phd medical imaging

Medical Imaging Science Training Program

Students are expected to gain in-depth knowledge in the fundamentals of imaging science, medical physics, physiology, computer science, electrical engineering and/or mathematics. The central goal of this educational program is to train and equip students to develop innovative, advanced medical imaging and computational methods for addressing pressing unmet clinical needs.

Research Topics & Areas

Our program encompasses a wide spectrum of advanced medical imaging topics. These include, but are not limited to, development and applications of imaging technologies, image processing and analysis, fluid dynamics, medical physics, computational and mathematical modeling, and artificial intelligence. The spectrum of applications is broad, extending from cardiovascular and neurovascular imaging to image-guided surgery and cancer diagnosis.

The program emphasizes three research areas:

Medical Imaging

Medical imaging consists of a range of technologies and methodologies dedicated to visualizing the structures and functions of the human body. Research in this area focuses on developing innovative medical imaging techniques that target specific clinical and research applications, such as cardiovascular imaging and neurovascular imaging. The research activities involve advanced MRI pulse sequence programming, sophisticated image reconstruction methods, and multi-modality PET/CT or PET/MRI imaging.

Medical Image Processing, Computational Modeling & Artificial Intelligence (AI)

This research area aims to develop advanced tools and algorithms for analyzing and interpreting medical images as well as extracting quantitative image metrics. Research activities include both conventional and AI-based image post-processing, e.g., denoising, registration, and segmentation, and feature extraction along with computational modeling, such as quantitative hemodynamics and cardiovascular flow mechanics.

Clinical Translation

At Feinberg School of Medicine, strong interdisciplinary collaborations between physicians and scientists facilitate the successful translation of novel advancements in medical imaging acquisition and analysis. Clinical translation efforts span a wide array of medical domains and organs, including neurological, cardiovascular, cancer, interventional, pediatric, body and musculoskeletal (MSK) imaging.

Why Northwestern for Medical Imaging Training?

Clinical translational opportunities.

Our faculty members have the requisite expertise and experience to translate emerging medical imaging technologies to clinical prototypes. Students interested in clinical translational projects will be mentored by our research and clinical faculty members to learn the requisite skills to conduct bench-to-bedside research.

Industry Collaboration Opportunities

Students can work with leading equipment and software vendors on collaborative projects and use technical approaches, such as concepts in biomedical engineering and computer science, for application in medical imaging research.

World-Class Medical Imaging Equipment

The Center for Translational Imaging , managed by the Department of Radiology, houses cutting-edge medical imaging equipment dedicated to research. Our students gain valuable experience using technology available through the center.

How to Apply

Prospective MS, PhD or MD-PhD students should apply to  Biomedical Engineering , Electrical and Computer Engineering , or the  Health Sciences Integrated Program . Each prospective student should follow the admissions guidelines of the individual school. Interested students are encouraged to contact recruiting faculty members for research projects and/or sponsorship.

If you're a faculty member interested in an exceptional opportunity to mentor graduate students in the interdisciplinary Medical Imaging Science Training Program, please contact us at  [email protected] .

This program is located at 737 N. Michigan Avenue, Suite 1600, Chicago.

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PhD in Imaging Science

The PhD program in imaging science at Washington University in St. Louis is one of only two such programs in the U.S. and offers an interdisciplinary curriculum that focuses on the technology of imaging with applications ranging from cancer diagnosis and neuroimaging to advanced microscopy to augmented reality.

This interdisciplinary program brings together expert faculty from the  McKelvey School of Engineering  and the  School of Medicine  to provide students the freedom and flexibility to learn from leading imaging experts and engage in impactful research. This emerging academic discipline broadly addresses the design and optimization of imaging systems and the extraction of information from images. 

PhD application deadline: Dec. 15  Start your application today

Imaging science research news

Looking deeper with adaptive six-dimensional nanoscopy

With a $2 million NIH grant, Matthew Lew will develop smart microscopes to reveal dynamic interactions between individual biomolecules

Pushing the boundaries of the visible world

Washington University engineers, scientists and physicians team up to advance imaging science and improve human health

Patients with brain cancer may benefit from treatment to boost white blood cells

Blocking immune suppressor cells in mice with glioblastoma improved survival

Imaging Science by the numbers

Get an inside look at our imaging science labs and facilities:.

A multidisciplinary team at WashU has found an innovative way to use photoacoustic imaging to diagnose ovarian tumors.

Get a glimpse of the Medical Campus of Washington University in St. Louis

Take a look at inside the lab of Matthew Lew

Student profiles

Aahana Bajracharya

Sneha Das Gupta

Kaushik Dutta

Wiete Fehner

Yuanxin Qiu

Get involved in the imaging science community at WashU:

• Imaging Science Pathway
• Imaging Science Student Council
• Math Crash Course
• Spectra (student-led imaging society)

Commencement

• Commencement 2021
• Syllabus Depot
• My UT Health (Intranet)
• COVID-19 Updates for Students
• Enrolled Student Resources
• Educational Resources
• GSBS Data Request Form
• GradTrac Help

PhD in Radiological Sciences

The Radiological Sciences graduate program prepares students for careers that use radiant forms of energy in the diagnosis and treatment of human disease.

Student Directory

Important dates, requirements.

• An undergraduate GPA of at least a 3.0
• GRE test within past 5 years
• TOEFL score of at least 84, IELTS score of at least 7, or DUOLINGO score of at least 115

Admission Requirements

Tuition and fees

• Fall 2023 Incoming New Students
• Continuing Students

Class Profile

Program Statistics

Program Brochure

Career Paths and Marketable Skills

I am passionate about this field  because it allows me to apply my love of physics in a way that will positively impact those suffering from cancer. Holly Parencia, 2nd year student

King's College London

Biomedical engineering & imaging sciences mphil/phd md/(res) or option of joint phd in medical imaging and biomedical engineering.

Key information

We are driven by our commitment to improve the way we deliver healthcare through the use of advanced engineering.

A diverse and talented group working across the whole Medtech sector, we advance research, innovation and teaching progress through our shared missing of engineering better health for patients worldwide.

Our state-of-the-art and clinical-research facilities are embedded in St Thomas' Hospital where we can ensure our research projects are fully aligned with current clinical practice. Long-term collaborations with global MedTech companies and new partnerships with innovative start-ups ensure multiple pathways to translation.

Research is organised into ambitious, large-scale and long-term research projects supported by our six departments. This diverse infrastructure allows us to combine expertise and apply the latest healthcare concepts to deliver ground breaking results.

We pass this integrated approach to the next generation of healthcare specialist who study with our lecturers. Courses with practical training and real-world application at their core, taking place at the UK's most research active NHS Trust.

The School brings together physicists, chemists, biologists, mathematicians, computer scientists and clinicians working in biomedical engineering, medical imaging and image-guided therapy into six departments: Surgical and Interventional Engineering, Cardiovascular Imaging, Cancer Imaging, Biomedical Engineering, Imaging Chemistry and Biology, and Perinatal Imaging and Health. We are keen to recruit PhD students from all these disciplines.

All imaging modalities are studied including MR, x-ray, CT, ultrasound, PET and SPECT as well as therapeutic nuclear medicine. On-going projects range from the development of new imaging agents and technology and computational image analysis, machine learning and modelling, through to the clinical assessment of new imaging methods.

We have a wide range of work from studies of the basic science of imaging to research into specific clinical areas such as cardiology, neuropsychiatry, oncology, radiotherapy and surgery. Our work is carried out in close collaboration with other groups within the Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine and associated hospitals.

For further information about the research within the School, please refer to the School website.

Joint PhD programme Exciting opportunities are now available to undertake a joint PhD programme with the Universidad Católica de Chile, for topics specifically relating to Biological and Medical Engineering (Biomedical Imaging, Cellular and Molecular Engineering, Tissue Engineering and Biomechanics and Quantitative Physiology).

Head of group/division

Professor Sebastien Ourselin

Studentships

Our studentships are regularly advertised on Find A PhD and Funding Opportunities webpages.

• How to apply
• Fees or Funding

UK Tuition Fees 2024/25

Full time tuition fees:

£6,936 per year (MPhil/PhD)

£6,936 per year (MPhil/PhD Clinical)

£6,936 per year (MDRes Clinical)

£6,936 per year (MDRes – joint PhD with Universidad Católica de Chile)

Part time tuition fees:

£3,468 per year (MPhil/PhD)

£3,468 per year (MPhil/PhD Clinical)

£3,468 per year (MDRes Clinical)

International Tuition Fees 2024/25

£30,240 per year (MPhil/PhD)

£58,470 per year (MPhil/PhD Clinical)

£58 470 per year (MDRes Clinical)

£30,240 per year (MDRes – joint PhD with Universidad Católica de Chile)

£15,120 per year (MPhil/PhD)

£29,235 per year (MPhil/PhD Clinical)

£29,235 per year (MDRes Clinical)

UK Tuition Fees 2025/26

£7,500 per year (MPhil/PhD)

£7,500 per year (MPhil/PhD Clinical)

£7,500 per year (MDRes Clinical)

£7,500 per year (MDRes – joint PhD with Universidad Católica de Chile)

£3,750 per year (MPhil/PhD)

£3,750 per year (MPhil/PhD Clinical)

£3,750 per year (MDRes Clinical)

International Tuition Fees 2025/26

£32,400 per year (MPhil/PhD)

£62,600 per year (MPhil/PhD Clinical)

£62,600 per year (MDRes Clinical)

£32,400 per year (MDRes – joint PhD with Universidad Católica de Chile)

£16,200 per year (MPhil/PhD)

£31,300 per year (MPhil/PhD Clinical)

£31,300 per year (MDRes Clinical)

These tuition fees may be subject to additional increases in subsequent years of study, in line with King's terms and conditions.

• Study environment

Base campus

St Thomas’ Campus

Located near Waterloo Campus and home of continuing medical and dental teaching, as well as a museum dedicated to Florence Nightingale.

The emphasis in the study environment is on interdisciplinarity and translation to the clinic, and students work in an environment in which close interaction with colleagues from other complementary disciplines is the norm. In accord with wider Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine practice, each student has at least two supervisors, strengthening the cross-disciplinary nature of the training and their progress is monitored closely and reported on every six months. Students have access to excellent laboratory facilities for radiochemistry and radiobiology, PET, SPECT and MR imaging facilities.

Postgraduate training

As well as access to the taught modules on the MRes in Medical Imaging Sciences, students in Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences can supplement their training through Departmental Seminars and our CDT programme of Advanced Skills sessions and Seminar Series. Our postgraduate students also have the opportunity to assist with teaching of undergraduates as demonstrators in practical classes or by leading tutorials.

• Entry requirements

Find a supervisor

Search through a list of available supervisors.

PGR Lead: Professor Andrew Reader For enquiries, please contact Emily Helder, Operations Officer (Education)

School of Biomedical Engineering & Imaging Sciences

Research and Impact at the School of Biomedical Engineering & Imaging...

Studentship Funding Opportunities

View funded studentships currently available

Connect with a King’s Advisor

Want to know more about studying at King's? We're here to help.

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Tackle the biggest challenges in biology, medicine and health in a world leading research environment, and prepare for your future career.

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PhD/MPhil Biomedical Imaging Sciences / Overview

Year of entry: 2025

• View full page

We require applicants to hold, or be about to obtain, an Upper Second class Honours degree, or the equivalent qualification gained outside the UK, in a related subject area for entry to a PhD programme. A Lower Second class Honours degree may be considered if applicants also hold a Master's degree with a Merit classification.

Full entry requirements

Apply online

Before applying you must:

• Choose a programme or find a project you want to apply for and check you’re eligible.
• Speak to the listed supervisor about your suitability for their project or programme.
• Understand how your project is funded and, if it is self-funded, consider how you plan on funding it.
• Read our ‘How to apply’ page to find out more and ensure you include all required supporting documents at the time of submission.

Visit our Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health Postgraduate Research page to find out more.

Programme options

Programme overview.

• Undertake research in a field you’re passionate about and join a project addressing leading challenges in the area while working with some of Europe's leading researchers and academics.
• Choose to research at a university ranked and 6th in the UK (QS World University Rankings, 2025) and 2nd in the world for social and environmental impact (THE Impact Rankings, 2024), where 93% of research activity is ‘world leading’ or ‘internationally excellent’ (Research Impact Framework, 2021)
• Access some of the best research facilities in the world at the University, through our industry partners, and at hospitals around Greater Manchester.
• Benefit from dedicated support throughout your PhD journey, from pre-application to graduation and everything in between, through our Doctoral Academy
• Undergo training in transferable skills critical to developing early-stage researchers and professionals through the Doctoral Academy's training programme and progress into a career in research, academia or industry.

Visit our Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health Postgraduate Research page to find out about upcoming open days and events.

For entry in the academic year beginning September 2025, the tuition fees are as follows:

• PhD (full-time) UK students (per annum): Standard £TBC, Low £11,500, Medium £17,500, High £23,500 International, including EU, students (per annum): Standard £27,000, Low £29,500, Medium £35,000, High £41,500
• PhD (part-time) UK students (per annum): Standard £TBC, Low £5,750, Medium £8,625, High £11,750 International, including EU, students (per annum): Standard £13,500, Low £14,750, Medium £17,500, High £20,755

Further information for EU students can be found on our dedicated EU page.

Contact details

Programmes in related subject areas.

Use the links below to view lists of programmes in related subject areas.

• Biosciences

Regulated by the Office for Students

The University of Manchester is regulated by the Office for Students (OfS). The OfS aims to help students succeed in Higher Education by ensuring they receive excellent information and guidance, get high quality education that prepares them for the future and by protecting their interests. More information can be found at the OfS website .

You can find regulations and policies relating to student life at The University of Manchester, including our Degree Regulations and Complaints Procedure, on our regulations website .

PhD/MPhil Radiography

Postgraduate research degree

Our Radiography PhD/MPhil research programme offers the chance to undertake research with a wide-reaching impact. We will connect your work with industry, to change radiography practice for the better.

Research centres and groups

• Healthcare Innovation
• Maternal and Child Health

Key information

Affiliations.

Our close links with Bart's Trust, UCL Partners and others has helped create research-active honorary clinical academic posts, ensuring research is undertaken under the supervision of internationally respected clinical experts.

Radiography Postgraduate research degrees PhD/MPhil course Overview

Our research programme in Radiography provides a combination of specialist research expertise with flexible working practice.

We have leading experts in both diagnostic and therapeutic radiography who may supervise you during your time here.

Your radiography projects can focus on areas such as MRI, educational research, advanced practice, artificial intelligence, or patient-centred care. We support these in a PhD or Professional Doctorate format.

Our department has strong connections with patient groups and professional bodies both nationally and internationally. Regular collaboration with other research centres, industry partners and major teaching hospitals also helps to support our powerful hub of radiography research expertise.

A range of Masters level courses are offered at the School of Health & Psychological Sciences including an MSc in Advanced Practice with units tailored to each of the research Centres and professional groupings within the School.

Study for an MPhil/PhD

Doctoral level study involves independent academic research, supported by supervisors, that makes an original contribution to knowledge within the discipline.

The work carried out will therefore be of sufficient quality to satisfy academic peer review and merit publication.

There are two main routes to doctoral-level research degrees (PhD):

MPhil/PhD by major thesis

The standard route involves the accepted candidate pursuing a research project under the guidance of their supervisors over a period of 3 years (full-time) or 4-6 years (part-time).

Candidates register initially for an MPhil (which is a substantial and valid qualification in its own right), and following an Upgrade examination, transfer to the PhD programme.

MPhil/PhD by prospective publication

Candidates publish generally around 3-6 peer-reviewed research papers (dependent on their depth, quality, significance and impact) addressing various aspects of their research topic during the period of MPhil/PhD registration.

For the award of PhD, the published studies are incorporated in an extended, analytical commentary (not dissimilar to a major thesis), which presents them as a coherent body of work, places them in a more general context and shows how they form a coherent contribution to knowledge in the research field.

For full details about the City PhD programme structure, please see the Guide for Research Students .

Requirements

Entry requirements.

Entry requirements vary by subject area and applicants should approach academic staff working in their area of interest to discuss their proposal ahead of submitting an application. Applicants should normally hold an upper second class honours degree or the equivalent from an international institution. Where the applicant's academic profile shows no evidence of training in research methods, it will normally be recommended that students first complete an MSc or MRes programme to prepare them for MPhil/PhD studies.

Substantial employment or research experience may be considered for some subject areas alongside or in place of academic qualifications. For the Clinical MRes programme, applicants are required to be registered with a clinical professional group such as Nursing, an Allied Health profession or Medicine.

English requirements

For applicants whose first language is not English, an IELTS score of at least 7 (with a minimum of 7.0 in writing) is required.

For more information see our main entry requirements page.

Visa requirements

If you are not from the European Economic Area / Switzerland and you are coming to study in the UK, you may need to apply for a visa or entry clearance to come to the UK to study.

The way that you apply may vary depending on the length of your course. There are different rules for:

• Students on courses of more than six months
• Students on courses of less than six months
• Students on a pre-sessional English language course.

For more information see our main Visa page .

Fees and funding

Full-time Home/UK: £5,500 per year

Part-time Home/UK: £2,750 per year

Full-time International: £14,500 per year

Part-time International: £7,250 per year

Fees for doctoral candidates are charged annually and cover registration, supervision and examination.

Fees are subject to review each year and may vary during your period of registration. Where applicable, fees for City's programmes will be subject to inflationary increases in each academic year of study commencing in September . Our policy for these increases is set out in our terms and conditions of study .

Support for PhD study

Prospective students are encouraged to explore doctoral Grants and funding opportunities such as:

• NIHR and MRC Fellowship schemes
• Specialist scholarship schemes (such as those provided by Arthritis UK, Diabetes UK, and the British Heart Foundation)
• Research Council studentship awards , if available.

Our bursaries are non-repayable sums of money granted by the University, usually based on need.

Our loans are repayable sums of money granted by the University or other body.

Our scholarships are when the University pays towards your Study fees. You may also be eligible for further funding.

Postgraduate Doctoral Loans

The Government has introduced a new Postgraduate Doctoral Loans scheme which can provide a loan of up to £25,000.

This will be over three years to support study for a doctoral degree.

A Postgraduate Doctoral Loan can help with course fees and living costs while you study. It can be used alongside any other forms of support you may be able to receive.

For more information, please see our Postgraduate Doctoral Loans page .

Additional expenses

Some of our degrees may involve additional expenses which are not covered by your tuition fees.  Find out more about additional expenses .

Academic support

City has a well-established structure and processes to support your research .

Supervision

MPhil/PhD students have the opportunity to become integral members of the School of Health & Psychological Sciences' research teams based in the School's Research Centres. Our centre's will assist and encourage students to complete their studies. A wide range of formal and informal research groups are also available to support MPhil/PhD students.

MPhil/PhD students are assigned to a team of supervisors , usually consisting of two academics who are expert in the field of the student's study. Students meet regularly with their supervisors to review their learning needs and plan their work towards progression and completion of their research studies. All full-time students are provided with a computer and workstation in close proximity to their related research team.

Full time students are required to meet with their supervisors at least twice a term and part time students at least once a term. This is to record notes from these meetings and other indicators of progress on the web-based system, Research And Progress (RAP) .

Students' progress is monitored regularly and supported by an annual review, where they may have the opportunity to discuss their research design and written work with a research advisor from outside their supervision team. They also have access to ongoing support from Senior Tutors for Research.

All students working towards a PhD (other than those undertaking doctoral study by prior publication or as a structured programme) initially register for MPhil studies. When the student's study has sufficiently developed to demonstrate that it is of doctoral standard then the student may apply to be upgraded to PhD student status, which will involve an oral examination.

Upgrading normally occurs between 12 and 18 months for full time study and between 24 and 30 months for part time study.

Research students are also supported by student representatives who meet regularly with the student-staff liaison committee so they can respond to any student concerns that cannot be addressed by the supervision team.

All MPhil/PhD students can access a wide range of MSc modules and other training programmes across City, normally without charge. Attendance at these programmes is discussed with and, if appropriate, approved by the student's supervision team.

A number of workshops, seminars and retreats are organised specifically for research degrees students across the School and within particular areas. Students are also invited to attend the research seminars that are organised for academic staff.

Institution-wide research related activities can also contribute to your development as a researcher. An annual programme of research and enterprise development activities is kept under review and updated in response to feedback from research students and academic and research staff. Find out more.

For more information about Graduate degrees, please see the visit the City Doctoral College .

How to apply

In the first, instance, we recommend that you visit the relevant School and Research Centre to read about our research and establish areas of specific staff interest. This will enable you to identify whether the School of Health & Psychological Sciences at City is the best place for your study.

Following this you need to submit a formal online application with a curriculum vitae and a 1-2 page proposal of study. This should include:

• Background and rationale including other work in the area leading up to the PhD study.
• Potential outcomes of the research in terms of academic outputs (papers and presentations) and real world impact (e.g., its potential usefulness for teachers/ speech language therapists etc.).
• Proposed methodology such as aims, design, participant groups, measures, analysis.

See here for guidance on how to prepare your research proposal .

We realise that at this stage you may not have a completely clear plan of study, and that the proposal is likely to change after you begin study. The proposal gives us an idea of your writing and organisational ability, motivation and rationale for the study and potential wider benefits.

• Full-time 1 st Feb 2025
• Part-time 1 st Feb 2025
• 1 st Oct 2025
• 1 st Feb 2025

For further application enquiries please contact our PGR enquiries team .

Potential PhD projects

Autism friendly mri.

A recent systematic review and also survey of how to make the experience of undergoing an MRI brain scan more accessible to people living with autism by Dr Christina Malamateniou.

Academic: Dr Christina Malamateniou

Current student:

Status: Completed project

View case study site

Radiography research mentoring

The Formal Radiography Research Mentoring scheme was created with the overarching aim to increase research capacity and quality in radiography, as well as to offer support future research leaders.

Status: Ongoing project

Ai adoption and education for radiography

Radiographer reporting has a national shortage of radiographers and radiologists in the UK. This project will outline the use of Artificial Intelligence in radiography and its use in education.

Impact of Covid19 on radiography practice

Led by the researchers at City, University of London and the Society and College of Radiographers, this project shares best practice in radiography for coming out of the pandemic for the future.

Find a supervisor

Please see our list of supervisors below

Dr Christina Malamateniou

Postgraduate Programme director (taught and research) for Radiography

• Department of Midwifery and Radiography

Useful links

• Doctoral College
• School of Health & Psychological Sciences
• Student wellbeing
• Terms and conditions

Contact details

Shps doctoral enquiries.

+44 (0) 20 7040 5972

[email protected]

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Course type

Qualification, university name, phd degrees in diagnostic imaging.

11 degrees at 9 universities in the UK.

Customise your search

Select the start date, qualification, and how you want to study

About Postgraduate Diagnostic Imaging

Diagnostic imaging is a branch of healthcare technology which uses a variety of machines and methods to let doctors look inside the body to diagnose medical issues and prescribe treatments. It’s an important area of medicine as it allows for fast, non-invasive diagnosis and monitoring of health conditions and there is a range of imagine technologies to suit a diversity of use-cases, such as X-rays, CT scans, MRI technology and ultrasound.

PhD courses represent the highest formal academic level of study in this field and contain a significant research component. Applicants are generally expected to hold a minimum 2:1 undergraduate degree in a related medical or biological sciences subject area for entry to a PhD programme. Courses last two to four years full-time or can be studied part-time with a typical duration of four to six years. There are nine such courses available in the UK and provide strong preparation for roles as researchers, educators and advanced practitioners in the field of diagnostic imaging.

What to Expect

A diagnostic imaging PhD programme involves advanced research in medical imaging technologies, such as radiography, CT scans and MRI. Students conduct in-depth research on imaging innovations, diagnostic accuracy and patient outcomes and you can expect to be supervised by leading experts in both diagnostic and therapeutic radiography. Universities which run PhD courses generally have very strong connections with national and international patient groups, research centres and professional bodies.

Trans-disciplinary collaboration with industry partners and major teaching hospitals is also a regular feature of research degrees like this and after graduation, you’ll be ready to take on work at the very highest level of the professional field of diagnostic imaging.

Related subjects:

• PhD Diagnostic Imaging
• PhD Audiology
• PhD Biomedical Engineering
• PhD Cardiovascular Medicine
• PhD Dental Health Education
• PhD Dental Hygiene
• PhD Dental Technology
• PhD Dentistry
• PhD Dermatology
• PhD Emergency First Aid
• PhD Endocrinology
• PhD Endodontics
• PhD Epidemiology
• PhD Forensic Medicine
• PhD Gastroenterology
• PhD Geriatric Medical Studies
• PhD Haematology
• PhD Immunology
• PhD Medical Radiography
• PhD Medical Radiology
• PhD Medical Sciences
• PhD Medical Statistics
• PhD Medical Technology
• PhD Neurology
• PhD Obstetrics
• PhD Oncology
• PhD Ophthalmology
• PhD Optometry
• PhD Orthodontics
• PhD Orthopedics
• PhD Paramedical Services and Supplementary Medicine
• PhD Paramedical Work
• PhD Parenting and Carers
• PhD Pathology
• PhD Pediatrics
• PhD People with Disabilities: Skills and Facilities
• PhD Personal Health and Fitness
• PhD Pharmacology
• PhD Pharmacy
• PhD Prosthetics
• PhD Prosthodontics
• PhD Psychiatry
• PhD Psychoanalysis
• PhD Radiotherapy
• PhD Respiratory & Chest Diseases
• PhD Rheumatology
• PhD Sports Medicine
• PhD Surgery
• PhD Surgery, Medicine and Dentistry
• PhD Women's Health

• Course title (A-Z)
• Course title (Z-A)
• Price: high - low
• Price: low - high

Medical Imaging MRes and MPhil/PhD

Ucl (university college london).

In partnership with our NIHR Biomedical Research Centres and Unit, PhD projects will be strongly multi-disciplinary, bridging the gap Read more...

• 3 years Full time degree: £6,035 per year (UK)
• 5 years Part time degree: £3,015 per year (UK)

Cardiovascular Sciences PhD,MPhil - Biomarkers

University of leicester.

The School of Cardiovascular Sciences offers supervision for the degrees of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) - full-time and part-time Master Read more...

• 3 years Full time degree: £4,786 per year (UK)
• 6 years Part time degree: £2,393 per year (UK)

Medical Physics and Imaging, PhD

Swansea university.

Our Medical Physics and Imaging PhD programme is available on a full-time or part-time basis, over 3 or 6 years. Do you want a career as a Read more...

• 3 years Full time degree: £4,800 per year (UK)

PhD Medical Imaging

University of exeter.

Our research based around four distinct themes • Diabetes, Cardiovascular risk and Ageing • Environment and Human Health • Health Services Read more...

• 4 years Full time degree: £4,786 per year (UK)
• 8 years Part time degree

Biomedical Imaging and Biosensing PhD

University of liverpool.

The Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology builds on a long and prestigious history and remains a leading international centre Read more...

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3D printing in medical imaging and healthcare services

Kamarul a abdullah , msc, warren reed , phd.

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Correspondence , Kamarul A. Abdullah, Discipline of Medical Radiation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Cumberland Campus C42, PO Box 170, Lidcombe NSW 1825, Australia. Tel: +61 2 9351 9513; Fax: +61 2 9351 9146; E‐mails: [email protected] or [email protected]

Corresponding author.

Received 2018 May 1; Revised 2018 Jun 5; Accepted 2018 Jun 12; Issue date 2018 Sep.

This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Three‐dimensional (3D) printing technology has demonstrated a huge potential for the future of medicine. Since its introduction, it has been used in various areas, for example building anatomical models, personalising medical devices and implants, aiding in precision medical interventions and the latest development, 3D bioprinting. This commentary is provided to outline the current use of 3D printing in medical imaging and its future directions for advancing the healthcare services.

Medical imaging is at the core of the healthcare industry due to its wide applications in nearly all patient‐related management. The use of computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and other medical imaging modalities have clearly enabled health practitioners to diagnose patients’ conditions and thus treat them more effectively. These modalities are rapidly growing, progressing from black‐and‐white to colour, from two‐dimensional (2D) to three‐dimensional (3D) and the most recently four‐dimensional (4D). This has been allied with the emergence of 3D printing which can translate these medical imaging data sets from virtual to physical models.

Building physical models using 3D printing requires three major steps. The first step is to design virtual models of the desired object. These models can be developed from scratch using computer‐aided design (CAD) software or generated from volumetric CT or MRI image data sets. After that, an improvement of the models is performed to produce error‐free files. The completed model data sets are then exported to the 3D printer to build the physical models. At the final stage, the appropriate materials and printer settings are carefully selected to produce high‐quality 3D‐printed models. A summary of these major steps can be shown in Figure 1 .

Three major steps of developing a 3D‐printed object.

An example of developing a physical 3D‐printed model using these three steps is shown in our previous work which is entitled “ Development of an organ‐specific insert phantom generated using a 3D printer for investigations of cardiac computed tomography protocols ”. 1 We found that the resultant images, particularly attenuation values, were comparable to the image data sets of a real‐patient and Catphan ® 500 phantom.

In medical imaging, 3D printing is mainly used to produce various anatomical models of the human body. The physical interaction with these 3D‐printed models allows the physicians and surgeons to enhance the visualisation of lesions, planning of surgical procedures and communication with patients. However, these 3D‐printed anatomical models can only serve their purpose if there is sufficient information from the volumetric image data sets. CT and MRI scanners are most often used for producing these high information volumetric image data sets, but other modalities are also possible to use. For example, Materialise Inc., a 3D printing company, demonstrated that the volumetric image data sets from 3D ultrasound and rotational angiography could also produce similar high‐quality 3D printing models. 2

3D printing technology is also used to create various personalised medical devices and implants that have improved the lives of many people around the world. These models are usually very patient‐specific and contain very detailed information as it is vital to ensure the 3D‐printed models produced can fit accurately in the patients’ body such as in the example of prosthetics. Two examples of pertinent cases that use 3D printing for this purpose are: (i) the case of the paediatric cardiologist, Dr Frank Ing, at Children's Hospital Los Angeles (CA, USA), who was able to modify an existing stent using a 3D‐printed model to repair a baby's artery. He reported that the 3D‐printed model had helped him to design the appropriate size during this interventional procedure. 3 ; and (ii) the case of scientists at Morriston Hospital (Wales, UK) who successfully rebuilt a patient's jaw after damage caused by a tumour using a 3D‐printed titanium implant and cutting guides. They had used the volumetric CT image data sets of the unaffected side to duplicate the anatomical shape and rebuild the jaw using the 3D printer to match the area of jawbone removed. 4

All these achievements of 3D printing technology have brought a revolutionary change in medical imaging and healthcare, and its adoption is slowly taking place in many hospitals around the world. The Ottawa Hospital is the first in Canada to open an integrated 3D printing programme that can be used for education, surgical planning and medical research. In Madrid, the team of surgeons and engineers at the Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón have created a special laboratory called ‘FabLab’ which accelerates the development of 3D printing technology to the hospital. In the Sawai Man Singh Hospital (Jaipur, India), 22 surgeries have relied upon advanced 3D printing technology to aid in precision medical interventions. In the Middle East, the surgeons at Al Qassimi Hospital (Sharjah, United Arab Emirates), have been using 3D‐printed models to educate their patients on what to expect after their surgical procedures. According to the deputy CEO, Dr Saqr Al Mulla, it is the first hospital in the Middle East to use 3D printing technology for this medical purpose. 5

Many researchers are still seeking more advanced uses of 3D printing technology. The most recent that is getting more attention worldwide is the potential to produce 3D‐printed replacement tissues and organs out of living tissue. A few companies and institutions have already initiated exploring these opportunities, and these are known as bioprinters. For instance, EnvisionTEC Inc., a company in Germany, has designed a bioprinter named the “ 3D bioplotter system ”. This fabricates scaffolds utilising a range of materials from soft hydrogels over polymer melts and can also produce hard ceramics and metals. Another bioprinter is used by Organovo Holdings Inc. and has already started selling 3D‐printed liver cells and has created kidney and skin tissues. Organovo have also signed a partnership with Autodesk for the advancement of more efficient CAD software for bioprinting.

It would appear logical that the technologies used between medical imaging and 3D printing should be located in the medical imaging department at the hospital. However, it was found that the most dominant users are coming from the engineering and computer science groups who run their 3D printing laboratories themselves in in‐house hospitals. For example, the first 3D printing laboratory in‐house hospital in New South Wales has been established at Wollongong Private Hospital in their ‘Innovation Hub’. 6 At first glance, these designated 3D printing laboratories make sense as these groups have to interact with almost every other department in a hospital to develop or design the 3D‐printed medical products. However, not all hospitals have the capabilities to establish and operate new 3D printing laboratories, and thus, some different points of view have been raised especially from other departments in the hospitals. Some of them were concerned that these designated 3D printing laboratories could impose very high operational costs and may disrupt the existing workflow. Therefore, these 3D printing laboratories could be established and operated within the existing medical imaging department in the hospitals as they also offers service across all specialities in a hospital.

The medical imaging department appears to be the most logical access point for 3D printing technology in the hospital workflow. Radiologists and radiographers have access to all of the images in the system, and they have the best understanding of images in all planes. They are already educated to be able to identify various structures and differentiate them from each other. However, experts from engineering or computer science groups could also be used to monitor and ensure the efficiency of 3D printing services. As 3D printing is likely to emerge rapidly in the medical imaging department, additional knowledge and mastery of new technical skills to generate diagnostically acceptable 3D‐printed models must be developed and could constitute an advanced or extended role for the radiographers. Early adopter radiographic staff must invest in honing these skills as later they could well will be incorporated into the normal medical imaging workflow, facilitating a new pathway to using 3D printing as a further step to improve patient care.

When a new technology has been introduced in the market, the question about how 3D printing medical products could be monitored will persist, potentially holding the technology back from universal adoption. However, the good news is that recently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have just released guidance on the 3D printing of medical products. 7 The guidance details the organisation's position on the device configuration, testing, and quality framework requirements. This guidance shows that 3D printing has a wide range of clinical applications and will help manufacturers to bring 3D‐printed models to the market more efficiently. As indicated by the FDA, the subsequent stage is to develop guidance on 3D printing that explores the role of non‐traditional manufacturing facilities, such as, hospital and university laboratories and to review the regulatory issues attached to the bioprinting of biological, cellular and tissue‐based products.

In summary, the emerging 3D printing technology in medical imaging has a lot of benefits not only to health professionals but also to their patients. The future should be to develop the advanced practice or extended role for radiographers using this technology and to fully explore how it may transform the future of medical imaging.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

J Med Radiat Sci 65 (2018) 237–239

• 1. Abdullah KA, McEntee MF, Reed W, Kench PL. Development of an organ‐specific insert phantom generated using a 3D printer for investigations of cardiac computed tomography protocols. J Med Radiat Sci 2018; doi: 10.1002/jmrs.279 [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• 2. Materialise Inc. Discover the transformative potential of 3D Printing, 2018. [cited 2018 March 03]. Available from: http://www.materialise.com/en .
• 3. Mannan S. 3D printed model used to produce custom stent for 18 month old with pulmonary atresia, 2017. [cited 2017 December 05]. Available from: https://www.3dmednet.com/users/19381-sonia-mannan/posts/15044-3d-printed-model-used-to-produce-custom-stent-for-18-month-old-with-pulmonary-atresia .
• 4. Leask F. Swansea surgeons rebuild jaw with 3D printed implant and guides in world first, 2017. [cited 2017 December 05]. Available from: https://www.3dmednet.com/channels/332-news-views/posts/21618-swansea-surgeons-rebuild-jaw-with-3d-printed-implant-and-guides-in-world-first .
• 5. Scott C, Mendoza HR, Saunders S. 3D printing in hospitals, 2017. [cited 2017 December 06]. Available from: https://3dprint.com/tag/3d ‐printing‐in‐hospitals/.
• 6. ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science . Wollongong's in‐hospital 3D printing lab is a first for NSW, 2016. [cited 2017 December 12]. Available from: http://www.electromaterials.edu.au/news/wollongong-s-in-hospital-3d-printing-lab-is-a-first-for-nsw/ .
• 7. US Food and Drug Administration . Statement by FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, M.D., on FDA ushering in new era of 3D printing of medical products; provides guidance to manufacturers of medical devices [press release], 2017. [cited 2018 May 01]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm587547.htm .
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