8 There was also a difference in self-reported and observed practices 9 ; actual (observed) practices did not confirm to best practice guidelines, whereas self-reported practices tended to.

Example 2: quality of care for complex patients at Nurse Practitioner-Led Clinics (NPLCs)

The other author of this paper (RH) has conducted a multiple-case study to determine the quality of care for patients with complex clinical presentations in NPLCs in Ontario, Canada. 10 Five NPLCs served as individual cases that, together, represented the quatrain. Three types of data were collected including:

Review of documentation related to the NPLC model (media, annual reports, research articles, grey literature and regulatory legislation).

Interviews with nurse practitioners (NPs) practising at the five NPLCs to determine their perceptions of the impact of the NPLC model on the quality of care provided to patients with multimorbidity.

Chart audits conducted at the five NPLCs to determine the extent to which evidence-based guidelines were followed for patients with diabetes and at least one other chronic condition.

The three sources of data collected from the five NPLCs were analysed and themes arose related to the quality of care for complex patients at NPLCs. The multiple-case study confirmed that nurse practitioners are the primary care providers at the NPLCs, and this positively impacts the quality of care for patients with multimorbidity. Healthcare policy, such as lack of an increase in salary for NPs for 10 years, has resulted in issues in recruitment and retention of NPs at NPLCs. This, along with insufficient resources in the communities where NPLCs are located and high patient vulnerability at NPLCs, have a negative impact on the quality of care. 10

These examples illustrate how collecting data about a single case or multiple cases helps us to better understand the phenomenon in question. Case study methodology serves to provide a framework for evaluation and analysis of complex issues. It shines a light on the holistic nature of nursing practice and offers a perspective that informs improved patient care.

• Gustafsson J
• Calanzaro M
• Sandelowski M

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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Your Step-By-Step Guide To Writing a Case Study

Creating a case study is both an art and a science. It requires making an in-depth exploration of your chosen subject in order to extract meaningful insights and understand the dynamics that more general surveys or statistical research might not uncover. At the same time, your case study also needs to be a compelling read to ensure those insights get attention from other people!

Unsurprisingly, the prospect of crafting an effective case study can be daunting. It calls for strategic planning, careful organization, and clear communication, all of which can be challenging even for experienced researchers. That's why we've created this step-by-step guide, which breaks the process down into manageable steps, demystifying the journey from defining your research question to sharing your findings. Whether you're a seasoned researcher or a first-timer, this guide aims to equip you with the necessary tools and tips to create a case study that's not just informative, but also engaging and impactful.

Are you ready to unlock the potential of case studies? Let's dive in!

What is a case study?

First, it's important to understand what a case study is – and what it isn't.

A case study is a thorough exploration of a specific subject or event over a certain time frame. Case studies are utilized in numerous fields, including sociology, psychology, education, anthropology, business, and the health sciences, and employ various research techniques to shed light on complex issues.

A case study does not provide absolute proof or conclusions that can be universally applied. Because it concentrates on one particular case or just a few cases, the findings might not apply to different contexts or subjects. Case studies also aren't ideal for determining cause-and-effect relationships as they do not use controlled conditions to separate and measure the impacts of different factors. Lastly, it must be said that a case study isn't just a random assortment of facts or observations; it necessitates a clear research question, a methodical approach to data collection and analysis, and a thoughtful interpretation of the results.

Getting started

Now that we've established the definition and purpose of a case study, let's explore the process by which one is created. You can produce a case study by following these nine steps:

1. Define the purpose of your case study

Before you start writing a case study, you need to define its purpose clearly. Ask yourself: What is the research question or problem you aim to solve? What insights are you looking to uncover? Your goals will guide your research design and influence your choice of case. This initial stage of introspection and clarification is crucial as it acts as a roadmap for your study.

2. Select the case to study

Once you've defined your research objective, the next step is to choose a suitable case that can help answer your research question. This might be a unique, critical, or representative instance. Unique cases offer the opportunity to observe and analyze a situation that is unusual or not well-understood. In contrast, a representative or typical case is often chosen because it represents other cases or a broader phenomenon.

In any case, be sure to justify your choice. Explain why the case is of interest and how it can contribute to the knowledge or understanding of the issue at hand. For instance, if you're studying the effects of corporate restructuring on employee morale, you might choose to focus on a company that recently underwent a significant restructure.

3. Conduct a thorough literature review

Performing a literature review involves a careful examination of relevant scholarly articles, books, and other sources related to your research question or problem. In the process, you identify gaps in the current knowledge and determine how your case study can address them. By critically examining existing research, you will not only gain a comprehensive understanding of your chosen topic but also be able to refine your research question or hypothesis, if necessary.

4. Choose a methodological approach

The methodological approach used in your case study will depend on your research objectives and the nature of the case. Methodologies that can be employed in case studies include qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods .

Qualitative methods are often used when the goal is to explore, understand, or interpret certain phenomena. These involve approaches like interviews, focus groups, or ethnography. Quantitative methods, on the other hand, are used when the goal is to test hypotheses or examine relationships between variables. Quantitative approaches often include experiments. Also, surveys may be either qualitative or quantitative depending on the question design.

You may choose to use a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods (mixed methods) if it suits your research objectives.

5. Collect and organize your data

Data collection should be systematic and organized to maintain the integrity and reliability of your research. You need to plan how you will record and store your data to ensure that it's accessible and usable.

If you're conducting interviews or observations, consider using recording devices (with participant consent) to capture the data accurately. In addition, you may want to transcribe the recorded material for easier analysis. If you're using documents or archival records, develop a system for coding and categorizing the data.

6. Analyze the data

Analysis involves interpreting your data to draw out meaningful insights; it is in this stage that your findings start to take shape. Depending on the nature of your data and your research question, you might use any of a variety of analysis methods. For qualitative data, you might employ thematic analysis to identify key themes or grounded theory to generate a new theoretical framework. For quantitative data, you might use statistical analysis to identify patterns or correlations.

Always be open to unexpected findings. Your initial hypotheses might not be supported, or you might uncover new insights that you hadn't initially considered. Remember that all data, whether they fit neatly into your analysis or not, provide valuable insights and contribute to the holistic understanding of your case.

7. Write the case study report

After analyzing the data, it's finally time to compose your case study. In terms of structure, a typical case study might consist of an introduction, background information, the collected data (results), analysis of that data, and the conclusion. Here's a brief breakdown of each section:

• Introduction: The introduction should be brief but engaging, providing a clear statement of the research question or problem, explaining why the case was chosen, and outlining what the case study will cover.
• Background: The background provides the context for your case. Describe the case, its history, and any relevant information that will help readers understand the situation.
• Results: This section should provide a comprehensive account of what you found, without interpretation or opinion. Present your findings in a clear, organized manner. Use visuals such as charts or graphs if they aid comprehension.
• Analysis: This section should provide your interpretations and arguments. Discuss the patterns, themes, or relationships you've identified in your data. Explain what these findings mean in relation to your research question.
• Conclusion: Finally, summarize the key insights from your case study along with their implications. Discuss the limitations of your study and propose avenues for future research.

8. Review and revise

The process of writing a case study doesn't actually end when the report is written; you also need to review your writing for coherence, clarity, and correctness. Don't underestimate the importance of this step! Make sure the information flows logically and that your arguments are well-supported. Check for any grammar or spelling errors. Having a peer or mentor review your work can be incredibly helpful as they provide a fresh perspective and can catch mistakes you might have missed.

9. Get approval if required

If your case study involves human subjects, you may need to obtain approval from an ethical review board. You'll also need to obtain informed consent from your subjects and ensure you respect their privacy and confidentiality throughout the research process. Always follow your institution's ethical guidelines and any other relevant legislation .

Practical tips for writing a compelling case study

Getting through all those steps can feel like a formidable challenge, but here are some practical tips to make the process more manageable:

Be systematic and organized

Given the importance of detail in case studies, it's vital to be systematic and organized from the get-go. This means keeping meticulous records of your data, your sources, and any changes to your research design. A good practice is to maintain a research journal or log where you can record your process, thoughts, and reflections.

In addition, use technology to your advantage. Digital tools like citation managers can help you keep track of your sources and make formatting references a breeze, while spreadsheet or database software can assist in managing and organizing your data. Developing a consistent system for labeling and storing information at the outset will save you time and effort later when you need to retrieve data for analysis.

Stay focused

One common pitfall in research and writing is loss of focus: getting sidetracked by interesting but ultimately irrelevant digressions, which can be very easy, especially when you're dealing with a rich and complex case. Always remember your research question and objectives, and let these guide your study at every step. It's perfectly acceptable – and in fact advisable – to delineate what your study will not cover. Setting clear boundaries can help you stay focused and manage the scope of your study effectively.

Use visual aids

Visual aids such as charts, diagrams, or photographs can greatly enhance your case study. They provide readers with a break from the monotony of text and can communicate complex data or relationships more easily. For instance, if you're presenting a lot of numerical data, consider using a chart or graph. If you're describing a process or sequence of events, portraying it in a flowchart or timeline might be useful. Remember, the goal is to aid comprehension, so make sure your visual aids are clear, well-labeled, and integrated into the text.

Include direct quotes

If your case study involves interviews, including direct quotes can add depth and a sense of the personal to your findings. They provide readers with a firsthand perspective and make your case study more engaging.

When using quotes, be sure to integrate them smoothly into your text. Provide enough context so readers understand the quote's relevance. Also, remember to adhere to ethical guidelines– always respect confidentiality and anonymity agreements.

Maintain ethical standards

Ethics is a fundamental consideration in all research, including case studies. Ensure you have proper consent from participants, respect their privacy, and accurately present your findings without manipulation.

Misrepresenting data or failing to respect participants' rights can lead to serious ethical violations. Always follow your institution's ethical guidelines and any other relevant legislation. If in doubt, seek advice from a supervisor or your institution's ethics committee.

Acknowledge limitations

Every research study has limitations, which could relate to the research design, data collection methods, or other aspects of the study. Being transparent about the limitations of your study can enhance its credibility; moreover, not only does identifying limitations demonstrate your critical thinking and honesty, but it also helps readers accurately interpret your findings.

Finally, acknowledging the limitations of your work helps to set the stage for further research. By identifying aspects that your study couldn't address, you provide other researchers with avenues for building on your findings.

Learn from examples

Before you start writing your case study, it can be helpful to review some published case studies in your field. Different fields may have different conventions, and familiarizing yourself with case studies in your own field can help guide your writing. Look at the structure, tone, and style. Pay attention to how the authors present and analyze data, and how they link their findings back to the research question. You can also learn a lot from the strengths and weaknesses of previously published works. However, remember to develop your own unique voice and perspective – don't just mimic what others have done.

Design for triangulation

Triangulation involves using multiple data sources or methods to gain a more comprehensive and balanced understanding of your research topic. By coming at your research question from multiple directions, such as by examining different datasets or using different methods, you can increase the validity of your results and gain more nuanced insights.

For example, if you're studying the impact of a new teaching method in a school, you might observe classes, interview teachers, and also survey students. Each method will provide a slightly different perspective, and together, they allow you to develop a more complete picture of the teaching method's impact.

Practice reflexivity

Reflexivity involves reflecting on how your assumptions, values, or experiences might influence your research process and interpretations. As a researcher, it's essential to be aware of your potential biases and how they might shape your study.

Consider keeping a reflexivity journal where you can note your thoughts, feelings, and reflections throughout the research process. This practice can help you stay aware of your biases and ensure your research is as objective and balanced as possible.

Write for your audience

Always make sure that your writing is on target for your intended audience. If you're writing for an academic audience, for example, you'll likely use a more formal tone and include more detailed methodological information. If you're writing for practitioners or a general audience, you might use a more accessible language and focus more on practical implications.

Remember to define any technical terms or jargon, and provide sufficient context so your readers can understand your research. The goal is to communicate your findings effectively, regardless of who your readers are.

Seek feedback

Feedback is valuable for improving your case study. Consider sharing drafts with your peers, mentors, or supervisors and asking for their input. Fresh eyes can provide different perspectives, catch errors, or suggest ways to strengthen your arguments.

Remember, feedback is not personal; it's about improving your work. Be open to critique and willing to revise your work based on the feedback you receive.

Writing a case study is a meticulous process that requires clear purpose, careful planning, systematic data collection, and thoughtful analysis. Although it can be time-consuming, the rich, detailed insights a well-executed case study can provide make this study design an invaluable tool in research.

By following this guide and adopting its practical tips, you will be well on your way to crafting a compelling case study that contributes meaningful insights to your chosen field. Good luck with your research journey!

Header image by Kateryna Hliznitsova .

Case Studies

March 11, 2024 |, contributors.

What Is a Case Study?

Case studies give marketers a deep dive into a specific problem, process, or achievement within a company. They offer detailed insights into real-life business challenges and triumphs. Case studies provide a narrative that's informative and engaging, allowing readers to glean practical knowledge from real-world scenarios.

Case studies stand out for their ability to present complex data in a digestible format. They turn abstract numbers and statistics into relatable stories, making them an invaluable resource in the arsenal of any marketer. By showcasing specific examples of strategies that worked (or didn’t), case studies provide a unique learning opportunity that can be applied to similar situations in different organizations.

Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies

The power of detailed insight.

One of the most significant benefits of case studies is their capacity to provide detailed insights. Unlike broader market research, case studies delve into the specifics of a single situation, offering an in-depth understanding of the dynamics at play. This level of detail can be incredibly useful for businesses looking to understand the nuances of a particular strategy or problem. It allows for a more nuanced approach to problem-solving, as the specificity of a case study often highlights unique variables and outcomes that broader analyses may overlook.

Real-World Application

Case studies are grounded in real-world scenarios, making their lessons and findings directly applicable to similar situations in other organizations. By examining how a particular strategy or decision played out in a real context, businesses can better anticipate potential outcomes in their own situations.

Limitations: Generalizability and Bias

However, the very strength of case studies – their detailed focus on a single instance – is also their limitation. The findings of a case study might not apply to all situations. Since case studies often focus on unique cases, there’s a risk of drawing conclusions that don’t apply broadly.

Another limitation is the potential for bias. Since case studies are often retrospective and rely on the interpretation of events, there’s a risk of subjective bias in both the collection and interpretation of data. This can skew the insights and lessons derived from the study.

Despite these limitations, case studies are a powerful tool in the marketer’s toolkit, offering a unique blend of storytelling and empirical investigation.

Types of Case Studies

Explanatory case studies.

Explanatory case studies are often used in fields like social sciences to explain how or why certain events occurred. In a business context, explanatory case studies can be instrumental in unraveling the intricacies of business processes or market dynamics. They typically involve a detailed analysis of a situation or series of events to understand the underlying causes and effects. An explanatory case study's strength is its ability to provide clear, logical insights into complex scenarios.

Exploratory Case Studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted before a more in-depth investigation. Their primary purpose is to identify the key variables and potential relationships in a situation, setting the stage for more detailed analysis later. In marketing, exploratory case studies can help identify the factors contributing to a product's success or failure in the market. They are particularly useful in the early stages of research, where the goal is to gather as much information as possible to formulate more precise questions for further study.

Collective Case Studies

Collective case studies involve studying a group of cases simultaneously or sequentially. This approach is beneficial when the objective is to understand a phenomenon, population, or general condition more comprehensively. By examining multiple cases, marketers and business leaders can compare and contrast different scenarios, leading to a more robust and well-rounded understanding of the subject. Collective case studies are particularly useful for observing variations across different contexts, offering insights that might be overlooked when focusing on a single case.

Each type of case study serves a unique purpose and offers different insights, making them versatile tools for understanding complex business scenarios.

Writing and Analysis Tips

Structuring and formatting a case study.

When crafting a case study, be mindful of structure and format. A well-structured case study ensures clarity and enhances the reader's engagement and comprehension. Typically, a case study should begin with an introduction that sets the context and outlines the problem or situation being addressed. This is followed by a detailed presentation of the facts, including background information and a description of the events or processes involved.

The next section should involve an analysis of the case. This is where the data is interpreted and insights are drawn. It's crucial to link the theoretical framework to the practical aspects of the case, demonstrating how specific concepts apply to real-world scenarios. Finally, conclude with a section that synthesizes the findings, offering conclusions and if applicable, recommendations. This closing part should summarize the key insights and highlight the implications for practice and further research.

Developing Theories and Analyzing Results

Developing theories in case studies involves identifying patterns and relationships within the data. The goal is to move beyond the description to interpret the significance of what has been observed. This process requires critical thinking and the ability to link empirical evidence to broader concepts and theories.

Analyzing results in a case study involves scrutinizing the data to understand the 'why' and 'how' of the case. It's about digging deeper into the findings to unearth underlying principles or truths. This analysis should be rigorous and creative, combining empirical evidence with insightful interpretation.

Ensuring Validity and Reliability

To ensure the validity and reliability of a case study, use robust and transparent methods in data collection and analysis. Validity refers to the accuracy and truthfulness of the findings, while reliability pertains to the consistency of the results over time. Triangulation of data sources, where information is corroborated from multiple sources or methods, can enhance validity and reliability.

Furthermore, being transparent about the limitations of the case study, such as potential biases or constraints, helps maintain the integrity of the research. Providing a clear and detailed description of the methodology also allows others to assess the credibility of the findings.

These tips, when applied, can enhance the quality and impact of a case study, making it a powerful tool in business and marketing research.

Case Study Examples

Here are a few links to case studies done by 97th Floor:

SOLD.com : An agent-centric approach fuels SOLD.com's 322% ROI increase amidst housing market Challenges

Gigamon : The holistic SEO approach that won Gigamon their #1 keyword

Tuft & Needle : Connecting with Sleep-Deprived Parents to Increase Tuft and Needle’s Revenue by 57% YoY

These case studies provide tangible examples of how different strategies and innovations can be effectively applied in real-world business scenarios.

Case studies provide a unique blend of narrative storytelling and empirical investigation, making abstract concepts and strategies relatable and understandable. Whether explanatory, exploratory, or collective, each type of case study offers a different lens through which to view and solve business problems.

The insights from well-crafted case studies illuminate past successes and failures and pave the way for future innovations and strategies. By providing detailed analysis and real-world applications, case studies serve as a crucial tool for marketers and business leaders aiming to navigate the ever-evolving landscape of business challenges.

Ultimately, the value of a case study lies in its ability to inspire, inform, and guide. It's a resource that combines theoretical knowledge with practical experience, offering a comprehensive understanding. For any business looking to grow, adapt, and excel, leveraging the power of case studies is not just beneficial—it's essential.

A good case study is well-structured, detailed, and provides clear insights. It should present a real-world problem, outline the steps taken to address it and detail the results. Clarity, relevance, and the ability to engage the reader are key elements.

The length of a case study can vary depending on the complexity of the subject. Generally, it should be long enough to cover all relevant aspects of the case but concise enough to maintain the reader's interest. Typically, anywhere from 500 to 1500 words is standard.

While case studies provide valuable insights, they should not replace traditional market research. They are best used in conjunction with other forms of research to provide a comprehensive understanding of a market or problem.

Ensuring objectivity involves using a systematic approach in gathering and analyzing data, avoiding bias in selecting cases, and being transparent about the limitations of the study.

Yes, case studies are versatile and can be beneficial for businesses of all types and sizes. They are particularly useful for understanding specific situations in depth and can provide valuable insights regardless of the industry.

Small businesses can use case studies to learn from the experiences of others, understand market dynamics, and formulate strategies based on proven methods. They can also create their own case studies to showcase their successes and attract customers or investors.

In digital marketing, case studies can be used as powerful content pieces to demonstrate expertise, build trust, and provide value to the audience. They can be shared across various digital platforms, including social media, blogs, and email newsletters.

The frequency depends on the business's goals and resources. Regularly publishing case studies can keep the content fresh and relevant, but it's more important to focus on quality and relevance than frequency.

Absolutely. Case studies are excellent tools for employee training, as they provide real-life examples and scenarios for employees to learn from and discuss.

The effectiveness can be measured by its impact, such as increased website traffic, engagement rates, lead generation, and feedback from readers. Analyzing these metrics can provide insights into how well the case study resonates with the target audience.

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Definition of case study

Examples of case study in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'case study.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1914, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Dictionary Entries Near case study

case spring

case study method

Cite this Entry

“Case study.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/case%20study. Accessed 16 Aug. 2024.

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What Is a Case Study and Why You Should Use Them

Case studies can provide more insights into your business while helping you conduct further research with robust qualitative data analysis to learn more.

If you're in charge of running a company, then you're likely always looking for new ways to run your business more efficiently and increase your customer base while streamlining as many processes as possible.

Unfortunately, it can sometimes be difficult to determine how to go about implementing the proper program in order to be successful. This is why many business owners opt to conduct a case study, which can help significantly. Whether you've been struggling with brand consistency or some other problem, the right case study can identify why your problem exists as well as provide a way to rectify it.

A case study is a great tool that many businesses aren't even aware exists, and there are marketing experts like Mailchimp who can provide you with step-by-step assistance with implementing a plan with a case study. Many companies discover that not only do they need to start a blog in order to improve business, but they also need to create specific and relevant blog titles.

If your company already has a blog, then optimizing your blog posts may be helpful. Regardless of the obstacles that are preventing you from achieving all your professional goals, a case study can work wonders in helping you reverse this issue.

What is a case study?

A case study is a comprehensive report of the results of theory testing or examining emerging themes of a business in real life context. Case studies are also often used in the healthcare industry, conducting health services research with primary research interest around routinely collected healthcare data.

However, for businesses, the purpose of a case study is to help small business owners or company leaders identify the issues and conduct further research into what may be preventing success through information collection, client or customer interviews, and in-depth data analysis.

Knowing the case study definition is crucial for any business owner. By identifying the issues that are hindering a company from achieving all its goals, it's easier to make the necessary corrections to promote success through influenced data collection.

Why are case studies important?

Now that we've answered the questions, "what is a case study?" Why are case studies important? Some of the top reasons why case studies are important include:

• Understand complex issues: Even after you conduct a significant amount of market research , you might have a difficult time understanding exactly what it means. While you might have the basics down, conducting a case study can help you see how that information is applied. Then, when you see how the information can make a difference in business decisions, it could make it easier to understand complex issues.
• Collect data: A case study can also help with data tracking . A case study is a data collection method that can help you describe the information that you have available to you. Then, you can present that information in a way the reader can understand.
• Conduct evaluations: As you learn more about how to write a case study, remember that you can also use a case study to conduct evaluations of a specific situation. A case study is a great way to learn more about complex situations, and you can evaluate how various people responded in that situation. By conducting a case study evaluation, you can learn more about what has worked well, what has not, and what you might want to change in the future.
• Identify potential solutions: A case study can also help you identify solutions to potential problems. If you have an issue in your business that you are trying to solve, you may be able to take a look at a case study where someone has dealt with a similar situation in the past. For example, you may uncover data bias in a specific solution that you would like to address when you tackle the issue on your own. If you need help solving a difficult problem, a case study may be able to help you.

Remember that you can also use case studies to target your audience . If you want to show your audience that you have a significant level of expertise in a field, you may want to publish some case studies that you have handled in the past. Then, when your audience sees that you have had success in a specific area, they may be more likely to provide you with their business. In essence, case studies can be looked at as the original method of social proof, showcasing exactly how you can help someone solve their problems.

What are the benefits of writing a business case study?

Although writing a case study can seem like a tedious task, there are many benefits to conducting one through an in depth qualitative research process.

• Industry understanding: First of all, a case study can give you an in-depth understanding of your industry through a particular conceptual framework and help you identify hidden problems that are preventing you from transcending into the business world.
• Develop theories: If you decide to write a business case study, it provides you with an opportunity to develop new theories. You might have a theory about how to solve a specific problem, but you need to write a business case study to see exactly how that theory has unfolded in the past. Then, you can figure out if you want to apply your theory to a similar issue in the future.
• Evaluate interventions: When you write a business case study that focuses on a specific situation you have been through in the past, you can uncover whether that intervention was truly helpful. This can make it easier to figure out whether you want to use the same intervention in a similar situation in the future.
• Identify best practices: If you want to stay on top of the best practices in your field, conducting case studies can help by allowing you to identify patterns and trends and develop a new list of best practices that you can follow in the future.
• Versatility: Writing a case study also provides you with more versatility. If you want to expand your business applications, you need to figure out how you respond to various problems. When you run a business case study, you open the door to new opportunities, new applications, and new techniques that could help you make a difference in your business down the road.
• Solve problems: Writing a great case study can dramatically improve your chances of reversing your problem and improving your business.
• These are just a few of the biggest benefits you might experience if you decide to publish your case studies. They can be an effective tool for learning, showcasing your talents, and teaching some of your other employees. If you want to grow your audience , you may want to consider publishing some case studies.

What are the limitations of case studies?

Case studies can be a wonderful tool for any business of any size to use to gain an in-depth understanding of their clients, products, customers, or services, but there are limitations.

One limitation of case studies is the fact that, unless there are other recently published examples, there is nothing to compare them to since, most of the time, you are conducting a single, not multiple, case studies.

Another limitation is the fact that most case studies can lack scientific evidence.

Types of case studies

There are specific types of case studies to choose from, and each specific type will yield different results. Some case study types even overlap, which is sometimes more favorable, as they provide even more pertinent data.

Here are overviews of the different types of case studies, each with its own theoretical framework, so you can determine which type would be most effective for helping you meet your goals.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are pretty straightforward, as they're not difficult to interpret. This type of case study is best if there aren't many variables involved because explanatory case studies can easily answer questions like "how" and "why" through theory development.

Exploratory case studies

An exploratory case study does exactly what its name implies: it goes into specific detail about the topic at hand in a natural, real-life context with qualitative research.

The benefits of exploratory case studies are limitless, with the main one being that it offers a great deal of flexibility. Having flexibility when writing a case study is important because you can't always predict what obstacles might arise during the qualitative research process.

Collective case studies

Collective case studies require you to study many different individuals in order to obtain usable data.

Case studies that involve an investigation of people will involve many different variables, all of which can't be predicted. Despite this fact, there are many benefits of collective case studies, including the fact that it allows an ongoing analysis of the data collected.

Intrinsic case studies

This type of study differs from the others as it focuses on the inquiry of one specific instance among many possibilities.

Many people prefer these types of case studies because it allows them to learn about the particular instance that they wish to investigate further.

Instrumental case studies

An instrumental case study is similar to an intrinsic one, as it focuses on a particular instance, whether it's a person, organization, or something different.

One thing that differentiates instrumental case studies from intrinsic ones is the fact that instrumental case studies aren't chosen merely because a person is interested in learning about a specific instance.

Tips for writing a case study

If you have decided to write case studies for your company, then you may be unsure of where to start or which type to conduct.

However, it doesn't have to be difficult or confusing to begin conducting a case study that will help you identify ways to improve your business.

Here are some helpful tips for writing your case studies:

1. Your case study must be written in the proper format

When writing a case study, the format that you should be similar to this:

Administrative summary

The executive summary is an overview of what your report will contain, written in a concise manner while providing real-life context.

Despite the fact that the executive summary should appear at the beginning of your case studies, it shouldn't be written until you've completed the entire report because if you write it before you finish the report, this summary may not be completely accurate.

Key problem statement

In this section of your case study, you will briefly describe the problem that you hope to solve by conducting the study. You will have the opportunity to elaborate on the problem that you're focusing on as you get into the breadth of the report.

Problem exploration

This part of the case study isn't as brief as the other two, and it goes into more detail about the problem at hand. Your problem exploration must include why the identified problem needs to be solved as well as the urgency of solving it.

Additionally, it must include justification for conducting the problem-solving, as the benefits must outweigh the efforts and costs.

Proposed resolution

This case study section will also be lengthier than the first two. It must include how you propose going about rectifying the problem. The "recommended solution" section must also include potential obstacles that you might experience, as well as how these will be managed.

Furthermore, you will need to list alternative solutions and explain the reason the chosen solution is best. Charts can enhance your report and make it easier to read, and provide as much proof to substantiate your claim as possible.

Overview of monetary consideration

An overview of monetary consideration is essential for all case studies, as it will be used to convince all involved parties why your project should be funded. You must successfully convince them that the cost is worth the investment it will require. It's important that you stress the necessity for this particular case study and explain the expected outcome.

Execution timeline

In the execution times of case studies, you explain how long you predict it will take to implement your study. The shorter the time it will take to implement your plan, the more apt it is to be approved. However, be sure to provide a reasonable timeline, taking into consideration any additional time that might be needed due to obstacles.

Always include a conclusion in your case study. This is where you will briefly wrap up your entire proposal, stressing the benefits of completing the data collection and data analysis in order to rectify your problem.

2. Make it clear and comprehensive

You want to write your case studies with as much clarity as possible so that every aspect of the report is understood. Be sure to double-check your grammar, spelling, punctuation, and more, as you don't want to submit a poorly-written document.

Not only would a poorly-written case study fail to prove that what you are trying to achieve is important, but it would also increase the chances that your report will be tossed aside and not taken seriously.

3. Don't rush through the process

Writing the perfect case study takes time and patience. Rushing could result in your forgetting to include information that is crucial to your entire study. Don't waste your time creating a study that simply isn't ready. Take the necessary time to perform all the research necessary to write the best case study possible.

Depending on the case study, conducting case study research could mean using qualitative methods, quantitative methods, or both. Qualitative research questions focus on non-numerical data, such as how people feel, their beliefs, their experiences, and so on.

Meanwhile, quantitative research questions focus on numerical or statistical data collection to explain causal links or get an in-depth picture.

It is also important to collect insightful and constructive feedback. This will help you better understand the outcome as well as any changes you need to make to future case studies. Consider using formal and informal ways to collect feedback to ensure that you get a range of opinions and perspectives.

4. Be confident in your theory development

While writing your case study or conducting your formal experimental investigation, you should have confidence in yourself and what you're proposing in your report. If you took the time to gather all the pertinent data collected to complete the report, don't second-guess yourself or doubt your abilities. If you believe your report will be amazing, then it likely will be.

5. Case studies and all qualitative research are long

It's expected that multiple case studies are going to be incredibly boring, and there is no way around this. However, it doesn't mean you can choose your language carefully in order to keep your audience as engaged as possible.

If your audience loses interest in your case study at the beginning, for whatever reason, then this increases the likelihood that your case study will not be funded.

Case study examples

If you want to learn more about how to write a case study, it might be beneficial to take a look at a few case study examples. Below are a few interesting case study examples you may want to take a closer look at.

• Phineas Gage by John Martin Marlow : One of the most famous case studies comes from the medical field, and it is about the story of Phineas Gage, a man who had a railroad spike driven through his head in 1848. As he was working on a railroad, an explosive charge went off prematurely, sending a railroad rod through his head. Even though he survived this incident, he lost his left eye. However, Phineas Gage was studied extensively over the years because his experiences had a significant, lasting impact on his personality. This served as a case study because his injury showed different parts of the brain have different functions.
• Kitty Genovese and the bystander effect : This is a tragic case study that discusses the murder of Kitty Genovese, a woman attacked and murdered in Queens, New York City. Shockingly, while numerous neighbors watched the scene, nobody called for help because they assumed someone else would. This case study helped to define the bystander effect, which is when a person fails to intervene during an emergency because other people are around.
• Henry Molaison and the study of memory : Henry Molaison lost his memory and suffered from debilitating amnesia. He suffered from childhood epilepsy, and medical professionals attempted to remove the part of his brain that was causing his seizures. He had a portion of his brain removed, but it completely took away his ability to hold memories. Even though he went on to live until the age of 82, he was always forced to live in the present moment, as he was completely unable to form new memories.

Case study FAQs

When should you do a case study.

There are several scenarios when conducting a case study can be beneficial. Case studies are often used when there's a "why" or "how" question that needs to be answered. Case studies are also beneficial when trying to understand a complex phenomenon, there's limited research on a topic, or when you're looking for practical solutions to a problem.

How can case study results be used to make business decisions?

You can use the results from a case study to make future business decisions if you find yourself in a similar situation. As you assess the results of a case study, you can identify best practices, evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention, generate new and creative ideas, or get a better understanding of customer needs.

How are case studies different from other research methodologies?

When compared to other research methodologies, such as experimental or qualitative research methodology, a case study does not require a representative sample. For example, if you are performing quantitative research, you have a lot of subjects that expand your sample size. If you are performing experimental research, you may have a random sample in front of you. A case study is usually designed to deliberately focus on unusual situations, which allows it to shed new light on a specific business research problem.

Writing multiple case studies for your business

If you're feeling overwhelmed by the idea of writing a case study and it seems completely foreign, then you aren't alone. Writing a case study for a business is a very big deal, but fortunately, there is help available because an example of a case study doesn't always help.

Mailchimp, a well-known marketing company that provides comprehensive marketing support for all sorts of businesses, can assist you with your case study, or you can review one of their own recently published examples.

Mailchimp can assist you with developing the most effective content strategy to increase your chances of being as successful as possible. Mailchimp's content studio is a great tool that can help your business immensely.

5 Steps for Writing a Case Study for Business (+Templates)

Get professional tips for writing a case study that drives business impact. Learn the best format and research method to use alongside examples & templates.

John McTale

7 minute read

SHORT ANSWER

What is a case study.

• Open with an introductory overview
• Explain the problem in question
• Detail the solutions that solved the problem
• Refer to key results
• Finish with recommendations and next steps

Why you need a case study

“I climbed Mount Everest and I did it all by myself.” “Yeah mate, pics or it didn’t happen.” The same logic applies to case studies. In business, it’s “case studies or it didn’t happen.” A well-written case study legitimizes your product or services. It proves the impact your actions have on the bottom line and is the single most important element of building trust amongst prospective clients. But… How do you write a *perfect* case study? One that engages readers and makes them care about your offering and excited to work with you?

In business, a case study , or customer success story, is a marketing tool that showcases how your product or service helped clients overcome business challenges. It uses statistics, quotes, and specific examples to convincingly highlight your ability to produce results.

What is the purpose of a case study?

The purpose of a case study, usually, is to provide your prospective clients with specific examples of how your products or services can help solve business problems they might be facing.

Case studies legitimize your business activities allowing you to go beyond explaining what you do and focus on how well you do it. (And, in case you were wondering just HOW important case studies are, here’s an item of data to ponder: according to a DemandGen report , 78% of B2B buyers want to review case studies before making a purchase decision. Another study by Uplift found that at the end of 2023, f or the third year in a row, marketers ranked case studies the #1 most effective marketing tactic to increase sales—ahead of general website content, SEO, blog posts, social media, paid ads and other tactics. )

There’s no magic behind it. Just a proven, simple formula I’m about to share with you. Spend the next 7 minutes reading this guide and you’ll learn how to write case studies better than any case study you’ve created in the past. Important caveat: this article explains how to write a case study for business purposes. If you’re interested in writing research case studies for academia, refer to this excellent guide by University of Southern California. If, in turn, you’re struggling with putting together a medical case study, here’s a fantastic 101 by the BMJ . I’m not going to pretend I know better than these guys do.

For your reference, here’s an example of our very own case study, showing how, at Storydoc, we helped the Spot company boost some of their key metrics: Learn How Spot by NetApp boosted their conversion rates 2x.

Spot's team used this deck to boost their conversion 2x

By drawing the bigger picture even deep-tech software products can be easily explained.

Browse interactive case study templates

No matter how great the contents of your case study might be, if you fail to present it in an eye-pleasing way, most likely, no one will really read it. The good news? I’ve put together a gallery of the most professional, attention-grabbing case study templates available online. You can find it here: Case Study Templates & Design Tips Or, take a shortcut to great case study design and use our presentation maker . Have a look below to see what your case study might look like.

And now, let’s get to the case study 101. (If you’re only interested in a specific section of a case study, simply click on a jump-to link in the table of contents below.

Here's how to write a case study:

1. Open with an introductory overview

The last thing you want is for someone to open your case study, give it a quick glance, and decide to skip. See— People don’t usually read case studies. At least not immediately. First, they skim the contents to see if the subject is relevant enough. How to make sure your case study sticks? At the beginning, place an introductory overview (also called an “executive summary”). Provide an overview of the whole case. It’s not supposed to be a catchy intro but a full synopsis, detailing the problem at hand, your assumptions, the solutions implemented, and the results achieved.

How to write a case study introduction?

Introduce the purpose of the case study—specify exactly what you were aiming to achieve.

Define the problem or the most significant challenge. For instance, low conversion rates, a technological issue or high costs. (It could also be a combination of such factors!)

Explain briefly what the solution to the problem was.

Share the most important results your actions produced. Don’t go into too much detail, a few key points will do. It’s best if you can quantify the results: numbers pop!

Keep it short. Usually, 2–4 paragraphs + a few bullet points with key results will do.

While, as its name implies, this section comes at the beginning of your case study, write it last. First, craft the rest of your document, then pick the most important bits and compile them into the introductory overview.

2. Explain the problem in question

“Adam caught a flat tire. In the middle of the desert. He had no spare, no signal, no food, and only enough water to keep him alive for 48 hours.” Oh dear, poor Adam! What could possibly be done to help him?! See, in your case study, make the client seem like Adam so that, later on, you can paint your company like the miraculous savior. Of course, I’m exaggerating, but only so much. The purpose of the “problem” section in a case study is to arouse emotions from the readers. Ideally, in such a way that they can picture themselves as Adam. Highlight a problem your product or services solve and present an example of when that problem was troubling a client really badly.

How to write a “problem” section in a case study?

In a single sentence, describe your customer’s business challenges and objectives.

Explain the problem your customer faced that prevented them from achieving those objectives prior to working with you.

If that was the case, mention other solutions your client experimented with that didn’t work out and explain why.

Make it clear how the issue or problem impacted the client’s business results so that it’s easy to understand why a solution was badly needed.

3. Detail the solutions implemented to solve the problem

Here comes the moment to toot your own horn a bit (and also that moment when you can get slightly technical). Present your solutions in reference to the issue your client was dealing with and make it obvious that those are easily replicable for all future cases. Of course, the exact formula for this section will depend on your industry and mode of operation. Sometimes a 2–3 paragraph summary will be enough, in other cases, you’ll need to include more detailed technical specs regarding the solution you implemented.

How to write a solutions section in a case study?

Focus on your customer’s experience in using your product or services.

Explain the process: say how long it took to get the solution up and running and what teams on your customer’s end were involved.

Highlight the features of your product or service that turned out to be the most beneficial to your customer.

If possible, attach or link to relevant assets that will work as real-life examples of your solution (unless, of course, the information is highly sensitive).

Always run your case study by your client’s marketing team before you go live. Even if you’re using direct quotes or verifiable results, it’s ultimately their decision whether or not to make certain information freely available.

4. Refer to key results

In business, nothing speaks louder than ROI and you know it. Prospective customers reading your case study won’t be bothered to take notice of your state-of-the-art technology or innovative approach. Neither will they care about your past customers’ happiness. What they want to know is this: Will that help me save or make money? When writing a case study, your job is to present results in a way that answers the above question with a resounding YES. You need to make it blatantly obvious that your solutions heavily impact the bottom line of the client in question and that such results are easily replicable.

Here’s how to write about results:

In a few bullet points, list numerical results your solution delivered to the client.

Ideally, you’ll want to include revenue-related data: increase in clients’ base, more demos booked, higher conversion rates, or optimized pricing.

If you can’t (or aren’t allowed to) share hard sales numbers, refer to softer KPIs: time saved, customer happiness scores, expanding the community, or enhancing brand visibility.

If possible, by all means include quotes from your client. Results should speak for themselves, obviously, but showing the real human whose problems you solved makes for a much more powerful narrative. Plus, it further adds credibility to the case study. Start by preparing a list of powerful case study questions to guide your client interviews.8

5. Finish with recommendations and next steps

Everyone enjoys a solid epilogue. To end on a high note, include a list of key findings from your case study. Even if a given reader won’t decide to get in touch with you, at least you’ll provide them with a valuable source of knowledge—sometimes that’s enough to keep your company top of mind in the future. Plus, if you’re planning to continue working with the subject of your case study, definitely mention that! It shows that your support is valuable enough to warrant long-term collaboration, not just a one-off endeavor. Now, not every case study requires a call to action (especially if your main purpose is to inform and educate rather than convert, which is okay, too), but for those more commercially-oriented ones, do add it. Make your CTA singular and clear —if the most desired action is to reach out to you, leave your contact details, if you’d rather direct prospects to a landing page or a welcome screen, add a button.

And that’s a wrap!

Here are the key points to keep in mind when writing a case study:

Put an introductory overview at the beginning.

Present the problem you were solving and your exact solutions to that problem.

Include numerical, verifiable results your product or services delivered for the client.

Explain what the next steps are, especially if you plan to continue working with the client.

Finish with a strong, clear CTA, making it easy for prospects to reach out to you.

Thanks for reading the guide. Keeping my fingers crossed for your case study and wishing many successful cases so that you’ll always have something to write about.

Hi, I'm John, Editor-in-chief at Storydoc. As a content marketer and digital writer specializing in B2B SaaS, my main goal is to provide you with up-to-date tips for effective business storytelling and equip you with all the right tools to enable your sales efforts.

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How to Define Your Case Study Strategy (And Why You Need One)

Unfortunately, few companies have a defined customer case study strategy in place.

Often, they’ll just identify a good customer or project (“This would make a great case study!”) and then fly at it.

If they get that case study done, they may eventually turn to another good candidate and repeat the process.

And that’s as far as it goes.

But when you take this piecemeal approach, and overlook the strategy piece, you may run into the following problems:

• You struggle to get customers to agree to participate in your case study
• You get agreement but then struggle to find the right people to interview
• You feel weird asking because the engagement is over and done with
• You completed one (or maybe two) case studies but the rest have stalled
• Your completed case studies focus on a solution or industry you’re trying to transition away from
• All your case studies are over a year old
• Your case studies are relegated to some sad part of your website.

You don’t want to plunge in without a plan.

Instead, start by developing a strategy to guide your efforts and keep the case study train going.

Developing Your Case Study Strategy

So how do you develop a case study strategy?

You start by asking these three questions BEFORE you get the customer on the phone:

Question #1: What is your goal?

Are you trying to promote a certain service? Drive a certain type of lead? Upsell part of your offering?

You need to know your main purpose before you start.

Question #2: Whom are you targeting?

Not all positions are the same. The pressures a CEO and CMO face are different than the pressures faced by someone in IT.

You need to know who you’re selling to because you want them to see themselves in the story.

After all, case studies are human stories . They’re not really about the company.

They’re about how you helped the people within the company succeed and reach their objectives.

Case studies are human stories. They’re not really about the company.

Question #3: how will you use them.

Will you relegate your case studies to the resources section of your website? (Hopefully not.)

Will you put them on your blog? Use them in outreach? Arm your sales team with them?

You need to know HOW you will use your case studies because that will influence the case study format and how you put them together.

Figure out the story you want to tell

Once you’ve asked yourself these questions, you can go deeper into figuring out the kind of stories you want to tell.

If you’re trying to promote a particular service , for example, you’ll want to speak with a customer who’s gone through the experience of implementing that service.

If you’re trying to promote a particular service within a particular industry , you’ll want to speak with a customer who’s implemented that service in that industry.

Or maybe you want to show leads that you solved a particular challenge within that industry with that service.

Or maybe you want to appeal to a particular role within that industry who implemented that particular service.

As you can see, you can define your “ideal” case study candidate by many factors, drilling down from service, to industry, to challenge, to role:

By considering all of these layers, you can figure out who on your client roster can give you the story you want.

Tip: Talk to your sales team

A possible shortcut in this kind of analysis is to talk to your sales team.

Salespeople need case studies like oxygen. They’re the most persuasive asset they have to close deals.

Customer success stories are the most persuasive asset your sales team has to close deals.

Your sales team will know the kinds of stories they need to share with leads and the most common problems and pushback.

So rather than huddling with your marketing team to develop your strategy , bring your sales team into the conversation.

The stories you tell will be the stories you attract

One last key point: The stories you tell will be the stories you attract.

If all of your case studies tell the story of how small accounting firms have used your software to grow, you will attract small accounting firms that want to use your software to grow.

Which is a problem if you want to attract bigger accounting firms, for example.

So think carefully about the stories you want to tell and plan accordingly.

Define your case study strategy BEFORE you start

It’s easy to overlook the strategy piece in your excitement to get started, but it’s super important.

Creating customer case studies isn’t easy. It takes time and resources to do well.

So when you do it, you want to make sure you’re doing it right.

Want our team to create those case studies for you—and help with the strategy piece?

Contact us to start the conversation.

Head of Writing and Interviewing

Based in Vancouver, Canada, Holly is pumped to tell stories of companies succeeding and doing good in the world.

Ya, you like that? Well, there’s more where that came from!

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Definition of case study in qualitative research.

Home » Definition of Case Study in Qualitative Research

In the realm of qualitative research, understanding the definition of a case study is crucial. Through contextual in-depth analysis, researchers can explore complex phenomena within real-life contexts. This approach enables them to gather rich, detailed data that reveals the intricacies of participants' experiences and behaviors.

Case studies stand out for their ability to provide comprehensive insights into specific instances, allowing for a nuanced exploration of subjects. By employing contextual in-depth analysis, researchers can uncover patterns and themes that inform broader theoretical or practical implications. This method not only enhances understanding but also enriches the overall qualitative research experience.

What is a Case Study? A Contextual In-Depth Analysis

A case study is a detailed examination of a particular instance or event, providing valuable insights into its context and circumstances. It serves as a powerful method of qualitative research, allowing researchers to gather in-depth perspectives that quantitative data cannot offer. Through a contextual in-depth analysis, case studies explore the nuances of specific situations, revealing underlying patterns, motivations, and outcomes. This framework encourages a thorough understanding of the complexities involved, facilitating actionable conclusions that drive future decision-making.

In qualitative research, case studies are particularly effective in various fields, including healthcare, business, and education. They often encompass an array of data sources, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis. The key elements in conducting a contextual in-depth analysis include identifying the subject focus, collecting diverse data, and interpreting findings to highlight their significance. This comprehensive approach not only enhances knowledge about the specific case but also contributes to broader theories and practices within the discipline.

Historical Background of Case Studies

The evolution of case studies in qualitative research is marked by a progression toward a more contextual in-depth analysis. Originally rooted in disciplines like sociology and psychology, these studies emerged as a way to understand complex social phenomena through detailed examination. Researchers began to appreciate the intricate dynamics at play within specific cases, revealing layers of meaning often missed by quantitative approaches.

As case studies gained prominence, their methodology evolved, incorporating diverse perspectives from various fields. This approach allowed for the exploration of human behavior, cultural contexts, and real-world implications, thereby enriching the dataset produced by traditional research. Consequently, the historical background of case studies emphasizes their role in providing profound insights into human experiences, ultimately better equipping researchers to address contemporary issues in a more nuanced manner. Understanding this historical context is essential for grasping how case studies have become indispensable tools in qualitative research.

Key Characteristics of a Qualitative Case Study

A qualitative case study is characterized by its emphasis on contextual in-depth analysis, which allows researchers to explore complex phenomena within real-life contexts. This approach involves gathering rich, detailed information through various data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis. The goal is to gain insights into participants' experiences and perspectives, offering a multifaceted view of the subject under investigation.

Key characteristics of qualitative case studies include their focus on a specific case, the use of diverse data sources, and an iterative analysis process. Researchers often engage deeply with their subjects, fostering a relationship that grants access to nuanced insights. Additionally, qualitative case studies are inherently flexible, allowing researchers to adapt their methods as new information emerges. This adaptability is crucial for preserving the depth and complexity inherent in real-world situations, which quantitative methods may overlook.

Conducting a Case Study: Steps for a Contextual In-Depth Analysis

When conducting a case study, the steps involved ensure a contextual in-depth analysis of the subject matter. The first step is to clearly define the research objectives to guide the entire investigation. Having a solid foundation allows researchers to focus on the essential questions that will uncover rich insights. Following that, selecting suitable data collection methods is crucial for gathering relevant information. This includes interviews, observations, and document reviews.

Next, organizing and analyzing the collected data requires careful attention. Researchers should look for patterns and themes while maintaining a contextual understanding of the subject. Additionally, documenting the findings can enhance the clarity of the analysis. Lastly, drawing conclusions and implications from the case study closes the loop, allowing for relevant recommendations. By systematically following these steps, a contextual in-depth analysis can be effectively achieved and contribute valuable insights.

Selecting a Case: Factors to Consider

Selecting an appropriate case for study requires careful consideration of several key factors. First, the context of the case is crucial. Understanding the setting, background, and conditions surrounding the case allows for a contextual in-depth analysis. A rich context not only enhances the quality of the insights gleaned but also adds depth to the research findings.

Additionally, it is essential to consider the significance of the case to the field of study. Selecting a case that addresses a pertinent issue or gap in the literature will contribute meaningfully to the discipline. Furthermore, the availability of data and accessibility of participants can significantly influence the feasibility of conducting an in-depth study. Selecting a case that aligns with these practical considerations will facilitate a more thorough exploration of the research questions. Ultimately, careful selection enhances the robustness and relevance of the findings.

Data Collection Methods in Qualitative Research

In qualitative research, data collection methods play a crucial role in gathering rich, contextual insights. Researchers often rely on techniques such as interviews, focus groups, and observations. Through these methods, data can be collected in ways that reveal deeper meaning, allowing for contextual in-depth analysis of participant experiences and perspectives. Gathering qualitative data emphasizes understanding the nuances within contexts, which can unveil complex relationships or themes relevant to the research focus.

For effective data collection, researchers should consider several key methods. First, semi-structured interviews provide flexibility, allowing for probing questions that yield detailed responses. Second, focus groups foster discussion among participants, generating diverse viewpoints that enrich the data set. Lastly, observational methods capture real-world behaviors and contexts, offering insight into participants' actions. By implementing these methods thoughtfully, researchers can enhance their data collection process, ultimately contributing to a robust understanding of the case study context.

Conclusion: The Importance of Contextual In-Depth Analysis in Defining Case Studies

In qualitative research, the significance of contextual in-depth analysis cannot be overstated. This approach transforms mere data collection into rich, nuanced insights. By examining circumstances surrounding each case, researchers gain a deeper understanding of the complexities involved. Effectively contextualized case studies not only highlight unique patterns but also help avoid oversimplification, enabling more robust conclusions.

Moreover, incorporating contextual in-depth analysis fosters a more comprehensive exploration of various factors influencing outcomes. This method equips researchers to interpret the emotional, social, and environmental dynamics at play. Ultimately, the careful consideration of context leads to a more accurate and holistic definition of case studies, enriching the overall qualitative research process.

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Title Page Setup

A title page is required for all APA Style papers. There are both student and professional versions of the title page. Students should use the student version of the title page unless their instructor or institution has requested they use the professional version. APA provides a student title page guide (PDF, 199KB) to assist students in creating their title pages.

Student title page

The student title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline), author affiliation, course number and name for which the paper is being submitted, instructor name, assignment due date, and page number, as shown in this example.

Title page setup is covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 2.3 and the Concise Guide Section 1.6

Related handouts

• Student Title Page Guide (PDF, 263KB)
• Student Paper Setup Guide (PDF, 3MB)

Student papers do not include a running head unless requested by the instructor or institution.

Follow the guidelines described next to format each element of the student title page.

Professional title page

The professional title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline), author affiliation(s), author note, running head, and page number, as shown in the following example.

Follow the guidelines described next to format each element of the professional title page.

What is a Business Roadmap: Definition and Examples

What is a Business Roadmap?

A business roadmap visually outlines major objectives and strategies for a company, making it clear how different roles, tasks, and responsibilities come together to achieve specific goals. Essentially, it provides a high-level overview of the path your organization intends to follow, breaking down complex plans into manageable phases that everyone can understand.

Business roadmaps serve a critical role in aligning diverse departments and stakeholders towards common goals, ensuring everyone is on the same page. They include specific tasks, responsibilities, and timelines to help guide the execution phase of your strategic plan. Through a well-structured business roadmap, your company can easily visualize what needs to be done and when, making it simpler to track progress and adapt as situations evolve.

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Purpose of a Business Roadmap

The primary purpose of a business roadmap is to visualize actions and timelines in transforming a company’s vision into reality. This aids in strategic goal achievement and provides a clear plan of action for different departments and teams.

Who Uses a Business Roadmap

A business roadmap is a strategic planning tool that is used by various stakeholders within an organization to align on business objectives and to visualize the timeline and progress of projects. It is primarily utilized by senior executives and managers to plan and communicate the direction of the business.

Additionally, product managers, marketing teams, and sales departments use roadmaps to synchronize their strategies and initiatives with the overall business goals. Even external stakeholders, such as investors and clients, may refer to the business roadmap to understand the company’s vision, priorities, and growth trajectory. Essentially, anyone involved in the strategic planning and execution of a company’s objectives can benefit from a well-structured business roadmap.

Benefits of a Business Roadmap

A business roadmap is more than just a strategic guide; it is a powerful tool that delivers numerous benefits to an organization. Here are some key advantages:

Facilitates Clear Communication: A business roadmap provides a visual summary of strategic goals, ensuring that all stakeholders have a clear understanding of the direction the company is heading. This clarity helps in aligning efforts across departments.

Visual Summary of Key Initiatives: By laying out major initiatives and their timelines, a business roadmap helps in tracking progress and ensuring that critical milestones are met. It serves as a reference point for all team members, highlighting what needs to be achieved and by when.

Enhances Alignment Across Departments: One of the biggest advantages of a business roadmap is its ability to break down silos within an organization. By making objectives, tasks, and responsibilities visible, it promotes collaboration and ensures that every department is working towards the same overarching goals.

Allows for Real-Time Updates: In a dynamic business environment, strategies and priorities can change rapidly. A business roadmap offers the flexibility to make real-time updates, ensuring that the plan remains aligned with evolving goals and market conditions.

The importance of a business roadmap cannot be overstated. It not only facilitates effective communication and alignment but also allows for adaptive and timely decision-making. By providing a comprehensive visual mapping of strategies and initiatives, it keeps leadership and teams in sync, paving the way for successful execution of strategic goals.

Differences Between a Business Plan and a Business Roadmap

Understanding the difference between a business plan and a business roadmap is crucial for effective strategic planning and execution. While both are essential tools for business growth, they serve distinct purposes.

A business plan is a comprehensive, text-heavy document that outlines the company’s vision, market analysis, financials, and overall strategy. It serves as a foundational document primarily used for securing funding and providing a detailed snapshot of the business’s goals and how it plans to achieve them. Business plans typically include an executive summary, product and service descriptions, market overview, marketing strategies, and financial projections.

In contrast, a business roadmap is a visual tool that highlights specific tasks, responsibilities, and timelines needed to achieve the business plan’s objectives. Unlike the static nature of a business plan, roadmaps are dynamic and focus on the execution phase. They offer a clear, real-time visual representation of ongoing and upcoming initiatives, making them essential for maintaining alignment across different departments and teams.

By understanding these key differences, businesses can better utilize both tools to ensure comprehensive planning and effective execution. For those looking to create detailed and visually engaging roadmaps, leveraging tools like Creately can simplify the process and enhance collaboration.

Components of a Business Roadmap

A comprehensive business roadmap serves as a visual strategy tool that assists in aligning various departments and stakeholders towards common business goals. To create an effective business roadmap, it’s crucial to include certain key elements that guide the organization towards achieving its strategic objectives:

The guiding star of your roadmap, the vision serves as a powerful aspirational statement. It outlines the future state of your organization, encapsulating your long-term goals and ambitions. A clear vision statement serves as a source of inspiration and motivation, uniting your team towards a shared purpose.

Strategic Goals and Initiatives

Translating your vision into actionable terms, goals represent the measurable objectives you strive to achieve. Effective goals are SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound). Clearly defined goals set the stage for strategic planning and focused execution. The goal setting process includes broad strategies and specific initiatives that drive towards these goals.

Milestones serve as checkpoints along the roadmap, signifying significant accomplishments towards your goals. These markers provide a sense of progress and achievement, keeping your team motivated and on track.

The roadmap should articulate the “how” behind achieving your goals. This section outlines the strategic initiatives you’ll undertake, considering factors like market analysis and the competitive landscape. A well-defined strategy translates ambition into actionable steps.

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)

KPIs are the metrics you’ll use to gauge progress towards your goals. By tracking relevant KPIs, you can assess the effectiveness of your strategies and identify areas for improvement. Effective KPIs should be quantifiable and aligned with your overall goals.

A successful roadmap considers the resources required to achieve your goals. This includes human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and any other assets necessary to execute your plan. A realistic assessment of resources ensures your roadmap remains grounded in feasibility.

Risk Management Plan

The road to success is rarely without obstacles. A proactive risk management plan anticipates potential challenges and outlines strategies to mitigate them. By addressing risks upfront, you can safeguard your roadmap from unforeseen roadblocks.

Stakeholder Engagement Plan

Successful roadmap execution hinges on effective stakeholder engagement . This plan outlines how you’ll communicate the roadmap to key stakeholders, address their concerns, and secure their buy-in. Regular communication fosters transparency and ensures everyone is aligned with the overall strategy.

A defined timeline sets the timeframe for achieving milestones and goals. Timelines should be realistic and achievable, considering resource constraints and dependencies. A clear timeline keeps everyone accountable and promotes a sense of urgency. Read more about creating timelines .

Task Assignments and Responsibilities

Clearly defined tasks, roles and responsibilities help in the distribution of workload and establish accountability among team members. Additionally, utilizing effective task management practices helps identifying priorities and ensures that work is completed timely.

Dependencies

Highlighting dependencies between tasks indicates how different pieces of the puzzle come together. This helps in understanding the sequence and interrelation of activities.

Review and Update Mechanisms

The business landscape is dynamic, and so should your roadmap. Regular reviews allow you to assess progress, identify adjustments, and ensure the roadmap remains relevant in the face of changing circumstances. Establishing a mechanism for review and updates guarantees your roadmap stays current and continues to guide your organization towards success.

Examples of Different Business Roadmaps

A business roadmap is an essential tool for any organization, adaptable to various strategic needs. Here, we’ll explore several types of business roadmaps with examples to illustrate how they align unique business objectives.

Strategic Roadmap

A strategic roadmap aligns long-term goals with overarching business objectives. It typically includes milestones like fundraising rounds or multi-year revenue targets. This roadmap helps ensure that every department’s initiatives support the company’s big-picture vision.

Startup Roadmap

A startup roadmap is crucial for new businesses. It prioritizes initial activities necessary for establishing a market presence and scaling operations. Given the chaotic environment of startups, this roadmap remains flexible, adapting swiftly to changes while keeping the ultimate vision in focus.

Business Development Roadmap

The business development roadmap focuses on market expansion and revenue growth. It includes plans for entering new markets, enhancing customer engagement, and boosting sales volumes. This type often spans a one-year period, detailing specific tasks for rapid growth.

Data Strategy Roadmap

A data strategy roadmap centers on improving data management and analytics. It lays out initiatives for data collection, storage, and analysis, ensuring that data insights directly inform business decisions. This roadmap helps businesses leverage data for improved efficiency and effectiveness.

Creately features business roadmap templates that can streamline your strategic planning process, saving you valuable time and effort.

How to Create a Business Roadmap

Creating an effective business roadmap entails a thoughtful process that ensures alignment across different departments and teams. Here’s how you can create a comprehensive and adaptive business roadmap:

Set Clear Goals

Start by defining your business’s strategic goals. These should be high-level objectives that you aim to achieve in the long term. For instance, increasing market share or improving customer satisfaction.

Gather Relevant Information from All Departments

Compile data and insights from various departments. This includes market analysis, customer feedback, financial data, and technology assessments. Using tools like Creately’s business roadmap templates can streamline this phase.

Organize Tasks and Objectives into Themes

Group related tasks and objectives into themes to provide better clarity and context. This thematic organization helps in understanding the broader picture and facilitates more targeted planning.

Prioritize Initiatives Based on Importance and Impact

Determine which initiatives have the highest impact on your strategic goals and prioritize them accordingly. This ensures that your efforts are focused on the most critical aspects of your strategy.

Add Specific Time Frames for Each Task

Assign realistic time frames to each task and initiative. This helps in monitoring progress and maintaining momentum toward achieving your goals.

Regularly Review and Revise the Roadmap

A business roadmap should be a living document. Regularly review and update it to reflect any changes in goals, market conditions, or internal priorities. This ensures that your roadmap remains relevant and effective.

Tips to Create Effective Business Roadmaps

Creating a business roadmap isn’t just about plotting out timelines and tasks. It involves strategic foresight and meticulous planning. Here are some best practices to ensure your roadmap is effective:

Ensure Clear and Measurable Outcomes: Every initiative on your roadmap should have a clear and measurable outcome. This helps in tracking progress and demonstrating the roadmap’s value.

Use Themes to Group Related Tasks: Grouping related tasks under common themes solidifies context, making it easier to communicate and understand the roadmap’s overall structure.

Regularly Update and Communicate Changes: Regular updates are crucial to maintain alignment with evolving goals and strategies. Make sure to communicate these changes to all stakeholders to keep everyone on the same page.

Utilize Visual Tools and Templates: Tools like Creately provide powerful visual aids and templates that enhance engagement and ensure clarity in your business roadmap.

Adopting these practices will transform your business roadmap into a dynamic strategic tool that drives better alignment and execution across your organization. Moreover, leveraging platforms like Creately can streamline the entire process, offering visual strategy mapping and real-time data integration to make adaptive and timely decisions.

Case Studies and Examples

Understanding how different companies successfully implement business roadmaps can provide valuable insights and inspiration. Let’s explore a few practical examples:

Startups Focusing on Initial Market Entry: For startups, business roadmaps often emphasize high-level planning and agility. A startup roadmap might include milestones for product development, initial market deployment, customer acquisition strategies, and funding rounds. This approach helps startups remain flexible and adapt to the fast-paced changes typical in the early stages of a business. Creately can assist by providing visual strategy mapping that allows startups to easily adapt and communicate their plans.

Established Businesses Targeting New Market Expansions: As businesses grow, their roadmaps evolve to focus on market expansion and scaling. For instance, a company might outline steps for launching in new regions, forming strategic partnerships, or diversifying product offerings.

Data-Driven Roadmaps for Improving Business Intelligence and Analytics: Companies aiming to enhance their business intelligence (BI) capabilities can benefit from a dedicated BI roadmap. This type of roadmap might highlight initiatives such as implementing new data analytics tools, improving data quality, and optimizing reporting processes.

Showcasing Successful Implementations and Outcomes: Examining case studies of companies that have successfully used business roadmaps to achieve their goals can be particularly enlightening. For example, a global retailer might have used a comprehensive eCommerce roadmap to coordinate product launches, marketing campaigns, and technology updates around key retail dates.

Understanding the application of a business roadmap is critical for any organization that aims to streamlined execution of business operations and alignment with strategic goals. The advantages of having a well-defined business roadmap are manifold, including enhanced communication, clear visualization of key initiatives, and improved real-time updates and adjustments. These benefits ensure that different departments and stakeholders are on the same page, working cohesively towards shared objectives.

Using a tool like Creately can significantly simplify the process of creating and maintaining effective business roadmaps. With Creately’s features dedicated to visual strategy mapping, real-time data integration, and collaboration, it provides a comprehensive platform for better strategic planning and decision-making.

Business roadmaps are not just about plotting out tasks but also about painting a holistic picture of the company’s future. From startups aiming to hit their initial growth milestones to established enterprises looking to expand their market presence, every business can benefit from a meticulously crafted roadmap. By combining long-term vision with actionable steps, business roadmaps transform strategic goals into tangible results.

Finally, it is essential to realize that creating a business roadmap is not a one-time task. Regularly updating and communicating the roadmap ensures it remains relevant and effective, reflecting any changes in the business environment or strategic goals. With the right tools and practices, businesses can harness the full potential of roadmaps to achieve their desired outcomes.

Join over thousands of organizations that use Creately to brainstorm, plan, analyze, and execute their projects successfully.

FAQs About Business Roadmaps

In simpler terms, the strategy is the “what” and the “why,” while the roadmap is the “how” and “when.”

A business roadmap is essentially a visual plan that outlines how a business will achieve its strategic goals. It’s a more tactical document, focusing on specific actions, timelines, and dependencies. Essentially, it’s the “how” to execute the business strategy.

A business strategy is a broader, high-level plan that defines a company’s overall direction. It outlines the company’s vision, mission, and how it plans to compete in the market. A business strategy is often broken down into three key components:

Foundation: The core of the business, including its vision, mission, and business model.

Market: Understanding the target customers and competitive landscape.

Imperatives: The specific actions or initiatives required to achieve the overall strategy.

While the roadmap is a detailed implementation plan, the strategy is the overarching blueprint that guides the roadmap’s creation.

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Hansani has a background in journalism and marketing communications. She loves reading and writing about tech innovations. She enjoys writing poetry, travelling and photography.

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A top 5 global Pharma company has transformed their scientific writing leveraging data extraction, definition of business rules, and natural language generation. This AI-powered solution, developed by Ontotext and Wipro, saves significant time and manual effort and empowers the Pharma company’s scientific writing experts to deliver high-value analytic documents.

• Over 75% of time saved on scientific writing
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A top 5 global Pharma company needed to improve the process of effective scientific writing from already available information. They wanted to create a smart knowledge discovery solution that would help their researchers find the relevant information needed to analyze while creating a clinical trial synopsis document. This information was locked in huge volumes of data stored across various structured (proprietary or public registers) and unstructured (clinical study protocols and reports, etc.) sources. This made it extremely difficult to find the most relevant information in all the related clinical documents that would help them prepare the scientific article draft.

As the existing process made the work of their clinical trial researchers very challenging, the Pharma company wanted to implement an AI-based solution that would help them:

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The Challenges

One of the main challenges was the data variety. The data was stored in different types of documents (clinical protocols, TFL, scientific articles, etc.) and various file formats (Text, PDF, Scanned images, etc.). This information was also often provided in different levels of detail. All this required a lot of manual effort to get to the relevant information, with the possibility of missing something important.

As the information was scattered among different documents and described with different granularity, researchers spent too much effort in collecting the required data points, analyzing the information, and summarizing it into meaningful conclusions. Often, the information was ambiguous and duplicated, which additionally slowed down the process.

The authoring process had to ensure the generation of unique content out of the available source data. While most of the information was already present in the source documents and could be reused for scientific writing, it required a certain level of uniqueness of the produced text while keeping the meaning intact.

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The smart AI solution jointly developed by Ontotext and Wipro helped the Pharma company transform and enhance their scientific writing process. This allowed for automatic data extraction, definition of business rules, and natural language generation.

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Using advanced natural language processing pipelines, Ontotext extracted specific key categories such as introduction, method data (Study Design, Study Population, etc.), and result data (Patient Disposition, Patient Demographics, Safety, etc.). Then the clinical trial data extracted from the documents was populated into a custom-built knowledge graph and interlinked with the Pharma company’s clinical trials public data. As a result, all the Pharma company’s data was semantically normalized to specific clinical concepts (treatment, conditions, etc) and could be used for the automatic generation of human-readable text.

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On top of this high-quality structured data, Wipro’s domain experts applied business rules associated with the medical information needs. They also reviewed the extracted content and put the resulting information into the context of the rest of the data.

Natural Language Generation

Pulling all this together within the knowledge graph, Ontotext applied data analytics techniques to extract the important facts and generate meaningful natural language summarizations for each knowledge category. Now the Pharma company researchers could specify the context in which they wanted to filter the huge volumes of existing documents to a manageable subset of relevant documents. This semantically normalized high-granularity data was a powerful knowledge discovery enabler.

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Why Choose Ontotext and Wipro

With the smart scientific writing solution developed by Ontotext and Wipro, the Pharma company researchers now:

• Integrate data better from multiple systems managed by multiple stakeholders
• Reduce time for accumulating content for scientific communication
• Access easily available high-quality data, including knowledge previously locked in multiple data silos
• Utilize information faster to empower better-informed decision making
• Minimize costs and save time spent on studies needed for product approval and registration, etc.

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• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

The reports to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System met the case definition of myocarditis (reported cases). Among individuals older than 40 years of age, there were no more than 8 reports of myocarditis for any individual age after receiving either vaccine. For the BNT162b2 vaccine, there were 114 246 837 first vaccination doses and 95 532 396 second vaccination doses; and for the mRNA-1273 vaccine, there were 78 158 611 and 66 163 001, respectively. The y-axis range differs between panels A and B.

The reports to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System met the case definition of myocarditis (reported cases). Among recipients of either vaccine, there were only 13 reports or less of myocarditis beyond 10 days for any individual time from vaccination to symptom onset. The y-axis range differs between panels A and B.

A, For the BNT162b2 vaccine, there were 138 reported cases of myocarditis with known date for symptom onset and dose after 114 246 837 first vaccination doses and 888 reported cases after 95 532 396 second vaccination doses.

B, For the mRNA-1273 vaccine, there were 116 reported cases of myocarditis with known date for symptom onset and dose after 78 158 611 first vaccination doses and 311 reported cases after 66 163 001 second vaccination doses.

eMethods. Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities Preferred Terms, Definitions of Myocarditis and Pericarditis, Myocarditis medical review form

eFigure. Flow diagram of cases of myocarditis and pericarditis reported to Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) after receiving mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccine, United States, December 14, 2020-August 31, 2021.

eTable 1. Characteristics of all myocarditis cases reported to Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination, United States, December 14, 2020–August 31, 2021.

eTable 2. Characteristics of all pericarditis cases reported to Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination, United States, December 14, 2020–August 31, 2021.

eTable 3. Characteristics of myocarditis cases reported to Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination by case definition status.

• Myocarditis and Pericarditis After Vaccination for COVID-19 JAMA Research Letter September 28, 2021 This study investigates the incidence of myocarditis and pericarditis emergency department or inpatient hospital encounters before COVID-19 vaccine availability (January 2019–January 2021) and during a COVID-19 vaccination period (February-May 2021) in a large US health care system. George A. Diaz, MD; Guilford T. Parsons, MD, MS; Sara K. Gering, BS, BSN; Audrey R. Meier, MPH; Ian V. Hutchinson, PhD, DSc; Ari Robicsek, MD
• Myocarditis Following a Third BNT162b2 Vaccination Dose in Military Recruits in Israel JAMA Research Letter April 26, 2022 This study assessed whether a third vaccine dose was associated with the risk of myocarditis among military personnel in Israel. Limor Friedensohn, MD; Dan Levin, MD; Maggie Fadlon-Derai, MHA; Liron Gershovitz, MD; Noam Fink, MD; Elon Glassberg, MD; Barak Gordon, MD
• Myocarditis Cases After mRNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccination in the US—Reply JAMA Comment & Response May 24, 2022 Matthew E. Oster, MD, MPH; David K. Shay, MD, MPH; Tom T. Shimabukuro, MD, MPH, MBA
• Myocarditis Cases After mRNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccination in the US JAMA Comment & Response May 24, 2022 Sheila R. Weiss, PhD
• JAMA Network Articles of the Year 2022 JAMA Medical News & Perspectives December 27, 2022 This Medical News article is our annual roundup of the top-viewed articles from all JAMA Network journals. Melissa Suran, PhD, MSJ
• Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute Myocarditis—A Review JAMA Review April 4, 2023 This Review summarizes current evidence regarding the diagnosis and treatment of acute myocarditis. Enrico Ammirati, MD, PhD; Javid J. Moslehi, MD
• Patient Information: Acute Myocarditis JAMA JAMA Patient Page August 8, 2023 This JAMA Patient Page describes acute myocarditis and its symptoms, causes, diagnosis, and treatment. Kristin Walter, MD, MS
• Myocarditis Following Immunization With mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines in Members of the US Military JAMA Cardiology Brief Report October 1, 2021 This case series describes myocarditis presenting after COVID-19 vaccination within the Military Health System. Jay Montgomery, MD; Margaret Ryan, MD, MPH; Renata Engler, MD; Donna Hoffman, MSN; Bruce McClenathan, MD; Limone Collins, MD; David Loran, DNP; David Hrncir, MD; Kelsie Herring, MD; Michael Platzer, MD; Nehkonti Adams, MD; Aliye Sanou, MD; Leslie T. Cooper Jr, MD
• Patients With Acute Myocarditis Following mRNA COVID-19 Vaccination JAMA Cardiology Brief Report October 1, 2021 This study describes 4 patients who presented with acute myocarditis after mRNA COVID-19 vaccination. Han W. Kim, MD; Elizabeth R. Jenista, PhD; David C. Wendell, PhD; Clerio F. Azevedo, MD; Michael J. Campbell, MD; Stephen N. Darty, BS; Michele A. Parker, MS; Raymond J. Kim, MD
• Association of Myocarditis With BNT162b2 Vaccination in Children JAMA Cardiology Brief Report December 1, 2021 This case series reviews comprehensive cardiac imaging in children with myocarditis after COVID-19 vaccine. Audrey Dionne, MD; Francesca Sperotto, MD; Stephanie Chamberlain; Annette L. Baker, MSN, CPNP; Andrew J. Powell, MD; Ashwin Prakash, MD; Daniel A. Castellanos, MD; Susan F. Saleeb, MD; Sarah D. de Ferranti, MD, MPH; Jane W. Newburger, MD, MPH; Kevin G. Friedman, MD

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Oster ME , Shay DK , Su JR, et al. Myocarditis Cases Reported After mRNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccination in the US From December 2020 to August 2021. JAMA. 2022;327(4):331–340. doi:10.1001/jama.2021.24110

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Myocarditis Cases Reported After mRNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccination in the US From December 2020 to August 2021

• 1 US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
• 2 School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
• 3 Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia
• 4 Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
• 5 Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
• 6 Boston Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts
• 7 Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
• 8 US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland
• Research Letter Myocarditis and Pericarditis After Vaccination for COVID-19 George A. Diaz, MD; Guilford T. Parsons, MD, MS; Sara K. Gering, BS, BSN; Audrey R. Meier, MPH; Ian V. Hutchinson, PhD, DSc; Ari Robicsek, MD JAMA
• Research Letter Myocarditis Following a Third BNT162b2 Vaccination Dose in Military Recruits in Israel Limor Friedensohn, MD; Dan Levin, MD; Maggie Fadlon-Derai, MHA; Liron Gershovitz, MD; Noam Fink, MD; Elon Glassberg, MD; Barak Gordon, MD JAMA
• Comment & Response Myocarditis Cases After mRNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccination in the US—Reply Matthew E. Oster, MD, MPH; David K. Shay, MD, MPH; Tom T. Shimabukuro, MD, MPH, MBA JAMA
• Comment & Response Myocarditis Cases After mRNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccination in the US Sheila R. Weiss, PhD JAMA
• Medical News & Perspectives JAMA Network Articles of the Year 2022 Melissa Suran, PhD, MSJ JAMA
• Review Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute Myocarditis—A Review Enrico Ammirati, MD, PhD; Javid J. Moslehi, MD JAMA
• JAMA Patient Page Patient Information: Acute Myocarditis Kristin Walter, MD, MS JAMA
• Brief Report Myocarditis Following Immunization With mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines in Members of the US Military Jay Montgomery, MD; Margaret Ryan, MD, MPH; Renata Engler, MD; Donna Hoffman, MSN; Bruce McClenathan, MD; Limone Collins, MD; David Loran, DNP; David Hrncir, MD; Kelsie Herring, MD; Michael Platzer, MD; Nehkonti Adams, MD; Aliye Sanou, MD; Leslie T. Cooper Jr, MD JAMA Cardiology
• Brief Report Patients With Acute Myocarditis Following mRNA COVID-19 Vaccination Han W. Kim, MD; Elizabeth R. Jenista, PhD; David C. Wendell, PhD; Clerio F. Azevedo, MD; Michael J. Campbell, MD; Stephen N. Darty, BS; Michele A. Parker, MS; Raymond J. Kim, MD JAMA Cardiology
• Brief Report Association of Myocarditis With BNT162b2 Vaccination in Children Audrey Dionne, MD; Francesca Sperotto, MD; Stephanie Chamberlain; Annette L. Baker, MSN, CPNP; Andrew J. Powell, MD; Ashwin Prakash, MD; Daniel A. Castellanos, MD; Susan F. Saleeb, MD; Sarah D. de Ferranti, MD, MPH; Jane W. Newburger, MD, MPH; Kevin G. Friedman, MD JAMA Cardiology

Question   What is the risk of myocarditis after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination in the US?

Findings   In this descriptive study of 1626 cases of myocarditis in a national passive reporting system, the crude reporting rates within 7 days after vaccination exceeded the expected rates across multiple age and sex strata. The rates of myocarditis cases were highest after the second vaccination dose in adolescent males aged 12 to 15 years (70.7 per million doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine), in adolescent males aged 16 to 17 years (105.9 per million doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine), and in young men aged 18 to 24 years (52.4 and 56.3 per million doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine and the mRNA-1273 vaccine, respectively).

Meaning   Based on passive surveillance reporting in the US, the risk of myocarditis after receiving mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines was increased across multiple age and sex strata and was highest after the second vaccination dose in adolescent males and young men.

Importance   Vaccination against COVID-19 provides clear public health benefits, but vaccination also carries potential risks. The risks and outcomes of myocarditis after COVID-19 vaccination are unclear.

Objective   To describe reports of myocarditis and the reporting rates after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination in the US.

Design, Setting, and Participants   Descriptive study of reports of myocarditis to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) that occurred after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccine administration between December 2020 and August 2021 in 192 405 448 individuals older than 12 years of age in the US; data were processed by VAERS as of September 30, 2021.

Exposures   Vaccination with BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) or mRNA-1273 (Moderna).

Main Outcomes and Measures   Reports of myocarditis to VAERS were adjudicated and summarized for all age groups. Crude reporting rates were calculated across age and sex strata. Expected rates of myocarditis by age and sex were calculated using 2017-2019 claims data. For persons younger than 30 years of age, medical record reviews and clinician interviews were conducted to describe clinical presentation, diagnostic test results, treatment, and early outcomes.

Results   Among 192 405 448 persons receiving a total of 354 100 845 mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines during the study period, there were 1991 reports of myocarditis to VAERS and 1626 of these reports met the case definition of myocarditis. Of those with myocarditis, the median age was 21 years (IQR, 16-31 years) and the median time to symptom onset was 2 days (IQR, 1-3 days). Males comprised 82% of the myocarditis cases for whom sex was reported. The crude reporting rates for cases of myocarditis within 7 days after COVID-19 vaccination exceeded the expected rates of myocarditis across multiple age and sex strata. The rates of myocarditis were highest after the second vaccination dose in adolescent males aged 12 to 15 years (70.7 per million doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine), in adolescent males aged 16 to 17 years (105.9 per million doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine), and in young men aged 18 to 24 years (52.4 and 56.3 per million doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine and the mRNA-1273 vaccine, respectively). There were 826 cases of myocarditis among those younger than 30 years of age who had detailed clinical information available; of these cases, 792 of 809 (98%) had elevated troponin levels, 569 of 794 (72%) had abnormal electrocardiogram results, and 223 of 312 (72%) had abnormal cardiac magnetic resonance imaging results. Approximately 96% of persons (784/813) were hospitalized and 87% (577/661) of these had resolution of presenting symptoms by hospital discharge. The most common treatment was nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (589/676; 87%).

Conclusions and Relevance   Based on passive surveillance reporting in the US, the risk of myocarditis after receiving mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines was increased across multiple age and sex strata and was highest after the second vaccination dose in adolescent males and young men. This risk should be considered in the context of the benefits of COVID-19 vaccination.

Myocarditis is an inflammatory condition of the heart muscle that has a bimodal peak incidence during infancy and adolescence or young adulthood. 1 - 4 The clinical presentation and course of myocarditis is variable, with some patients not requiring treatment and others experiencing severe heart failure that requires subsequent heart transplantation or leads to death. 5 Onset of myocarditis typically follows an inciting process, often a viral illness; however, no antecedent cause is identified in many cases. 6 It has been hypothesized that vaccination can serve as a trigger for myocarditis; however, only the smallpox vaccine has previously been causally associated with myocarditis based on reports among US military personnel, with cases typically occurring 7 to 12 days after vaccination. 7

With the implementation of a large-scale, national COVID-19 vaccination program starting in December 2020, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the US Food and Drug Administration began monitoring for a number of adverse events of special interest, including myocarditis and pericarditis, in the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), a long-standing national spontaneous reporting (passive surveillance) system. 8 As the reports of myocarditis after COVID-19 vaccination were reported to VAERS, the Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment Project, 9 a collaboration between the CDC and medical research centers, which includes physicians treating infectious diseases and other specialists (eg, cardiologists), consulted on several of the cases. In addition, reports from several countries raised concerns that mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines may be associated with acute myocarditis. 10 - 15

Given this concern, the aims were to describe reports and confirmed cases of myocarditis initially reported to VAERS after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination and to provide estimates of the risk of myocarditis after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination based on age, sex, and vaccine type.

VAERS is a US spontaneous reporting (passive surveillance) system that functions as an early warning system for potential vaccine adverse events. 8 Co-administered by the CDC and the US Food and Drug Administration, VAERS accepts reports of all adverse events after vaccination from patients, parents, clinicians, vaccine manufacturers, and others regardless of whether the events could plausibly be associated with receipt of the vaccine. Reports to VAERS include information about the vaccinated person, the vaccine or vaccines administered, and the adverse events experienced by the vaccinated person. The reports to VAERS are then reviewed by third-party professional coders who have been trained in the assignment of Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities preferred terms. 16 The coders then assign appropriate terms based on the information available in the reports.

This activity was reviewed by the CDC and was conducted to be consistent with applicable federal law and CDC policy. The activities herein were confirmed to be nonresearch under the Common Rule in accordance with institutional procedures and therefore were not subject to institutional review board requirements. Informed consent was not obtained for this secondary use of existing information; see 45 CFR part 46.102(l)(2), 21 CFR part 56, 42 USC §241(d), 5 USC §552a, and 44 USC §3501 et seq.

The exposure of concern was vaccination with one of the mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines: the BNT162b2 vaccine (Pfizer-BioNTech) or the mRNA-1273 vaccine (Moderna). During the analytic period, persons aged 12 years or older were eligible for the BNT162b2 vaccine and persons aged 18 years or older were eligible for the mRNA-1273 vaccine. The number of COVID-19 vaccine doses administered during the analytic period was obtained through the CDC’s COVID-19 Data Tracker. 17

The primary outcome was the occurrence of myocarditis and the secondary outcome was pericarditis. Reports to VAERS with these outcomes were initially characterized using the Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities preferred terms of myocarditis or pericarditis (specific terms are listed in the eMethods in the Supplement ). After initial review of reports of myocarditis to VAERS and review of the patient’s medical records (when available), the reports were further reviewed by CDC physicians and public health professionals to verify that they met the CDC’s case definition for probable or confirmed myocarditis (descriptions previously published and included in the eMethods in the Supplement ). 18 The CDC’s case definition of probable myocarditis requires the presence of new concerning symptoms, abnormal cardiac test results, and no other identifiable cause of the symptoms and findings. Confirmed cases of myocarditis further require histopathological confirmation of myocarditis or cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings consistent with myocarditis.

Deaths were included only if the individual had met the case definition for confirmed myocarditis and there was no other identifiable cause of death. Individual cases not involving death were included only if the person had met the case definition for probable myocarditis or confirmed myocarditis.

We characterized reports of myocarditis or pericarditis after COVID-19 vaccination that met the CDC’s case definition and were received by VAERS between December 14, 2020 (when COVID-19 vaccines were first publicly available in the US), and August 31, 2021, by age, sex, race, ethnicity, and vaccine type; data were processed by VAERS as of September 30, 2021. Race and ethnicity were optional fixed categories available by self-identification at the time of vaccination or by the individual filing a VAERS report. Race and ethnicity were included to provide the most complete baseline description possible for individual reports; however, further analyses were not stratified by race and ethnicity due to the high percentage of missing data. Reports of pericarditis with evidence of potential myocardial involvement were included in the review of reports of myocarditis. The eFigure in the Supplement outlines the categorization of the reports of myocarditis and pericarditis reviewed.

Further analyses were conducted only for myocarditis because of the preponderance of those reports to VAERS, in Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment Project consultations, and in published articles. 10 - 12 , 19 - 21 Crude reporting rates for myocarditis during a 7-day risk interval were calculated using the number of reports of myocarditis to VAERS per million doses of COVID-19 vaccine administered during the analytic period and stratified by age, sex, vaccination dose (first, second, or unknown), and vaccine type. Expected rates of myocarditis by age and sex were calculated using 2017-2019 data from the IBM MarketScan Commercial Research Database. This database contains individual-level, deidentified, inpatient and outpatient medical and prescription drug claims, and enrollment information submitted to IBM Watson Health by large employers and health plans. The data were accessed using version 4.0 of the IBM MarketScan Treatment Pathways analytic platform. Age- and sex-specific rates were calculated by determining the number of individuals with myocarditis ( International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision [ICD-10] codes B33.20, B33.22, B33.24, I40.0, I40.1, I40.8, I40.9, or I51.4) 22 identified during an inpatient encounter in 2017-2019 relative to the number of individuals of similar age and sex who were continually enrolled during the year in which the myocarditis-related hospitalization occurred; individuals with any diagnosis of myocarditis prior to that year were excluded. Given the limitations of the IBM MarketScan Commercial Research Database to capture enrollees aged 65 years or older, an expected rate for myocarditis was not calculated for this population. A 95% CI was calculated using Poisson distribution in SAS version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc) for each expected rate of myocarditis and for each observed rate in a strata with at least 1 case.

In cases of probable or confirmed myocarditis among those younger than 30 years of age, their clinical course was then summarized to the extent possible based on medical review and clinician interviews. This clinical course included presenting symptoms, diagnostic test results, treatment, and early outcomes (abstraction form appears in the eMethods in the Supplement ). 23

When applicable, missing data were delineated in the results or the numbers with complete data were listed. No assumptions or imputations were made regarding missing data. Any percentages that were calculated included only those cases of myocarditis with adequate data to calculate the percentages.

Between December 14, 2020, and August 31, 2021, 192 405 448 individuals older than 12 years of age received a total of 354 100 845 mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines. VAERS received 1991 reports of myocarditis (391 of which also included pericarditis) after receipt of at least 1 dose of mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccine (eTable 1 in the Supplement ) and 684 reports of pericarditis without the presence of myocarditis (eTable 2 in the Supplement ).

Of the 1991 reports of myocarditis, 1626 met the CDC’s case definition for probable or confirmed myocarditis ( Table 1 ). There were 208 reports that did not meet the CDC’s case definition for myocarditis and 157 reports that required more information to perform adjudication (eTable 3 in the Supplement ). Of the 1626 reports that met the CDC’s case definition for myocarditis, 1195 (73%) were younger than 30 years of age, 543 (33%) were younger than 18 years of age, and the median age was 21 years (IQR, 16-31 years) ( Figure 1 ). Of the reports of myocarditis with dose information, 82% (1265/1538) occurred after the second vaccination dose. Of those with a reported dose and time to symptom onset, the median time from vaccination to symptom onset was 3 days (IQR, 1-8 days) after the first vaccination dose and 74% (187/254) of myocarditis events occurred within 7 days. After the second vaccination dose, the median time to symptom onset was 2 days (IQR, 1-3 days) and 90% (1081/1199) of myocarditis events occurred within 7 days ( Figure 2 ).

Males comprised 82% (1334/1625) of the cases of myocarditis for whom sex was reported. The largest proportions of cases of myocarditis were among White persons (non-Hispanic or ethnicity not reported; 69% [914/1330]) and Hispanic persons (of all races; 17% [228/1330]). Among persons younger than 30 years of age, there were no confirmed cases of myocarditis in those who died after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination without another identifiable cause and there was 1 probable case of myocarditis but there was insufficient information available for a thorough investigation. At the time of data review, there were 2 reports of death in persons younger than 30 years of age with potential myocarditis that remain under investigation and are not included in the case counts.

Symptom onset of myocarditis was within 7 days after vaccination for 947 reports of individuals who received the BNT162b2 vaccine and for 382 reports of individuals who received the mRNA-1273 vaccine. The rates of myocarditis varied by vaccine type, sex, age, and first or second vaccination dose ( Table 2 ). The reporting rates of myocarditis were highest after the second vaccination dose in adolescent males aged 12 to 15 years (70.73 [95% CI, 61.68-81.11] per million doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine), in adolescent males aged 16 to 17 years (105.86 [95% CI, 91.65-122.27] per million doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine), and in young men aged 18 to 24 years (52.43 [95% CI, 45.56-60.33] per million doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine and 56.31 [95% CI, 47.08-67.34] per million doses of the mRNA-1273 vaccine). The lower estimate of the 95% CI for reporting rates of myocarditis in adolescent males and young men exceeded the upper bound of the expected rates after the first vaccination dose with the BNT162b2 vaccine in those aged 12 to 24 years, after the second vaccination dose with the BNT162b2 vaccine in those aged 12 to 49 years, after the first vaccination dose with the mRNA-1273 vaccine in those aged 18 to 39 years, and after the second vaccination dose with the mRNA-1273 vaccine in those aged 18 to 49 years.

The reporting rates of myocarditis in females were lower than those in males across all age strata younger than 50 years of age. The reporting rates of myocarditis were highest after the second vaccination dose in adolescent females aged 12 to 15 years (6.35 [95% CI, 4.05-9.96] per million doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine), in adolescent females aged 16 to 17 years (10.98 [95% CI, 7.16-16.84] per million doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine), in young women aged 18 to 24 years (6.87 [95% CI, 4.27-11.05] per million doses of the mRNA-1273 vaccine), and in women aged 25 to 29 years (8.22 [95% CI, 5.03-13.41] per million doses of the mRNA-1273 vaccine). The lower estimate of the 95% CI for reporting rates of myocarditis in females exceeded the upper bound of the expected rates after the second vaccination dose with the BNT162b2 vaccine in those aged 12 to 29 years and after the second vaccination dose with the mRNA-1273 vaccine in those aged 18 to 29 years.

Among the 1372 reports of myocarditis in persons younger than 30 years of age, 1305 were able to be adjudicated, with 92% (1195/1305) meeting the CDC’s case definition. Of these, chart abstractions or medical interviews were completed for 69% (826/1195) ( Table 3 ). The symptoms commonly reported in the verified cases of myocarditis in persons younger than 30 years of age included chest pain, pressure, or discomfort (727/817; 89%) and dyspnea or shortness of breath (242/817; 30%). Troponin levels were elevated in 98% (792/809) of the cases of myocarditis. The electrocardiogram result was abnormal in 72% (569/794) of cases of myocarditis. Of the patients who had received a cardiac MRI, 72% (223/312) had abnormal findings consistent with myocarditis. The echocardiogram results were available for 721 cases of myocarditis; of these, 84 (12%) demonstrated a notable decreased left ventricular ejection fraction (<50%). Among the 676 cases for whom treatment data were available, 589 (87%) received nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Intravenous immunoglobulin and glucocorticoids were each used in 12% of the cases of myocarditis (78/676 and 81/676, respectively). Intensive therapies such as vasoactive medications (12 cases of myocarditis) and intubation or mechanical ventilation (2 cases) were rare. There were no verified cases of myocarditis requiring a heart transplant, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, or a ventricular assist device. Of the 96% (784/813) of cases of myocarditis who were hospitalized, 98% (747/762) were discharged from the hospital at time of review. In 87% (577/661) of discharged cases of myocarditis, there was resolution of the presenting symptoms by hospital discharge.

In this review of reports to VAERS between December 2020 and August 2021, myocarditis was identified as a rare but serious adverse event that can occur after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination, particularly in adolescent males and young men. However, this increased risk must be weighed against the benefits of COVID-19 vaccination. 18

Compared with cases of non–vaccine-associated myocarditis, the reports of myocarditis to VAERS after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination were similar in demographic characteristics but different in their acute clinical course. First, the greater frequency noted among vaccine recipients aged 12 to 29 years vs those aged 30 years or older was similar to the age distribution seen in typical cases of myocarditis. 2 , 4 This pattern may explain why cases of myocarditis were not discovered until months after initial Emergency Use Authorization of the vaccines in the US (ie, until the vaccines were widely available to younger persons). Second, the sex distribution in cases of myocarditis after COVID-19 vaccination was similar to that seen in typical cases of myocarditis; there is a strong male predominance for both conditions. 2 , 4

However, the onset of myocarditis symptoms after exposure to a potential immunological trigger was shorter for COVID-19 vaccine–associated cases of myocarditis than is typical for myocarditis cases diagnosed after a viral illness. 24 - 26 Cases of myocarditis reported after COVID-19 vaccination were typically diagnosed within days of vaccination, whereas cases of typical viral myocarditis can often have indolent courses with symptoms sometimes present for weeks to months after a trigger if the cause is ever identified. 1 The major presenting symptoms appeared to resolve faster in cases of myocarditis after COVID-19 vaccination than in typical viral cases of myocarditis. Even though almost all individuals with cases of myocarditis were hospitalized and clinically monitored, they typically experienced symptomatic recovery after receiving only pain management. In contrast, typical viral cases of myocarditis can have a more variable clinical course. For example, up to 6% of typical viral myocarditis cases in adolescents require a heart transplant or result in mortality. 27

In the current study, the initial evaluation and treatment of COVID-19 vaccine–associated myocarditis cases was similar to that of typical myocarditis cases. 28 - 31 Initial evaluation usually included measurement of troponin level, electrocardiography, and echocardiography. 1 Cardiac MRI was often used for diagnostic purposes and also for possible prognostic purposes. 32 , 33 Supportive care was a mainstay of treatment, with specific cardiac or intensive care therapies as indicated by the patient’s clinical status.

Long-term outcome data are not yet available for COVID-19 vaccine–associated myocarditis cases. The CDC has started active follow-up surveillance in adolescents and young adults to assess the health and functional status and cardiac outcomes at 3 to 6 months in probable and confirmed cases of myocarditis reported to VAERS after COVID-19 vaccination. 34 For patients with myocarditis, the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology guidelines advise that patients should be instructed to refrain from competitive sports for 3 to 6 months, and that documentation of a normal electrocardiogram result, ambulatory rhythm monitoring, and an exercise test should be obtained prior to resumption of sports. 35 The use of cardiac MRI is unclear, but it may be useful in evaluating the progression or resolution of myocarditis in those with abnormalities on the baseline cardiac MRI. 36 Further doses of mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines should be deferred, but may be considered in select circumstances. 37

This study has several limitations. First, although clinicians are required to report serious adverse events after COVID-19 vaccination, including all events leading to hospitalization, VAERS is a passive reporting system. As such, the reports of myocarditis to VAERS may be incomplete, and the quality of the information reported is variable. Missing data for sex, vaccination dose number, and race and ethnicity were not uncommon in the reports received; history of prior SARS-CoV-2 infection also was not known. Furthermore, as a passive system, VAERS data are subject to reporting biases in that both underreporting and overreporting are possible. 38 Given the high verification rate of reports of myocarditis to VAERS after mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccination, underreporting is more likely. Therefore, the actual rates of myocarditis per million doses of vaccine are likely higher than estimated.

Second, efforts by CDC investigators to obtain medical records or interview physicians were not always successful despite the special allowance for sharing information with the CDC under the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996. 39 This challenge limited the ability to perform case adjudication and complete investigations for some reports of myocarditis, although efforts are still ongoing when feasible.

Third, the data from vaccination administration were limited to what is reported to the CDC and thus may be incomplete, particularly with regard to demographics.

Fourth, calculation of expected rates from the IBM MarketScan Commercial Research Database relied on administrative data via the use of ICD-10 codes and there was no opportunity for clinical review. Furthermore, these data had limited information regarding the Medicare population; thus expected rates for those older than 65 years of age were not calculated. However, it is expected that the rates in those older than 65 years of age would not be higher than the rates in those aged 50 to 64 years. 4

Based on passive surveillance reporting in the US, the risk of myocarditis after receiving mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines was increased across multiple age and sex strata and was highest after the second vaccination dose in adolescent males and young men. This risk should be considered in the context of the benefits of COVID-19 vaccination.

Corresponding Author: Matthew E. Oster, MD, MPH, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30333 ( [email protected] ).

Correction: This article was corrected March 21, 2022, to change “pericarditis” to “myocarditis” in the first row, first column of eTable 1 in the Supplement.

Accepted for Publication: December 16, 2021.

Author Contributions: Drs Oster and Su had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Oster, Shay, Su, Creech, Edwards, Dendy, Schlaudecker, Woo, Shimabukuro.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Oster, Shay, Su, Gee, Creech, Broder, Edwards, Soslow, Schlaudecker, Lang, Barnett, Ruberg, Smith, Campbell, Lopes, Sperling, Baumblatt, Thompson, Marquez, Strid, Woo, Pugsley, Reagan-Steiner, DeStefano, Shimabukuro.

Drafting of the manuscript: Oster, Shay, Su, Gee, Creech, Marquez, Strid, Woo, Shimabukuro.

Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Oster, Shay, Su, Creech, Broder, Edwards, Soslow, Dendy, Schlaudecker, Lang, Barnett, Ruberg, Smith, Campbell, Lopes, Sperling, Baumblatt, Thompson, Pugsley, Reagan-Steiner, DeStefano, Shimabukuro.

Statistical analysis: Oster, Su, Marquez, Strid, Woo, Shimabukuro.

Obtained funding: Edwards, DeStefano.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Oster, Gee, Creech, Broder, Edwards, Soslow, Schlaudecker, Smith, Baumblatt, Thompson, Reagan-Steiner, DeStefano.

Supervision: Su, Edwards, Soslow, Dendy, Schlaudecker, Campbell, Sperling, DeStefano, Shimabukuro.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Creech reported receiving grants from the National Institutes of Health for the Moderna and Janssen clinical trials and receiving personal fees from Astellas and Horizon. Dr Edwards reported receiving grants from the National Institutes of Health; receiving personal fees from BioNet, IBM, X-4 Pharma, Seqirus, Roche, Pfizer, Merck, Moderna, and Sanofi; and receiving compensation for being the associate editor of Clinical Infectious Diseases . Dr Soslow reported receiving personal fees from Esperare. Dr Schlaudecker reported receiving grants from Pfizer and receiving personal fees from Sanofi Pasteur. Drs Barnett, Ruberg, and Smith reported receiving grants from Pfizer. Dr Lopes reported receiving personal fees from Bayer, Boehringer Ingleheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Daiichi Sankyo, GlaxoSmithKline, Medtronic, Merck, Pfizer, Portola, and Sanofi and receiving grants from Bristol Myers Squibb, GlaxoSmithKline, Medtronic, Pfizer, and Sanofi. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This work was supported by contracts 200-2012-53709 (Boston Medical Center), 200-2012-53661 (Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center), 200-2012-53663 (Duke University), and 200-2012-50430 (Vanderbilt University Medical Center) with the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment Project.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The CDC provided funding via the Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment Project to Drs Creech, Edwards, Soslow, Dendy, Schlaudecker, Lang, Barnett, Ruberg, Smith, Campbell, and Lopes. The authors affiliated with the CDC along with the other coauthors conducted the investigations; performed collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; were involved in the preparation, review, and approval of the manuscript; and made the decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Disclaimer: The findings and conclusions in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the CDC or the US Food and Drug Administration. Mention of a product or company name is for identification purposes only and does not constitute endorsement by the CDC or the US Food and Drug Administration.

Additional Contributions: We thank the following CDC staff who contributed to this article without compensation outside their normal salaries (in alphabetical order and contribution specified in parenthesis at end of each list of names): Nickolas Agathis, MD, MPH, Stephen R. Benoit, MD, MPH, Beau B. Bruce, MD, PhD, Abigail L. Carlson, MD, MPH, Meredith G. Dixon, MD, Jonathan Duffy, MD, MPH, Charles Duke, MD, MPH, Charles Edge, MSN, MS, Robyn Neblett Fanfair, MD, MPH, Nathan W. Furukawa, MD, MPH, Gavin Grant, MD, MPH, Grace Marx, MD, MPH, Maureen J. Miller, MD, MPH, Pedro Moro, MD, MPH, Meredith Oakley, DVM, MPH, Kia Padgett, MPH, BSN, RN, Janice Perez-Padilla, MPH, BSN, RN, Robert Perry, MD, MPH, Nimia Reyes, MD, MPH, Ernest E. Smith, MD, MPH&TM, David Sniadack, MD, MPH, Pamela Tucker, MD, Edward C. Weiss, MD, MPH, Erin Whitehouse, PhD, MPH, RN, Pascale M. Wortley, MD, MPH, and Rachael Zacks, MD (for clinical investigations and interviews); Amelia Jazwa, MSPH, Tara Johnson, MPH, MS, and Jamila Shields, MPH (for project coordination); Charles Licata, PhD, and Bicheng Zhang, MS (for data acquisition and organization); Charles E. Rose, PhD (for statistical consultation); and Scott D. Grosse, PhD (for calculation of expected rates of myocarditis). We also thank the clinical staff who cared for these patients and reported the adverse events to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System.

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