logos definition literature essay

Literary Devices

Literary devices, terms, and elements, definition of logos.

In literature and rhetoric, logos is an appeal to logic. It is one of the three modes of persuasion that Aristotle defined in his Ars Poetica . The other two modes of persuasion, as delineated by Aristotle, are pathos (an appeal to the audience’s emotions) and ethos (an appeal to the ethics of the audience). Speakers and authors use logos, which is to say they make arguments based on reason, because it is most difficult to argue against fact. Audience members and readers tend to believe things which seem like they can be backed up with evidence, while may feel suspicious of arguments built on emotion (though these can be quite powerful). Using logos also makes the author or orator sound knowledgeable and thus increases the audience’s trust in that person. However, data can and is frequently manipulated to suit the speaker’s needs, and thus arguments based on logos are not necessarily trustworthy.

The word logos comes from the Greek word lego , which means “I say.” There are many other definitions of logos in many different fields, especially in different religious contexts. Some religions, such as Christianity and Sufism, have concepts of Logos as representing the divine. Some literary theorists have also created a definition of logos in which it refers to the “premise” or the writer or rhetorician. This is very similar to Aristotle’s definition, and relates to the logical foundation that the writer or rhetorician starts from in order to make more arguments based on this common ground.

Common Examples of Logos

The majority of orators use at least some examples of logos in order to convince the audience that his or her arguments are logically sound. Here are some logos examples from famous speeches:

It was we, the people; not we, the white male citizens; nor yet we, the male citizens; but we, the whole people, who formed the Union. And we formed it, not to give the blessings of liberty, but to secure them; not to the half of ourselves and the half of our posterity, but to the whole people – women as well as men. And it is a downright mockery to talk to women of their enjoyment of the blessings of liberty while they are denied the use of the only means of securing them provided by this democratic-republican government – the ballot.

—Susan B. Anthony, On Women’s Right to Vote

To be sure, all this costs us all a good deal of money. This year¹s space budget is three times what it was in January 1961, and it is greater than the space budget of the previous eight years combined. That budget now stands at $5,400 million a year–a staggering sum, though somewhat less than we pay for cigarettes and cigars every year. Space expenditures will soon rise some more, from 40 cents per person per week to more than 50 cents a week for every man, woman and child in the United Stated, for we have given this program a high national priority–even though I realize that this is in some measure an act of faith and vision, for we do not now know what benefits await us.

—John F. Kennedy, “We choose to go to the moon” speech

But tonight, we turn the page. Tonight, after a breakthrough year for America, our economy is growing and creating jobs at the fastest pace since 1999. Our unemployment rate is now lower than it was before the financial crisis. More of our kids are graduating than ever before. More of our people are insured than ever before. And we are as free from the grip of foreign oil as we’ve been in almost 30 years.

—Barack Obama, State of the Union 2015

Significance of Logos in Literature

Logos can be used influentially by authors. Authors of fiction, drama, and poetry are not necessarily trying to persuade their readers of a logical argument. However, authors can use believable situations and characters to subtly change the reader’s mind or confirm opinions about certain issues. Logos is, of course, of utmost importance in some forms of writing such as journalism and creative non-fiction. The most common use of logos in literature is when characters try to persuade each other using logic, as we will see in some of the following examples of logos.

Examples of Logos in Literature

PORTIA: Tarry a little; there is something else. This bond doth give thee here no jot of blood; The words expressly are ‘a pound of flesh:’ Take then thy bond, take thou thy pound of flesh; But, in the cutting it, if thou dost shed One drop of Christian blood, thy lands and goods Are, by the laws of Venice, confiscate Unto the state of Venice.

( The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare)

In this famous courtroom scene from William Shakespeare’s play The Merchant of Venice , the character of Portia assumes a false guise to play the part of a lawyer. The character of Shylock is looking to get legal permission to take a pound of flesh from the man he lent money to, Antonio, who did not repay him in the right amount of time. Portia uses logic to judge that while Shylock is legally allowed this “pound of flesh,” he is not permitted to spill any blood. Her logic shows that the initial contract was flawed in its construction and that Shylock cannot have what he is desiring.

The state has not produced one iota of medical evidence to the effect that the crime Tom Robinson is charged with ever took place. It has relied instead upon the testimony of two witnesses whose evidence has not only been called into serious question on cross-examination, but has been flatly contradicted by the defendant. The defendant is not guilty, but somebody in this courtroom is.

( To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee)

In another famous courtroom scene in literature, the character of Atticus Finch argues the case of Tom Robinson. He shows via logic that there is no evidence to suggest that Tom is at all guilty, and hopes that logic alone will lead to an innocent verdict for Tom. Unfortunately, this is an example of logos in which the jury is not swayed by logic.

In the end the Party would announce that two and two made five, and you would have to believe it. It was inevitable that they should make that claim sooner or later: the logic of their position demanded it. Not merely the validity of experience, but the very existence of external reality was tacitly denied by their philosophy.

( 1984 by George Orwell)

George Orwell was familiar with the way that data and facts can be manipulated by the ruling party in order to support their premises and beliefs. In this famous perversion of logos from his novel 1984 , Orwell writes that eventually the “Party” will demand the public believe something clearly false. Orwell understood the effectiveness of the use of logos and he also was highly suspicious of the way that these types of arguments were presented. The Party creates its own logic that the public must simply follow or be terminated.

Test Your Knowledge of Logos

1. Which of the following statements is the best logos definition? A. An appeal to the emotions of the audience. B. An appeal to the ethics of the audience. C. An appeal to reason and logic. [spoiler title=”Answer to Question #1″] Answer: C is the correct answer.[/spoiler]

2. Which of the following statements is an example of logos? A. We must pass this bill or else all of the starving country in this nation will die. B. Homelessness amongst children has risen 25% in this country in the past decade. C. As a social worker, I can tell you from my direct experience that things have gotten worse for children in this country. [spoiler title=”Answer to Question #2″] Answer: B is the correct answer.[/spoiler]

3. Consider the following quote from George Orwell’s novel Animal Farm:

All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.

What does this quote demonstrate? A. The way a leader or orator can manipulate logic to convince the audience of something. B. The absurdity of appealing to reason when making an argument. C. The fact that no orators can be trusted. [spoiler title=”Answer to Question #3″] Answer: A is the correct answer. While some orators cannot be trusted because they manipulate logic, and while some attempts at logic result in absurd statements like this one, this is an example of manipulating logic to end at a false conclusion. This is an example of fallacy.[/spoiler]

15 Logos Examples

Tio Gabunia (B.Arch, M.Arch)

Tio Gabunia is an academic writer and architect based in Tbilisi. He has studied architecture, design, and urban planning at the Georgian Technical University and the University of Lisbon. He has worked in these fields in Georgia, Portugal, and France. Most of Tio’s writings concern philosophy. Other writings include architecture, sociology, urban planning, and economics.

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Chris Drew (PhD)

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Logos is a rhetorical device that uses logic, reasoning, and factual evidence to support an argument or persuade an audience.

Logos refers to one of the three main technical means of persuasion in rhetoric. According to Aristotle, it is the means that has to do with the arguments themselves.

Aristotle claims that there are three technical means of persuasion:

“Now the proofs furnished by the speech are of three kinds. The first depends upon the moral character of the speaker, the second upon putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind, the third upon the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove” (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ca. 367-322 B.C.E./1926, Book 1, Chapter 2, Section 3).

Each of these corresponds to the three means of persuasion:

Ethos (Appeal to credibility) : Persuasion through establishing the character of the speaker.
Pathos (Appeal to emotion) : Persuasion through putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind.
Logos (Appeal to logic): Persuasion through proof or seeming proof.

For Aristotle, speech consists of three things: the speaker, the hearer, and the speech. These correspond to ethos, pathos, and logos , respectively. The latter is the subject of this article.

Definition of Logos

At its core, logos refers to the use of logic (or perceived logic) to persuade.

However, logos may be the most confusing of the three means of persuasion because the word has been used by different philosophers to mean different but related things.

Heraclitus of Ephesus used the word logos to refer to something like the message that the world gives us (Graham, 2021).
The sophists used the term to refer to discourse in general.
Pyrrhonist skeptics used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of debatable matters.
The Stoics meant by it the generative principle of the universe.

I could list further examples, but for this article, Aristotle’s definition will suffice.

Logos, in rhetoric, refers to persuasion through logical argumentation or its simulation (Keith & Lundberg, 2017).

As Aristotle writes,

“… persuasion is produced by the speech itself, when we establish the true or apparently true from the means of persuasion applicable to each individual subject.” (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ca. 367-322 B.C.E./1926, Book 1, Chapter 2, Section 6).

Syllogisms, enthymemes, examples, and other arguments use logos to influence people’s thinking . Due to the structure of this persuasion tool, it is the only one that can directly argue for the speaker’s point of view. What Aristotle stresses over and over again is that deceptive or fallacious arguments can have a persuasive effect if the fallacy is concealed well enough.

Persuasion through logos requires only that the hearers think that something has been proven, whether it actually has been is a different matter.

Logos Examples

Scientific Research: Any form of scientific research is fundamentally grounded in logos, as it relies on empirical data, statistical analysis, and logical reasoning to draw conclusions. For example, if you were to present the scientific evidence to a consumer about why your product is the best, it may convince them to switch brand loyalty over to you.
Legal Arguments: In court, attorneys use logos extensively when presenting evidence, citing precedents, or constructing logical arguments to persuade the judge or jury. Generally, it is expected that the jury be presented the best objective evidence in order for them to make an objective decision. However, at times, they will rely on pathos, and the judge’s job is often to curtail this if needed.
Newspaper Editorials: Newspaper editorials often use logos to make a persuasive point, presenting facts, statistics, and logical analysis to support the writer’s viewpoint. Without facts and data, the readers my close the newspaper and dismiss the writer as simply engaging in hearsay.
Referencing in Essays: In essays, we are often required to cite our sources. This is, in part, relying on ethos (appeal to credibility), but at the same time, it’s also allowing the reader to go ahead and check the primary data to ensure it’s correct.
Financial Reports: Financial analysts use logos when they analyze data, financial statements, and market trends to provide investment advice. They know an investor wants to make the most evidence-based decision as possible with the data, so they need to present this evidence as clearly as possible.
Medical Diagnosis: Doctors use logos when they diagnose patients by interpreting symptoms, medical histories, and test results to arrive at a logical conclusion. Without evidence, customers may distrust the doctor and refuse to follow the doctor’s advice.
Speeches and Presentations: Speakers and debaters often use logos in their speeches or presentations to make their points more persuasive, providing evidence, statistics, and logical analysis to back up their arguments, with the intent of convincing the audience and winning the debate over the competitors (although, pathos is highly convincing in speeches as well).
Instruction Manuals: Logos is used in instruction manuals for constructing furniture where a logical sequence of steps is provided to guide users in assembling a product or operating a piece of software. An instruction manual won’t say “if you feel like it,…” because this won’t get the job done – constructing the item!
Funding Proposals: In making a funding pitch, proposals are often supported by logos in the form of cost-benefit analyses, case studies, and logical reasoning to convince others that their money will be in good hands.
Problem-Solving: In a group’s blue skies brainstorming session or a problem-solving meeting, logos is used when the participants identify the problem, analyze the factors contributing to the problem, and propose logical solutions based on evidence and reasoning.
Technological Innovations: When developing a new product or technology, engineers and designers use logos to analyze the needs of the market, create a logical design to meet those needs, and justify their decisions with reasoning and evidence. In fact, engineers need strong analytical skills and have to rely extensively on logos (rather than pathos or ethos) in their daily job roles.

Logos as Perceived Logic

Aristotle writes that even fallacious arguments are examples of logos, because they seem to prove something. In other words, logos isn’t just being logical , rather it’s attempting to appear logical .

Here are some examples:

Straw Man Fallacy : This happens when an individual distorts, exaggerates, or misrepresents someone’s argument in order to make it easier to attack. For example, “My opponent believes in healthcare reform, he must want to give free healthcare to everyone.” Here, they are attempting to construct some logic that isn’t really there – they’re actually creating false facts to put forward a point of view!
Slippery Slope Fallacy : This is an argument that suggests taking a minor action will lead to major and often ludicrous consequences. For example, “If we allow students to redo tests, they’ll want to redo homework, quizzes, and even final exams!” Here, the argument sounds like it could be logical, but draws a long bow and makes claims that something will happen, even though it may not (and probably won’t) actually come to pass.
False Dichotomy Fallacy : This fallacy occurs when an argument presents only two options or sides when there may be more. For example, “You’re either with us, or against us.” Once the false dichotomy is constructed, logos can be used to convince people one perspective is better than the other, as if only the two exist.
Hasty Generalization Fallacy : This happens when someone makes a broad conclusion based on a small or unrepresentative sample size. For example, “I met a rude person from City X, therefore everyone from City X must be rude.” Here, they are attempting to use logic – and their argument is ostensibly logical – but in reality, it (like the slippery slope) draws a long bow and is unlikely to actually be true.

Logos Strengths

Appeal to rationality: For many people, the apparent rationality of a speech is its most important and persuasive part. Especially in academic settings where the orator cannot make themselves stand out through appeals to ethos and pathos, logos is often the most important part of the rhetorical triangle.
Trustworthiness : While pathos and ethos are often viewed with suspicion, there is no such negative stigma attached to logos. Appeals to emotion or personal authority may seem dishonest and manipulative, but arguments, unless fallacious, rarely seem so.
Counter arguments: Logos is the only mode of persuasion that can directly address objections because the evaluation of opposing views is itself a rational activity.

Logos Weaknesses

Subjective matters: In certain settings, logos can be far less persuasive than pathos and ethos. This is particularly evident in settings where there are no objective criteria for deciding if the speaker is right or wrong.

See Also: The 5 Types of Rhetorical Situations

Aristotle. (1926). Rhetoric. In Aristotle in 23 Volumes, Vol. 22, translated by J. H. Freese. Harvard University Press. (Original work published ca. 367-322 B.C.E.)

Hansen, H. (2020). Fallacies. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2020). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/fallacies/

Rapp, C. (2022). Aristotle’s Rhetoric. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2022). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/

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