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• v.8(5); 2021 Sep

Cancer: An unknown territory; rethinking before going ahead

Cancer is a disease of altered signaling and metabolism, causing uncontrolled division and survival of transformed cells. A host of molecules, factors, and conditions have been designated as underlying causes for the inception and progression of the disease. An enormous amount of data is available, system-wide interaction networks of the genes and proteins are generated over the years and have now reached up to a level of saturation, where we need to shift our focus to the more advanced and comprehensive methods and approaches of data analysis and visualization. Even with the availability of enormous literature on this one of the most pressing pathological conditions, a successful cure of the disease seems to be obscure. New treatment plans, like immunotherapy and precision medicine, are being employed for different studies. Nevertheless, their actual benefits to the patients would be known only after the evaluation of clinical data over the next few years. Therefore, we need to look at few fundamental challenges that should be addressed in more depth before we could devise better, rigorous, and comprehensive treatment plans and may successfully reach a possible cure of the disease. This article aims at bringing attention towards some fundamental gaps in our approach towards the disease that leads to failure in devising successful therapeutics.

Graphical abstract

Introduction

Cancers are one of the most devastating classes of human pathologies, presenting the versatile range of hallmark clinical features and leading to millions of deaths each year around the globe. These groups of maladies constitute more than a hundred genetically diverse conditions sharing several commonalities in the molecular mechanisms and metabolic alterations among themselves. 1 , 2 The direct involvement of the tissue microenvironment and inflammatory changes on the tumor growth survival is well-established. 3 , 4 However, a clear understanding of the underlying causes and factors is still elusive and requires more research. A plethora of genetic mutations has been reported that could end up in the transformation of the normal human cells leading to the genesis of tumor and development of cancer. 5 , 6 In the past, a variety of scientific and technological approaches have been tried in order to understand, define, investigate, and challenge these extensively dreadful forms of diseases. Various approaches applied in oncological research include genetic, molecular, biochemical, biophysical, immunological, genomic, proteomic, systems and computational biology, etc. However, none of these have sufficed the needs to devise successful treatment strategies so far. 7 The area of the oncological research is well-documented but evolving in a way that researchers and clinicians find it difficult to get updated and informed of the new information and advancements most of the time. Therefore, the field requires a continuous assessment of the new developments and analyses of the lacunae present within persisting knowledge.

Understanding cancer: do we need to change the approach?

Although a vast volume of data has accumulated over the decades of research, we at the present stage of scientific and technological advancements still lack a sound understanding of these debilitating conditions that leads to millions of deaths every year. In fact, before classifying the cancers as classical disease conditions, we need to understand that these could be considered as a phenomenon of sequential alteration at molecular, cellular, tissue, and organ levels affecting the whole physiology of the organism. We cannot ignore the fact that the inception of the disease is neither caused necessarily by some external agents nor is potentially associated with the dysfunction of any specific organ, as occurs in many other disease classes. In simpler terms, cancer could be caused by multiple kinds of disorders in the highly ordered cellular physiological systems. 8 The onset of the disease is still the most intriguing part of the oncology, that we are far from understanding. 9 Enormous data has accumulated showing multiple kinds of physical, chemical, biological, genetic, and environmental factors leading to the transformation phenomenon. However, unfortunately, all these reports have just led us to the tip of the iceberg. We are yet to get a proper understanding of the onset of the disease, and until we get the insights of the initiation, we could not find the actual targets for delivering the treatments.

The past century of scientific research has given us a detailed picture of primary, secondary, and tertiary changes associated with these conditions. However, the hunt to get point zero is still on, and more efforts are needed to reach right at the origin of the disease. The reason behind raising the issue of the origin of cancer is that the primary reasons behind not being able to crack the codes of this century-old problem could be our ‘top-down’ approach that works on providing symptomatic relieves from the disease conditions. We have confined our research most of the time in designing and improving the methods and strategies of arresting the growth of transformed tumor cell mass. Unfortunately, we have shifted our objectives primarily towards devising newer preventive measures rather than looking for the origin of the disease. The reason behind this shift could also be due to the continuous failure of scientists in delivering the results in ‘bottom-up’ approaches where more focus should be given to the genesis of cancer, instead of ways to cut down resources for its sustenance or forcibly inducing the cell death pathways. We must also look for the evolutionary perspectives of the origin, sustenance, and development of cancer-like conditions over the eons to understand why and how selection forces have let these processes to settle down with our current set of physiological paradigms. In fact, we need a comprehensive multi-dimensional approach to clearly investigate and understand the disease and thus to deliver more effective and successful treatment strategies.

Can we look at cancer through an evolutionists prism?

In the views of an evolutionist, the development of cancers seems to be driven by the continuous acquisition of numerous somatic mutations to best fit into a continuously changing and challenging microenvironment. 10 Spontaneous mutation-driven evolution of tumor cells itself is one significant barrier before us that tends to provide them the resistance against the drugs and treatment plans. 11 , 12 The dialectical interrelations among different physiological pathways and their dynamic interaction networks have further complexicized our molecular understanding of the disease. The uniqueness of each cancer type and diversity among the tumors additionally raise multifold challenges in understanding this terrible and complicated disease and devising treatment strategies to fight against it. Additional adversities are added by their unique and yet to be understood capabilities of evading the host immune responses, thereby limiting the inherent tendency of the body to fight back with these odious masses of tissues. In-depth knowledge of underlying pathways and mechanisms behind the origin, transformation, and development of cancer may provide us therapeutic advantages in switching to a ‘bottom-up’ approach that will hand us an edge in targeting the most underlying molecular pathways. The past century has seen tremendous methodological and technological advancements in the diagnosis, and treatment of various types of cancers.

Where do we stand?

Cancer cells are a kind of parasitic population of our own cells that resides in our body, utilizing the nutrition and supplementation of normal cells. They have learned to hijack the metabolic pathways and exploit the tissue microenvironment for their growth, sustenance, and progression. They have acquired the art of camouflage and thus evade our army of immune cells of various kinds. Their ability to mutate and evolve within the population further complicates the condition, which makes it hard for researchers and scientists to understand how to target these unwelcome populations of our cells, which otherwise may lead to enormous complications in the end. One school of thought finds possible parallelism between developmental processes and the origin of cancer; however, more support on the notion is needed. Thousands of studies are conducted every year with new findings and solutions of the disease advancing our present knowledge about the disease. However, the disease is still growing with an increased pace and turns out to be the leading cause of mortality in many developed countries. Despite acquiring enormous knowledge on the etiology, causes, and effects of cancer inside the body, unfortunately, we could not have successfully devised too many methods to curb the disease condition and provide proper relief to the patients suffering from this one of the most challenging puzzles of the medical sciences. 13

In most cases, a treatment plan for the majority of the cancer types remains limited to surgical removal, chemotherapeutic targeting, high-intensity photon-beam radiotherapy, hormonal therapy, and modern-day immunotherapy depending upon their complexity, stage, and localization. 14 All patients suffering from one type of cancer, despite being genetically diverse, typically receive a similar treatment plan. This diversity among the cell population of the same tumor mass leads to the attainment of the drug resistance in the transformed cells. Also, the lack of real-time monitoring of the ongoing treatment further worsens the situation. Unfortunately, due to the limitations of resources and diagnostic tools and a lack of personalized treatment strategies, in addition to the highly diverse genetic makeup of tumor populations, many times, treatments do not meet the expectations. Here, a few major characteristic features of the disease, which mostly intrigues our understanding and raise new challenges in therapeutics, are discussed in detail.

Extreme genetic diversity

Intratumor heterogeneity, i.e., extreme genetic diversity among cell populations residing in the same tumor mass, leads to Darwinian principles and natural selection forces to work on it and establish a more robust variety of cancer cells. 15 This heterogeneity increases drug resistance and thus poses a great therapeutic challenge before clinicians in developing cancer treatment plans, which therefore led to the evolution of the idea of personalized medicines. 16 , 17 Increased application of pharmacogenetics, i.e., understanding the genetics of cancer by molecular profiling of the disease cells, identification of the mutation associated with the given cancer type in an individual patient is nowadays used for targeting specific genes or proteins driving the growth of cancer. 18 The advent of next-generation sequencing, array methods, and other mathematical or computational tools have tremendously driven the progress of this revolutionary approach to target the cancer cells. 19 , 20 , 21 However, the application of personalized medicines is very limited at present due to multiple reasons. The high cost of cancer genomics is one major reason behind not opting for precision medicine at a larger scale. 22 , 23 Possibly, the diversity at the genetic level in these diseases and the inability to afford for personalized treatment strategies is one of the major underlying causes of failures in the treatment of cancer. Therefore, more efforts are required in this direction so that precision medicines can be used in other cases also.

Looking at various genes independently may not be an ideal way to understand the plethora of changes occurring while a cell transforms, and the tumor is formed; therefore, a broad landscape of genome-wide alteration may provide a better understanding of the genetics of cancer. 24 The increase in genetic diversity, in recent years, has also been linked with a phenomenon called genome or karyotype chaos, primarily caused due to largescale changes creating new genomic codes for the systemic inheritance, which in turn provide increased chances of adaptation and survival at the cellular and organismal level. 25 , 26 An increasing number of sequencing-based studies have hypothesized for the possibility of a more pivotal influence of the genome topology over the tumor diversity in comparison to the independent gene profiles. 27 ‘Chromothripsis’ is an umbrella term used to indicate multiple kinds of chromosomal rearrangements happening under crisis, which may include: chromosomal aneuploidy, chromoplexy, chromoanagenesis, etc. 28 Clonal or constitutional aneuploidy is another less understood phenomenon reported in many cancer types, which may also act as a heterogeneous agent affecting the emergence and evolution of cancer. 29 , 30 These terms are not very familiar to oncology research as most of these processes were overlooked for years, while scientists were more inclined towards the genetic theory of cancer, which has largely failed to address many fundamental questions of evolution, development, and diversity of cancer. 29

An opaque connection between developmental biology and cancer

Do cancers have any developmental correlation; and if the disease could be transferred from one generation to the other? These are a few more questions, which are not understood in detail. At face values, development entails order, whereas cancer represents an example of extreme disorder. Interestingly, such a distinctive origin and progression of the two processes define their dichotomous correlation. When Prof. Mintz referred cancer as an error of development, possibly she took into account the proliferative capabilities of the cells, which could be compared with that of early-stage stem cell populations during organism development. 31 However, the two processes are at considerably far distant ends of the same spectrum of diversification. On the one hand, development is a process that originates from a single zygotic cell that diversifies into multiple cell types via a tightly controlled epigenetic regulation. Contrarily, cancer is a slow and continuous progression towards a highly similar cell population at late malignancy stages from the early benign tissue masses, which are highly diverse. 32 Many similar epigenetic signatures could be found among both the developmental stem cells and cancer progenitors, marking the parallelism between both processes. 33 There is also an ambiguity upon the idea of inheritance of cancer-causing disease mutations, which may or may not be transferred to progenies. Possibly, some of the mutations are inherited, while many of the cases are acquired because of replication errors during the multiplication of cells.

Many overlapping clinical features among multiple developmental disorders and cancer predisposition could be another possible connecting link between the two processes, putting forward an idea of cancer being a disease of accumulating developmental errors. 32 , 34 Highly precise control over spatial and temporal switching ON/OFF of a well-orchestrated gene network is another binding feature that connects the two distinct biological phenomena. 35 Owing to these similarities, many scientists are now exploiting both types of disease models to understand each other. 36 In the coming years, a more rigorous shift in approach towards studying cancer as a disease of erroneous development is needed. This change of approach may educate us more about the origin and development of this highly diverse disease.

Hiding away from innate immunity

Another major challenge that scientists have faced over the years is the extreme disguise or hiding of cancer cells from our immune system that are expected to identify and kill the cancer cells. 37 The specific mechanisms of how precisely cancer cells evade our immune system and what could be the possible strategies to target these aberrant cells of our own body is still an enigma of modern-day biology. 38 However, targeting neoantigens is a possible strategy that is under consideration with huge expectations, as these newly evolved peptides provide immune cells an opportunity to target cells, which otherwise remain in disguise. Some scientists believe that it is a dynamic head to head clash between neoantigen expressing cancer cells and the immune surveillance that poses a quest of survival before cancer cells. 39 , 40 The selection pressure mounted, therefore, leads to mutations in such a way that they start tricking and escaping our own immune cells. 41 Additionally, the disease cells, by expressing some specific antigens or modifying the tumor environment, acquire: the tendency or ability to overpower the normal immune responses inside the body. 42 , 43

Cancer immune surveillance has remained a long-standing topic of debate that has both proponents and opponents. It is hard to answer whether our immune system promotes or suppresses, or it directly ignores the mutated or transformed cells. 44 , 45 Interestingly, over the years, it has been suggested that transformed cells themselves sculpt the immune cells via a process called immune-editing in such a way that they help them in skipping their molecular identification and elimination and establishing a Darwinian selection. 46 Few reports indicating latent metastasis after decades of surgical removal of the primary tumor is another question that, if answered, may probably help us better understand how the cells conceal themselves from possible immune attacks. 47 Currently, we are quickly moving towards modern immunotherapy-based treatment methods, which are providing very positive results indicating a better future of these strategies towards cancer therapeutics. 48 , 49 Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells were the first line of treatment based on immune modulation, which successfully initiates a ferocious assault on cancer cells. The clinical trials have shown enthusiastic results in the past, but at this point of time, we cannot predict the future of these treatment plans. 50

We should not underestimate the art of camouflage acquired by cancer cells over a long period of evolution. Instead, we must undermine the evolutionary relations between cancer cells and different types of immune cells. We need to find out the possible diversions of the eukaryotic transformed cells when in the history of evolution, they have started deceiving our own immunity. We need to investigate the history of life to find out the answers to the present-day questions in order to find solutions for the future. Most of the physiological hallmarks defined for the cancers have their own evolutionary significance, and their retention by the selection forces might have their own significance and implications in the process of evolution.

A controversy: one target multiple bullets; or multiple targets with a common bullet?

A large fraction of research to date has focused on identifying the multimodal driving factors of the disease. Nevertheless, when the causative factors, genes, and pathways are subjected to the possibilities of druggability, most of these have shown limitations of multiple types. One major problem with most of the molecular targets is the toxicity generated due to their modulations, as most of these are somehow part of one or multiple molecular pathways. 51 , 52 Several articles have been published in recent years covering various aspects of the disease in detail. Thus, here in the present article, the primary focus is to highlight the gaps in postulation and understanding of the disease. Cancer has remained an unsolved puzzle over the years, despite having an extensive knowledge base of genes, proteins, and pathways affected during the pathogenesis. The primary cause of failure for most of the hypotheses could be overlooking many vital topics and defining factors in the disease etiology. What remains crucial is a rethinking of the already available knowledge and revisiting the persisting treatment methodologies and therapeutic approaches (see Fig. 1 ). It is obvious to say that an overwhelming amount of data is present and is enough to spend days or months to understand the complicated networks and models that can be generated using various available tools out of this vast literature available over online resources.

An overview of known, unknown, available therapeutics, and future directions of the cancer therapeutics. The top panel shows the fundamental underlying causes of cancer, including major risk factors, involved mechanisms and currently available strategies to devise treatments and therapeutic strategies. The central part shows a few representative types of cancer among many occurring around the globe and leading to a very high number of deaths. The lower subsections show the treatment methodologies adopted around the world to curb the disease progression. In contrast, the few most challenging and less-understood complexities of tumor biology are indicated in the lowermost subsection of the figure. Fig. 1 was prepared using a few templates from Servier Medical Art by Servier ( http://smart.servier.com/ ), which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

The exploitation of the available knowledge needs multimodal approaches, forming multidisciplinary teams with experts from different fields collaborating with and complementing each other. The use of computational tools and system biology approaches may further benefit the field with faster and more accurate calculations and predictions, saving lots of money and time that is spent in a large number of unsuccessful clinical trials. A large amount of biochemical and genomic data is present; however, the focus should be shifted now towards the transformation of these research into clinical applications. The majority of the data remain limited to the publications only and could never generate any therapeutic benefit. Many drugs proposed through these studies fail in successive phases of clinical trials, either because of their limited effects on curbing the disease or due to high toxicity profiles. In the end, a tiny fraction of drugs proposed every year get into clinics and could be utilized for treatment purposes. The primary reasons behind the failure of many drugs are because of the negligence of specific facts associated with this multifactorial disease.

Regulating the cell cycle progression, inducing apoptosis, managing the tissue microenvironment, modulation of the immune system, and cutting the sources of nutrition and growth, all at a time could be near to impossible for most of the drugs, which are currently in practice or under clinical trials. Even if we consider any drug, with the least of the possibilities to have most of the characteristics mentioned above, the more significant challenge would be its delivery to the specific tissues. Targeted delivery of drugs is another highly frustrating challenge faced by researchers and clinicians. None of the approaches proposed to date for the drug delivery to the affected site has stood with the promises and leads to the toxicity and collateral adversities, as is seen in patients undergoing chemotherapy. Due to this multifaceted nature of cancer development and progression, we ultimately land in an unfortunate situation of firing multiple rounds of bullets (chemotherapy, radiation, surgical removal, and immunotherapy, etc.) all at a time. The lack of a broader understanding of the pathological condition leads to overall physiological and psychological distress to the patients.

Surgical removal of affected body parts or heavy doses of chemotherapeutic drugs and high-energy radiations may cause physical disfigurements, followed by weakening of the immunity and deterioration of the body mass. All these combinedly affects the psychology of the patients with the highest of the will power. Family members of the patients may also get frustrated due to the very long treatment process and follow-ups. Also, most of the newly developed methodologies, like immunotherapy, cancer genomics, and precision medicine, are too costly to be afforded by most of the patients in underdeveloped and developing countries. Most of the cases of these diseases do not present any noticeable symptoms and remain undetected in earlier stages, and when detected, leave patients and doctors with minimal palliative options to choose and start the treatment. Diagnosis of the pathological symptoms at a very late stage is another major challenge that needs to be addressed with high priority. In fact, many things are possibly required for the consideration of the researchers, clinical scientists, and doctors.

Conclusions: the road ahead

Cancer has remained one of the significant health issues for long. Description of the disease could be found in some of the ancient literature of Indian and Chinese medicines. The ancient scholars and clinicians suggested different treatment strategies. It could not be accurately predicted how effective these treatment plans were; although their applications in the modern age medicines cannot be neglected. In the past century, efforts have intensified exponentially in all parts of the world to address the common health problems and diseases associated with such conditions. Many of the endemics have been cured completely. Most of the deadly infectious diseases leading to mass death have been understood and have possible cures around the corner. Several are still under investigation and may get some solutions in the past. In between all these advancements, one major class of human diseases, cancer that is neither acute in origin nor contagious in the spread, remain uncured up to a more considerable extent. Enormous hopes have been ignited from time to time by the development of multiple promising drugs, methods of their targeted delivery, and the evolution of novel treatment strategies, like immunotherapy, in the past.

All the strategies developed so far, and the drugs approved until now have their own limitations and toxicities associated with their use. Nevertheless, due to the lack of more sophisticated ways of treatments, the patients suffering from the advanced terminal stages of the disease usually are left with very few options to live with. Several new treatment plans are underway and may need a decade or more to be available for patients of developing countries at an affordable cost. Most of the research conducted around the world is now limited to finding ways of trimming away large branches (symptoms) of a tree (cancer), which may further grow and proliferate at new sites. The knowledge of the point of origin of the tree and ways to cut it from the bottom is still missing and needs extensive work. The field may need a complete turnaround in the approaches of looking at the disease in order to find proper solutions. It is hard at present to predict how much time we still require in reaching a definitive solution. However, yes, there always remains a hope, and we must follow it.

Conflict of Interests

The author declares no competing interests.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the Central University of Rajasthan for providing basic requirements during the preparation of the manuscript. The author also appreciates Servier ( http://smart.servier.com/ ) for providing templates for the preparation of medical illustrations under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

Peer review under responsibility of Chongqing Medical University.

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An essential gene signature of breast cancer metastasis reveals targetable pathways

The differential gene expression profile of metastatic versus primary breast tumors represents an avenue for discovering new or underappreciated pathways underscoring processes of metastasis. However, as tumor...

Pre-treatment peripheral blood immunophenotyping and response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in operable breast cancer

Tumor immune infiltration and peripheral blood immune signatures have prognostic and predictive value in breast cancer. Whether distinct peripheral blood immune phenotypes are associated with response to neoad...

Hypoxia-mediated repression of pyruvate carboxylase drives immunosuppression

Metabolic plasticity mediates breast cancer survival, growth, and immune evasion during metastasis. However, how tumor cell metabolism is influenced by and feeds back to regulate breast cancer progression are ...

Lasofoxifene as a potential treatment for aromatase inhibitor-resistant ER-positive breast cancer

Breast cancers treated with aromatase inhibitors (AIs) can develop AI resistance, which is often driven by estrogen receptor-alpha (ERα/ ESR1 ) activating mutations, as well as by ER-independent signaling pathways....

NSUN2/YBX1 promotes the progression of breast cancer by enhancing HGH1 mRNA stability through m 5 C methylation

RNA m 5 C methylation has been extensively implicated in the occurrence and development of tumors. As the main methyltransferase, NSUN2 plays a crucial regulatory role across diverse tumor types. However, the preci...

Inflammation at diagnosis and cognitive impairment two years later in breast cancer patients from the Canto-Cog study

Inflammation could be related to cancer-related cognitive impairment (CRCI) and might be used as a predictive marker of long-term CRCI. We evaluated associations between inflammatory markers assessed at diagno...

Increased expression of REG3A promotes tumorigenic behavior in triple negative breast cancer cells

Identifying new targets in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) remains critical. REG3A (regenerating islet-derived protein 3 A), a calcium-dependent lectin protein, was thoroughly investigated for its express...

Alpha-6 integrin deletion delays the formation of Brca1/p53-deficient basal-like breast tumors by restricting luminal progenitor cell expansion

The aberrant amplification of mammary luminal progenitors is at the origin of basal-like breast cancers associated with BRCA1 mutations. Integrins mediate cell–matrix adhesion and transmit mechanical and chemi...

Deep learning-based risk stratification of preoperative breast biopsies using digital whole slide images

Nottingham histological grade (NHG) is a well established prognostic factor in breast cancer histopathology but has a high inter-assessor variability with many tumours being classified as intermediate grade, N...

Unraveling malignant phenotype of peritumoral tissue: transcriptomic insights into early-stage breast cancer

Early-stage invasive ductal carcinoma displays high survival rates due to early detection and treatments. However, there is still a chance of relapse of 3–15% after treatment. The aim of this study was to unco...

Reproductive characteristics, menopausal status, race and ethnicity, and risk of breast cancer subtypes defined by ER, PR and HER2 status: the Breast Cancer Etiology in Minorities study

Associations between reproductive factors and risk of breast cancer differ by subtype defined by joint estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and HER2 expression status. Racial and ethnic differen...

EDI3 knockdown in ER-HER2+ breast cancer cells reduces tumor burden and improves survival in two mouse models of experimental metastasis

Despite progress understanding the mechanisms underlying tumor spread, metastasis remains a clinical challenge. We identified the choline-producing glycerophosphodiesterase, EDI3 and reported its association w...

Elevated expression of wildtype RhoC promotes ErbB2- and Pik3ca- induced mammary tumor formation

Copy number gains in genes coding for Rho activating exchange factors as well as losses affecting genes coding for RhoGAP proteins are common in breast cancer (BC), suggesting that elevated Rho signaling may p...

Optimising the diagnostic accuracy of First post-contrAst SubtracTed breast MRI (FAST MRI) through interpretation-training: a multicentre e-learning study, mapping the learning curve of NHS Breast Screening Programme (NHSBSP) mammogram readers using an enriched dataset

Abbreviated breast MRI (FAST MRI) is being introduced into clinical practice to screen women with mammographically dense breasts or with a personal history of breast cancer. This study aimed to optimise diagno...

Breast cancer patients enrolled in the Swiss mammography screening program “donna” demonstrate prolonged survival

We compared the survival rates of women with breast cancer (BC) detected within versus outside the mammography screening program (MSP) “donna”.

Correction: NSABP FB-10: a phase Ib/II trial evaluating ado-trastuzumab emtansine (T-DM1) with neratinib in women with metastatic HER2-positive breast cancer

The original article was published in Breast Cancer Research 2024 26 :69

Deep learning of mammogram images to reduce unnecessary breast biopsies: a preliminary study

Patients with a Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System (BI-RADS) 4 mammogram are currently recommended for biopsy. However, 70–80% of the biopsies are negative/benign. In this study, we developed a deep lear...

Reporting on patient’s body mass index (BMI) in recent clinical trials for patients with breast cancer: a systematic review

The proportion of patients with breast cancer and obesity is increasing. While the therapeutic landscape of breast cancer has been expanding, we lack knowledge about the potential differential efficacy of most...

Infrared laser moxibustion for cancer-related fatigue in breast cancer survivors: a randomized controlled trial

Cancer-related fatigue (CRF) is a pervasive, persistent, and distressing symptom experienced by cancer patients, for which few treatments are available. We investigated the efficacy and safety of infrared lase...

Association of area- and volumetric-mammographic density and breast cancer risk in women of Asian descent: a case control study

Mammographic density (MD) has been shown to be a strong and independent risk factor for breast cancer in women of European and Asian descent. However, the majority of Asian studies to date have used BI-RADS a...

Fusogenic vesicular stomatitis virus combined with natural killer T cell immunotherapy controls metastatic breast cancer

Metastatic breast cancer is a leading cause of cancer death in woman. Current treatment options are often associated with adverse side effects and poor outcomes, demonstrating the need for effective new treatm...

Enhancing pathological complete response prediction in breast cancer: the role of dynamic characterization of DCE-MRI and its association with tumor heterogeneity

Early prediction of pathological complete response (pCR) is important for deciding appropriate treatment strategies for patients. In this study, we aimed to quantify the dynamic characteristics of dynamic cont...

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Citation Impact 2023 Journal Impact Factor: 6.1 5-year Journal Impact Factor: 7.1 Source Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP): 1.865 SCImago Journal Rank (SJR): 2.578 Speed 2023 Submission to first editorial decision (median days): 14 Submission to acceptance (median days): 129 Usage 2023 Downloads: 2,432,781 Altmetric mentions: 1,561

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Breast Cancer Research

ISSN: 1465-542X

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Breast Cancer Research Results and Study Updates

See Advances in Breast Cancer Research for an overview of recent findings and progress, plus ongoing projects supported by NCI.

Drs. Ruth Pfeiffer and Peter Kraft of NCI’s Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics discuss how breast cancer risk assessment tools are created and how people can use them to understand and manage their risk.

Some people with no evidence of cancer in nearby lymph nodes after presurgical chemotherapy can skip radiation to that area without increasing the risk of the cancer returning, a clinical trial found. But some experts caution that more details are needed.

For women in their 70s and older, the risk of overdiagnosis with routine screening mammography is substantial, a new study suggests. The findings highlight the need for conversations between older women and their health care providers about the potential benefits and harms of continuing screening mammography.

Many young women who are diagnosed with early-stage breast cancer want to become pregnant in the future. New research suggests that these women may be able to pause their hormone therapy for up to 2 years as they try to get pregnant without raising the risk of a recurrence in the short term.

For younger women with advanced breast cancer, the combination of ribociclib (Kisqali) and hormone therapy was much better at shrinking metastatic tumors than standard chemotherapy treatments, results from an NCI-funded clinical trial show.

In a large clinical trial, a condensed course of radiation therapy was as effective and safe as a longer standard course for those with higher-risk early-stage breast cancer who had a lumpectomy. This shorter radiation course makes treatment less of a burden for patients.

Adding the immunotherapy drug pembrolizumab (Keytruda) to chemotherapy can help some patients with advanced triple-negative breast cancer live longer. In the KEYNOTE-355 trial, overall survival improved among patients whose tumors had high levels of the PD-L1 protein.

People with metastatic breast cancer whose tumors had low levels of HER2 protein lived longer after treatment with trastuzumab deruxtecan (Enhertu) than those treated with standard chemotherapy, results of the DESTINY-Breast04 clinical trial show.

NCI researchers have shown that an experimental form of immunotherapy that uses an individual’s own tumor-fighting immune cells could potentially be used to treat people with metastatic breast cancer who have exhausted all other treatment options.

Most breast cancer risk tools were developed with data mainly from White women and don’t work as well for Black women. A new tool that estimates risk for Black women may help identify those who might benefit from earlier screening, enabling earlier diagnosis and treatment.

In people with metastatic HER2-positive breast cancer, the targeted drug trastuzumab deruxtecan (Enhertu) markedly lengthened progression-free survival compared with trastuzumab emtansine (Kadcycla), new study results show.

In a large clinical trial, women with HR-positive, HER2-negative metastatic breast cancer treated with ribociclib (Kisqali) and letrozole (Femara) as their initial treatment lived approximately 1 year longer than women treated with letrozole only.

Women with early-stage breast cancer who had one or both breasts surgically removed (a unilateral or bilateral mastectomy) had lower scores on a quality-of-life survey than women who had breast-conserving surgery, a new study has found.

For women undergoing chemotherapy for breast cancer, meeting the national physical activity guidelines may help alleviate cognitive issues, a new study suggests. The benefits may be even greater for patients who were physically active before treatment.

Sacituzumab govitecan (Trodelvy) now has regular FDA approval for people with locally advanced or metastatic triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). The update follows last year’s accelerated approval of the drug for people with TNBC.

For some people with ER-positive breast cancer, a new imaging test may help guide decisions about receiving hormone therapy, according to a new study. The test can show whether estrogen receptors in tumors are active and responsive to estrogen.

The test, which helps guide treatment decisions, was not as good at predicting the risk of death from breast cancer for Black patients as for White patients, a new study has found. The findings highlight the need for greater racial diversity in research studies.

The drug abemaciclib (Verzenio) may be a new treatment option for people with the most common type of breast cancer, with new study findings suggesting that it can reduce the risk of the cancer returning.

Fertility preservation for young women with breast cancer doesn’t increase their risk of dying in the ensuing decades, a new study affirmed. Experts said the findings support routinely offering fertility preservation to patients who want it.

Some postmenopausal women with HR-positive, HER2-negative breast cancer may not benefit from chemotherapy and can safely forgo the treatment, according to clinical trial results presented at the San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium.

A heart-related event, like a heart attack, may make breast cancer grow faster, a new study suggests. In mice, heart attacks accelerated breast tumor growth and human studies linked cardiac events with breast cancer recurrence, researchers reported.

FDA has approved sacituzumab govitecan (Trodelvy) for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer that has spread to other parts of the body. Under the approval, patients must have already undergone at least two prior treatment regimens.

Women with high-risk breast cancer who engaged in regular exercise before their cancer diagnosis and after treatment were less likely to have their cancer return or to die compared with women who were inactive, a recent study found.

Researchers have developed a “microscaled” approach to analyze the proteins and genetic changes (proteogenomics) of a tumor that uses tissue from a core needle biopsy. The analyses can provide important information that may help guide treatment.

Tucatinib improved survival for women in the HER2CLIMB trial, including some whose cancer had spread to the brain. Trastuzumab deruxtecan improved survival and shrank many tumors in the DESTINY-Breast01 trial, which led to its accelerated approval.

A TAILORx analysis shows women with early-stage breast cancer and high recurrence scores on the Oncotype DX who received chemotherapy with hormone therapy had better long-term outcomes than what would be expected from hormone therapy alone.

Men with breast cancer may be more likely to die of the disease than women, particularly during the first 5 years after diagnosis, a new study suggests. The higher likelihood of death was linked in part to undertreatment and later diagnosis.

In a survey of nearly 600 breast cancer survivors, researchers found that the cost of care factored into the decisions the women made about what type of surgery to get. Many women also reported never discussing costs with their physicians.

FDA has expanded the approved use of the drug ado-trastuzumab emtansine (Kadcyla), also called T-DM1, to include adjuvant treatment in some women with early-stage HER2-positive breast cancer.

Many women diagnosed with ovarian and breast cancer are not undergoing tests for inherited genetic mutations that can provide important information to help guide decisions about treatment and longer-term cancer screening, a new study has found.

FDA has approved atezolizumab (Tecentriq) in combination with chemotherapy for the treatment of some women with advanced triple-negative breast cancer. This is the first FDA-approved regimen for breast cancer to include immunotherapy.

The build-up of connective tissue around some types of cancer can act as a barrier to immunotherapy. A new study uses a bone marrow transplant drug, plerixafor, to break down this barrier and improve the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in animal models of breast cancer.

A new study in mice shows that disrupting the relationship between breast cancer cells that spread to bone and normal cells surrounding them makes the cancer cells sensitive to treatment.

In women with early-stage breast cancer, two clinical trials have shown that both whole- and partial-breast radiation therapy are effective at preventing the cancer from returning after breast-conserving surgery.

Researchers are testing a topical-gel form of the drug tamoxifen to see if it can help prevent breast cancer as effectively as the oral form of the drug but with fewer side effects.

Findings from a clinical study and a mouse study may shed light on genetic risk factors for developing cancer-related cognitive problems in older breast cancer survivors. The results suggest a gene associated with Alzheimer’s disease may play a role.

Arsenic trioxide and retinoic acid work together to target the master regulator protein Pin1, a new study shows. In cancer cell lines and mice, the drug combination slowed the growth of triple-negative breast cancer tumors.

FDA has expanded the approved uses of ribociclib (Kisqali) for women with advanced breast cancer, including new uses in pre- and postmenopausal women. It’s the first approval under a new FDA program to speed the review of cancer drugs.

Using a liquid biopsy to test for tumor cells circulating in blood, researchers found that, in women with breast cancer, the presence of these cells could identify women at risk of their cancer returning years later.

Findings from the TAILORx clinical trial show chemotherapy does not benefit most women with early breast cancer. The new data, released at the 2018 ASCO annual meeting, will help inform treatment decisions for many women with early-stage breast cancer.

Do cancer study participants want to receive their genetic test results? A recent study involving women with a history of breast cancer tested an approach for returning genetic research results and evaluated the impact those results had on the women.

Researchers compared the risk of death for women with breast cancer who had low skeletal muscle mass, or sarcopenia, at the time of their cancer diagnosis and women who had adequate muscle mass.

Some people who have been treated for breast cancer or lymphoma have a higher risk of developing congestive heart failure than people who haven’t had cancer, results from a new study show.

FDA has approved the CDK4/6 inhibitor abemaciclib (Verzenio) as a first-line treatment in some women with advanced or metastatic breast cancer. Under the approval, the drug must be used in combination with an aromatase inhibitor.

A new study in mice raises the possibility that using microscopic, oxygen-carrying bubbles may improve the effectiveness of radiation therapy in the treatment of breast cancer.

The drug olaparib (Lynparza®) is the first treatment approved by the Food and Drug Administration for patients with metastatic breast cancer who have inherited mutations in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes.

Joint pain caused by aromatase inhibitors in postmenopausal women with breast cancer can cause some women to stop taking the drugs. Reducing their symptoms may translate into better adherence to therapy.

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Cancer Research Citation Search Tips

What to know.

The following tips will help you use the Cancer Research Citation Search tool.

The Cancer Research Citation Search tool allows you to search for scientific articles authored or coauthored by researchers from CDC's Division of Cancer Prevention and Control (DCPC) starting in 2000.

The articles themselves are not stored in the search tool. Citation titles are linked to the National Institutes of Health's PubMed database or PubMed Central archive, or CDC's journals Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) and Preventing Chronic Disease. If available, a digital object identifier (DOI) link is also provided.

Selecting the search criteria

If you leave all fields empty and click Search, you will retrieve the entire list of articles.

Use the Keywords field to search for specific words in the title of the article.

Match any word

Select Match any word to retrieve articles that contain any of the words in the Keywords field in the article title. For example, if you type "prostate cancer" in the Keywords field using this option, you will retrieve all articles containing either "prostate" or "cancer" in the title (which would be most of the articles).

Exact match

Select Exact match to retrieve articles that contain the exact phrase in the Keywords field in the article title. For example, if you type "prostate cancer" in the Keywords field using this option, you will retrieve all articles containing the phrase "prostate cancer" in the title, but not articles containing "cancer of the prostate" in the title.

Match all words

Select Match all words to retrieve articles that contain all of the words in the Keywords field in the article title. For example, if you type "prostate cancer" in the Keyword field using this option, you will retrieve all articles containing both "prostate" and "cancer" in the title.

Author last name

Use the Author last name field to search for articles by a particular author. Note that since many articles are collaborations between researchers from DCPC and other institutions, the author may not be a DCPC researcher.

DCPC first authors

Check the DCPC first authors checkbox to retrieve only articles that were first-authored by a DCPC researcher.

Each article is assigned to one or more topics manually when the citation is entered. To retrieve articles that have been assigned to one or more topics, click the checkboxes corresponding to the topics you want.

If you select multiple topics, you will retrieve a list of articles that have been assigned to all of the topics you selected. If an article doesn't fit in any topic, it is assigned to the Other Research topic.

Journal name

Use the Journal name field to search for articles that were published in a particular journal.

Publication/calendar year between

Use these two fields to select a beginning and ending calendar year of publication. For example:

• If you want to retrieve articles that were published between 2021 and 2024, select 2021 from the first dropdown list and 2024 from the second dropdown list.
• If you want to retrieve articles published during one year, select that year from both dropdown lists. For example, if you select 2024 from both dropdown lists, you will retrieve articles published in 2024.

Fiscal year between

Use these two fields to select a beginning and ending fiscal year of publication. CDC's fiscal years begin October 1 and end September 30. For example, fiscal year 2024 began October 1, 2023 and ends September 30, 2024. See the instructions for Publication/calendar year between for more information.

Note that you can include either calendar years or fiscal years in your search criteria, but not both.

When you have entered all of your search criteria, click the Search button. The list of results appears.

Viewing the search results

Sorting the search results.

When you have retrieved your results, the default sort order is ascending alphabetical (A to Z, 1 to 9) by article title. You can sort the results in different ways by clicking on the column titles. To sort the column in descending order (Z to A, 9 to 1), click the down arrow in the column title.

Please note that if you choose to sort the list by the Author column, the list is sorted alphabetically by the first author.

Setting the number of search results to view per page

By default, 25 results are shown on each page of the list. To increase the number of results to show on each page, select the desired number from the Show citations dropdown list at the top or bottom of the page.

Accessing and reading an article

To read an article in the search results list:

• Click on the article title. A new browser window will open and show either the abstract of the article (if available) in PubMed, or the full text of the article in PubMed Central, MMWR, or Preventing Chronic Disease. The PubMed abstract will include links (if available) to the full text of the article; however, many journals charge a fee to access the full text.
• Click on the DOI (if available). A new browser window will open and show the article in a journal.

Learn how to lower your cancer risk and what CDC is doing to prevent and control cancer.

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• Breast Cancer Paper Topics Topics: 145
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• Dorothea Orem’s Theory Research Topics Topics: 85
• Heart Attack Topics Topics: 54
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• Communicable Disease Research Topics Topics: 58
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272 Cancer Research Topics for Undergraduates and High School Students

Are you looking for the best oncology research topics? You’re at the right place! StudyCorgi has prepared a list of cancer research topics for undergraduates and high school students! Read on to find a good title for your projects or term papers on prostate, breast, and other cancer types.

🏆 Best Research Topics on Cancer

✍️ cancer essay topics for college, 👍 good cancer research topics & essay examples, 📝 current cancer titles for essays, 🎓 interesting cancer topics to write about, 💡 simple cancer research paper topics, 📌 easy cancer essay topics, ❓ questions about cancer research, 🗣️ cancer topics for presentation, 🏥 cancer project ideas.

• The Cobalt-60 Machine in the Fight Against Cancer
• Breast Cancer: Literature Review
• The Colon Cancer: Main Aspects
• Cervical Cancer: Pathophysiological Processes
• Deathography of Cancer
• Nutritional “Cures” for Clients With Cancer or HIV-AIDS
• Physical and Mental Care for Cancer Patients
• Cancer Treatment Research: Informed Consent The paper contains an informed consent letter inviting to become a part of the research project dedicated to cancer treatment methods in Hispanic patients.
• Cancer Management: Effective Diagnosis, Treatment, Lessening the Effects of Complications Cancer refers to any dangerous and abnormal mass of tissue caused by hysterical dissection of cells in the body. Effective management of cancer entails timely and effective diagnosis.
• Case Brief on Colon Cancer and Colostomy The paper presents a medical case brief on a 54-year-old patient suffering from colon cancer who had undergone a surgery known as colostomy.
• The Epidemiology of Breast Cancer in Young Women The researcher has clearly outlined the essence of the referenced study as aimed at reviewing the epidemiology of breast cancer in young women.
• Genetic Alterations and Cancer The paper will discuss cancer symptoms, causes, diagnosis, treatment, side-effects of treatment, and also its link with a genetic alteration.
• Approach to Care. Human Cancer Cancer is a group of diseases caused by the uncontrolled division of cells. There is a great variety of cancers, and they are ranked by the type of sell, which the tumor imitates.
• Disease Research: Breast Cancer Breast cancer is a multifactorial, complex illness that demands proper clinical understanding and a multidisciplinary way to determine diagnosis and treatment.
• Evaluating Intrinsic and Non-Intrinsic Cancer Risk Factors Cancer is a disease that can affect every cell of the human body and is characterized by the uncontrolled growth of cells that can divide and invade surrounding tissues.
• Cervical Cancer in the UK Cervical cancer is one of the most common diseases affecting women, and has a significant amount of lethal outcomes.
• Approach to the Care of Cancer This paper discusses cancer, including the approach to cancer care, cancer complications and side effects, and the ways of addressing the side effects.
• Macmillan Cancer Support Organization’s Data-Driven Decision-Making Macmillan Cancer Support Organization’s stakeholders must examine the cancer care workforce and predict how the future ratio might look for strategic management.
• Low-Income Men With Prostate Cancer The paper shows the clinical importance of post-treatment prostate cancer. Low-income disadvantaged men face various barriers, including knowledge.
• Cancer Patients: The Effectiveness of Pain Diary The pain diary assists the cancer patients in pain management by helping them to identify the nature of pain and where it is localized.
• Epidemiology of Breast Cancer in UK As of 2011, the incidences of breast cancer have been increasing continuously over forty years. Also, there was a general reduction in the rate of mortality caused by breast cancer.
• Pathology the Respiratory System: Lung Cancer Lung cancer is among the leading causes of death through respiratory illnesses and it has posed a major challenge to the global healthcare system.
• The New Cancer Cure Cancer is caused by cells that grow out of control in the human body thereby forming body masses known as tumors.
• Cancer Prevalence and Health Care More than 5 million people living today in the US are living with cancer. Sixty three percent of 65 years and above have had cancer.
• “Preferences for Photographic Art Among Hospitalized Patients With Cancer” the Article by Hanson, H., Schroeter, K., Hanson, A., Asmus, K., & Grossman, A. The present article reports on one of many research studies that aim to contribute to the body of knowledge regarding complementary therapy for patients with cancer.
• Recommendations for Breast Cancer Screening: USPSTF Guidelines This paper aims to give a proper recommendation for breast cancer screening under USPSTF guidelines while considering the differences in patients’ epidemiology.
• Cancer Patients and Survivors Support Group This paper dwells upon some peculiarities of managing a support group consisting of young adult cancer patients and cancer survivors.
• Breast Cancer and Effective Medical Treatment The aim of this paper is to characterize breast cancer and to describe the modern methods of its treatment and prevention.
• Approaches to Cancer Care Cancer is one of the most significant health problems of the modern society. Various types of cancer threaten or take the lives of thousands of people.
• Massage Therapy vs. Simple Touch to Improve Pain and Mood in Patients with Advanced Cancer: A Randomized Trial The primary objective of this qualitative research is to understand the people’s perception of a particular issue. Qualitative researches focus on a holistic description.
• Lung Cancer and Colorectal Cancer The rate of lung cancer is indeed lower in China when compared to Canada. Colorectal cancer is on the top list of cancerous diseases that kill people.
• Epigenetic Drugs for Cancer Treatment Cancer is a disease that requires special attention since it is not curable in all cases. However, scientists are developing new epigenetic drugs, which include HDAC inhibitors.
• A Critical Examination of WHO Screening and Treatment Guidelines for Cervical Cancer Cervical cancer is a devastating illness that affects women all over the world and continues to represent a serious threat to their health.
• Conference: Breast Cancer Survival In the medical sphere, cancer studies are one of the most essential and necessary specialties. For millions of cancer patients worldwide, life is a continued fight for survival.
• Colorectal Cancer and Other Cancer Signs and Diagnoses The reasons for increased colorectal cancer rates and decreased cervical cancer rates in Western society may be related to preferred lifestyles.
• Colorectal Cancer Screening and Its Importance Colorectal cancer screening is recommended by the United States Preventive Services Task Force as an effective way to reduce disease-related morbidity and mortality.
• Researching of Cervical Cancer In its initial stages, the cancer process is asymptomatic and is only detected during an extensive gynecological examination.
• Cancer Treatment Process Perceived by Women With Ovarian Cancer The current paper explores how the process of treating ovarian cancer affects the well-being and physical and emotional state of women.
• Smoking and Gender Factors of Lung Cancer The rising prevalence of lung cancer in young females compared to young males is widespread and not entirely explained by gender variations in smoking habits.
• The Importance of Nutrition in Cancer Prevention In the last few decades, the role that diet and nutrition play in the development, progress, and management of cancer has become an important area of study.
• Breast Cancer: Diagnosis and Treatment Recent efforts from medical professionals and interest groups like Breast Cancer Awareness Month facilitate open discussion around breast cancer.
• Bilateral Mastectomy for Breast Cancer Prevention One of the options for preventing the development of breast cancer is a bilateral mastectomy. But it may not be a good preventive choice for genetic markers of breast cancer.
• Drug Repurposing in Cancer Treatment This article examines the concept of drug repurposing in the context of pharmaceutical companies’ innovation policy: the methods and economic feasibility of repurposing drugs.
• Cancer: Disease Specifics and RNA-Based Detection The paper presents the analysis of cancer as one of the most common causes of death. It shows that there are many types of this disease.
• Stomach Cancer: Diagnosis and Treatment Stomach cancer is a malignant neoplasm that develops in the organ’s gastric mucosa cells and first affecting the epithelium and then growing into the stomach tissue.
• Breast Cancer: Diagnostic and Treatment Breast cancer is one of the most common oncology disorders among females. It has a complicated chain of immune reactions and various structures identified histologically.
• The Science Behind Obesity and Its Impact on Cancer The paper addresses the connection between cancer and physical activity, diet, and obesity in Latin America and the USA. The transitions in dietary practices may be observed.
• Thyroid Cancer as a Public Health Issue Due to the explosion and fire at the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant, a huge quantity of radioactive iodine and cesium penetrated the air.
• EBP Guideline for the National Comprehensive Cancer Network The National Comprehensive Cancer Network clinical guidelines are the recognized standard and most synoptic evidence-based practice policies.
• The Ethics of Control Groups in Cancer Research A study is proposed to determine whether women with breast cancer who underwent a mastectomy have a higher rate of survival.
• Health-Related Misconceptions Regarding Antiperspirants and Breast Cancer There is a myth about the use of antiperspirants, especially aluminum-containing ones, as a risk factor for breast cancer.
• Physical Activity and Cancer Prevention Physical activity (PA) has to be efficient in preventing cancer, evading cancer repetition, and increasing good results.
• Social Determinants of Health and Cancer A larger population of the black community suffering from cancer loses their lives while receiving treatment at the hospital due to failed cancer care.
• Esophageal Cancer: Description, Population Affected, and Prognosis In esophageal cancer, malignant cells develop in the esophagus tissues, leading to tumor formation; it accounts for 1% of all malignancies diagnosed in the USA each year.
• Diet, Physical Activity, Obesity, and Related Cancer Risk One’s health is affected by their lifestyle, which should be well managed since childhood to set a basis for a healthier adulthood.
• The Cancer Trial: Useful Medical Tool A cancer trial is a tool that helps medical professionals examine and trace the illness to develop its background and establish treatment methods.
• Cancer Screening Promotion for Middle-Aged Adults Public health policy among middle-aged adults that promotes cancer literacy and the importance of frequent screenings is likely to yield positive results.
• Naturalistic Observation of Couples Coping With Breast Cancer Couples who are suffering with cancer and their spouses’ psychological well-being were explored in study, which focused on the natural setting and substance of dialogues.
• Passive Smoking and Pancreatic Cancer in Women The association between ETS and pancreatic cancer is weak. The pancreatic cancer risk associated is confounded by environmental tobacco smoke exposures.
• Breast Cancer: Preventive Measures and Support Methods One of the most common types of cancer that women encounter worldwide is breast cancer. This disease was the cause of approximately 570,000 deaths in 2015.
• Health & Medicine: Breast Cancer in XIX Century The disease of breast cancer was a disease of women, which began to be actively noticed from the beginning of the nineteenth century.
• Environmentally and Lifestyle Linked Cancer The paper argues it is critical to clearly understand the causes of cancer to avoid public misinformation that’s why the paper presents etiology and diagnosis of cancer.
• Lung Cancer Pathophysiology Like any other type of cancer, tumors in lungs have a characteristic of an uncontrolled cell growth that takes places in lung tissues.
• Post-operative Breast Cancer Patients With Depression: Annotated Bibliography This paper is an annotated bibliography about risk reduction strategies at the point of care: Post-operative breast cancer patients who are experiencing depression.
• How to Lower your Cancer Risk. Nutrition Action Health Letter Cancer is the abnormal growth of cells. If a person is genetically predisposed to the disease, it can be difficult to avoid getting it.
• Herceptin and Breast Cancer Treatment Cancer growth is a series of processes that are driven by alterations of genes that bring about the progressive conversion of usual body cells into extremely malignant imitation.
• The Diagnosis and Staging of Cancer The essay describes the diagnosis of cancer. It also highlights three complications associated with cancer. The discussion offers a detailed approach towards better care of cancer.
• Breast Cancer: The Story of One Patient It is fascinating to trace the gradual transformation of a person throughout a history of the illness. The story of one patient who was diagnosed with breast cancer.
• HIV-AIDS, Nutrition and Cancer in Society Patients suffering from HIV/AIDS need to have a perfect schedule for their nutrition. It is important that they watch their diet to boost their immunity.
• BRCA Gene Mutation and Breast Cancer This study aims to determine how BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 gene mutations contribute to breast cancer, to analyze the role of BRCA1 and BRCA 2 in the restoration of the damaged DNA.
• Postoperative Breast Cancer Care The chosen for the paper articles support the implementation of risk reduction strategies for depression in post-operative breast cancer patients.
• Public Health Initiative on Prostrate Cancer Among Maryland’s Blacks The primary goal of the public health initiative is to improve the quality of life for all people in the US and reduce the racial prostate cancer disparities.
• Researching of Testicular Cancer Men with undescended testicles are at increased risk of developing testicular cancer. If the undescended testicle is not in the groin but in the abdomen, the risk is even higher
• Skin Cancer Prevention in Australia Skin cancer, or melanoma, is the abnormal behavior of skin cells that is mainly caused by prolonged exposure of unprotected skin to ultraviolet rays.
• Lung and Bronchus Cancer in Smoking Americans Among the causes of lung and bronchus cancer, smoking is the first to be distinguished, which is the reason for the vast majority of incidence cases.
• Breast Cancer and Exercise. Article Summary The research study focused on breast cancer survivors in the Rocky Mountain Cancer Rehabilitation Institute (RMCRI) who had already been treated.
• Addressing Cancer: The Nursing Process Nurses must use as much information and resources as possible to offer the highest-quality patient-oriented care.
• Dental Caries Among Survivors of Childhood Cancer Some professionals considered caries to be one of the long-term health consequences experienced after cancer while others do not support such an idea.
• The Risk Factors of Breast Cancer This paper will throw light upon what breast cancer is all about, the risk factors, the distribution, and determinants of the same.
• A Collaborative Stress Management Initiative for Mothers of Cancer Children The article explored the psychological stress experienced by mothers who have cancerous children. The research is current and relevant to contemporary health issues.
• Multicausality: Reserpine, Breast Cancer, and Obesity All the factors are not significant in the context of the liability to breast cancer development, though their minor influence is undeniable.
• Reducing Cancer Risk With Diet and Lifestyle Change This paper explores the reasons why a strict diet together with changes in lifestyle could significantly reduce the risk of cancer.
• Understanding Epigenetic Mechanisms in Breast Cancer Human cells become cancerous when they undergo genetic modifications that make them acquire growth and multiplication advantages.
• Prostate Cancer Among the Blacks in the State of Maryland Empirical evidence reveals that race or ethnicity is the leading risk factor in the predisposition of men to prostate cancer.
• Breast Cancer: Etiology, Signs and Symptoms Breast cancer is believed to have claimed many human lives in the last four decades, but its prevalence rate has decreased significantly due to improved disease awareness.
• Behavioral Theory: Education Program for Oral Cancer This article uses the social learning theory and the theory of planned behavior to demonstrate the tenets of an effective health education program for the prevention of oral cancer.
• Factors of Older Adults’ Decision on Cancer Treatment Puts et al. conducted a qualitative study in order to establish the factors that affect the elderly in making a decision to accept or reject cancer treatment.
• Health Promotion to Reduce Lung Cancer: Grant Proposal Template The project aims to reduce the rate of lung cancer infection and deaths among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in South Australia.
• Optimal Care For Patients With All Forms of Cancer The nursing profession can benefit from several findings in this study. Optimal care for patients with all forms of cancer can indeed improve the quality of life.
• Breast Cancer: Pathophysiology, Types and Treatment Breast cancer is a common malignant neoplastic disease in women and mostly develops in the stage of women postmenopausal.
• “Identifying Dietary Patterns Compatible With the Reduction of Cancer Risk” Article Review The review analyzes the purpose of the study aimed at assessing the viability of building healthy eating guidelines in four international settings.
• Processed Meat Consumption Causes Pancreatic Cancer In the United States, more than 30,000 Americans are diagnosed with pancreatic cancer annually, whereas in Europe over 60,000 people suffer from pancreatic cancer yearly.
• Cancer Treatment and Role of Nurses The primary purpose of this paper is to draw attention to current issues related to the treatment of cancer and the role of nurses.
• Cancer Biology: Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes This paper seeks to interpret the role oncogenes and tumor suppressors play in transformation during cancer formation.
• Addressing Risk Factors for Lung Cancer Lung cancer cannot be pinpointed to a particular cause. The first prevention measure is ceasing smoking as cigarettes carry chemicals poisonous to the lungs.
• Wellness Programs for Colorectal Cancer In this plan, the researcher intends to give a clear intervention plan that can help address the problem of colorectal cancer that has affected so many elderly people in our society.
• Skin Cancer Types, Cells of Origin Melanoma is the severest form of skin cancer that grows quickly, and it can appear as a spot of a red, brown, black, or grey color with asymmetric sides.
• Breast Cancer: Research Review Paper Plenty of scholars’ investigations help doctors, nurses, and patients to take precautionary and care measures to improve their physical and psychological condition.
• Esophageal Cancer and Its Treatment The paper researches the causes of esophageal cancer, its various symptoms, diagnostic, treatment and possible ends.
• Approach to Cancer Care: Diagnosing and Treatment This paper will discuss the process of diagnosing and staging cancer, the complications that are common among patients, and the various treatment remedies available.
• Prostate Cancer Among Blacks in Maryland: Cost-Effectiveness Analysis In the context of the black community in Maryland, the cost-effectiveness analysis portrays the ability of the chosen intervention to minimize the consequences of prostate cancer.
• The Relationship Between Breast Cancer and Genes Cancer, in general, is a disease caused by genes that have mutated or adapted in a different way than was intended.
• Does Marijuana Use and Misuse Cause Cancer? The purpose of this paper is to review two studies that have attempted to define the possible link between marijuana use/misuse and lung cancer.
• Colorectal Cancer Intervention Model The unique skills needed are for successful colorectal cancer intervention includes knowledge of the behavioral challenges, interventions strategies, and health policies.
• How Cancer Affects the Skin? Melanoma represents a type of cancer that affects the melanocytes based in the epidermis section of the skin, and it presents itself as patches of lesions on the skin.
• Functional Characterization of MicroRNAs in Prostate Cancer Prostate cancer is the name given to cancer that starts in the prostate gland. The prostate is a part of the man’s reproductive system and is as big as a walnut.
• A Perfusion Based 3D Cancer Model for Micro Tumor Formation In vitro perfused 3D cancer model, developed in this thesis, proved valuable for cancer cell culture and related anti-cancer drug tests.
• Breast Cancer Development and Progression: Understanding Epigenetic Mechanisms The development and progression of breast cancer have been attributed to a series of cellular and molecular events, most of which are not well understood.
• Cervical Cancer: Nursing Research and Evidence-Based Practice This essay seeks to discuss the annual cervical cancer screening practice to identify the EBP that can be used to replace it.
• Impact of Alcohol Abuse on Breast Cancer Risk in Women This paper will examine the effects of alcohol abuse on the development of breast cancer in women to uncover its devastating consequences.
• Cancer Pain Experiences in Caucasians vs. Minorities Race, age, genetics, cancer type, culture, and psychosocial context have all been shown to impact the manner in which cancer patients experience pain during their illness.
• Cancer Treatment Practice Data Research Evidence-based practice in the nursing profession is fundamental towards effective delivery of care services to patients.
• Effects of Nutrition on Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease Control The high prevalence rate of cancer and heart disease has necessitated the need to underline not only the use of drugs but also the role of nutrition in eradicating cancer.
• Virtual Colonoscopy to Screen for Colon Cancer The aim of this paper is to estimate the technology of virtual colonoscopy from the perspective of several factors, for filling the mentioned gap with the proper amount of arguments.
• African American Women and Cancer The existing disparities regarding healthcare services provision in the United States is a critical issue related to such phenomena as racial and gender discrimination.
• Lung Cancer: Causes and Treatment In the current paper, the crucial peculiarities of lung cancer, as well as the reasons that cause it, will be discussed.
• Grant Proposal: Cancel Cancer To ensure that patients diagnosed with cancer can effectively reduce their stress and anxiety levels, a grant is needed to use the program of emotional relief.
• Socioeconomic Factors of Oral Cancer The significant probability of oral cancer being incident in unemployed people was high since the OR (odds ratio) is 2.27.
• Summaries of Three Articles About Lung Cancer One of the most straightforward and efficient ways to understand the pathogenesis of lung cancer is researching the molecular mechanisms that slowly initiate it.
• Cervical Cancer: Symptoms and Treatment Cervical cancer is a condition that affects the cells close to the vagina that can be located in the lower section of the uterus, which is called the cervix.
• Prophylaxis Breast Cancer This paper examines the majority of the parts in detail and considers every risk linked to the development of this dangerous disease.
• Expanded Treatment Options in the Adjuvant Therapy of Colon Cancer Nurses can make a difference in improving survival rates for stage III and IV patients by remaining up to date about treatment options offered by new adjuvant agents.
• Pancreatic Cancer: Diagnostics and Treatment The article analyses the most recent techniques in the diagnosis and management of pancreatic cancer malignancy with a very poor prognosis.
• Nutrition Research With Reference to Colorectal Cancer The present paper is concerned with evaluating the validity and reliability of nutrition research with reference to colorectal cancer.
• Breast Cancer: Analysis and Data Collection The study to determine the quality of health was a qualitative research study because it showed a significant improved in the quality of life for the breast cancer victims.
• Human Patient Simulation for Skin Cancer Prevention Kuhrik et al. conclude that human patient simulation (HPS) can benefit future healthcare providers and promote early prevention and detection.
• Type C Personality as a Risk Factor for Cancer The paper is on the scientific relationship between personality C and the aspects of gene and hormonal activity that leads to the build-up of cancer cells.
• The Disease of Breast Cancer: Definition and Treatment Breast cancer is a serious disease during which the breast cells experience abnormal growth. Females usually have a higher risk of developing the disease.
• Cancer and Humor in Children: Approach to Research The paper has discussed the factors that a researcher must consider when planning to investigate the relationship between the sense of humor and hospitalized childhood cancer stressors.
• Synthetic Lethality Approach as Used in Cancer Treatment The essay aims to demonstrate that Synthetic Lethality (SL) is an effective therapy that triggers two mutations in cancer cells that lead to cell death in the result.
• Virtual Colonoscopy – Colon Cancer Screening Virtual Colonoscopy is constantly becoming more and more popular, in comparison with the traditional approach and conventional colonoscopy in particular.
• Genetic Mechanism of Colorectal Cancer Colorectal Cancer (CRC) occurrence is connected to environmental factors, hereditary factors, and individual ones.
• Pancreatic Cancer: Symptoms and Treatment Treatment is complicated by the fact that pancreatic cancer often does not cause any symptoms until it reaches a large size or does not spread to other tissues.
• Care of Breast Cancer-Related Lymphoedema The lymphoedema’s clinical manifestations include swelling of the upper or lower extremities, violation of skin nutrition, and subcutaneous fat tissue.
• Lung Cancer among Indigenous Australians A great number of severe diseases are widespread among the Indigenous Australian community. Cancer, especially lung cancer, is one of the most frequent cases.
• Spread of Respiratory Cancer and Ethnicity of the Patient Based on the descriptive statistics, it is possible to study how the spread of respiratory cancer and the ethnicity of the patient are related.
• The Use of Nanotechnology: Cancer Diagnostics and Treatment This article provides an overview of research and presentations on the use of nanotechnology for cancer treatment.
• Cancer: Definition, Epidemiology, and Pain Management Cancer is estimated to reveal itself in as many as 100 types. Statistically, in 2008 the mortality rate from cancer was at the level of 62%.
• Cervical Cancer: Case Study The paper reviews the cervical cancer key determinants, factors to ensure access to prevention technologies, and the trials that the Alliance for Cervical Cancer Prevention faces.
• A Family Experience of a Child Being Diagnosed With Cancer Family members of a child being diagnosed with cancer have to go through a long and complicated road that regrettably, not always leads to success.
• Women’s Disease: Breast Cancer and Its Consequence Breast cancer is one of the most common cancer types worldwide amounting to 25-30% of all cancer cases detected yearly among women.
• Listing Occupational Carcinogens and Cancer Prevention Occupational carcinogens make up bulk of the known human carcinogens. In the quest to define occupational carcinogens the number of staff exposed is of paramount importance.
• Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines: Lung Cancer The evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) target early detection of lung cancer in patients based on screening tools and techniques suggested by the recent literature.
• Cultural Sensitivity in Medicine and Cancer Treatment Any medical practitioner should understand the cultural aspects of a community for him to be able to come up with a lasting solution for cancer treatment.
• Racism in Breast Cancer Treatment Cancer treatment is the least studied field that arises numerous ambiguities and requires a more sophisticated approach in studying.
• Cancer Interference With Dna Replication Reports indicate that a greater percentage of human cancers originate from chemical substances as well as environmental substances.
• Skin Cancer, Its Causes and Preventive Measures Skin cancer is one of the most common of all cancers, therefore, society needs to know the risks involved and must be better educated when it comes to preventative measures.
• Understanding the Skin Cancer Causes and Protecting the Skin Exposure to too much sun can lead to skin cancer. If we do not change our habits majority of us will one time get skin cancer during our lifetime and many people will die from it.
• Cancer: Symptoms and Consequences The research of the symptoms of cancer and its consequences to evaluate the seriousness of the problem in the USA but and the whole world.
• Cancer and Contemporary Therapeutic Approaches Cancer is a hazardous disease due to its potential lethality. This essay describes the basic traits of cancer and contemporary therapeutic approaches to the condition.
• Ethical Dilemma: Handling a Request for No Further Cancer Treatment Modern technologies can prolong a person’s life and interrupt it, and this is a person’s choice of which decision to make.
• Lung Cancer Early Screening in African Americans
• “Preferences for Photographic Art Among Hospitalized Patients With Cancer” the Article by Hanson et al.
• “Preferences for Photographic Art Among Hospitalized Patients With Cancer” the Article by Grossman, A., Schroeter, K., Hanson, A. and Hanson, H.
• Computed Tomography and Related Cancer Risks
• Breast Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention
• Miami Breast Cancer Conference: Scholarly Activity
• Databases in Early Lung Cancer Screening
• Factors Influencing Breast Cancer Screening in Low-Income African Americans in Tennessee
• The Approach to the Care of Cancer
• Cancer: Approach to Care
• “A Culturally Tailored Internet Cancer Support Group for Asian American Breast Cancer Survivors”: Article Analysis
• Cancer Pain Management and Education Programs
• Depression in Female Cancer Patients and Survivors
• Cervical Cancer Intervention in Clinical Practice
• Skin Cancer in Latin American Population
• Breast Cancer and Stress Heightening
• Colorectal Cancer: Factors and Prevention
• Prevention of Breast Cancer
• Pain Management Issues in Cancer Patients
• Reactive Oxygen Species and Cancer Cells Relationship
• Anthem Blue Cross: Breast Cancer Screenings
• Cancer Care, Diagnostics and Complications
• Women’s Healthcare: Breast Cancer Prevention & Treatment
• Vomiting and Nausea in Patients with Gastric Cancer
• Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer
• Breast Cancer Inheritance Biophysical Factors
• Cancer: Diagnosis and Treatment
• Gastric Cancer Treatment: Research Instrument
• Cancer Stages, Treatment and Side Effects
• Anxiety and Depression Among Females with Cancer
• Breast Cancer Screening Promotion
• Cancer Risk Factors: Biology Concepts
• Bladder Cancer, Its Mortality Trends and Projection
• Mindfulness-Based Music Therapy and Cancer Treatment
• Mammary Cancer: Health Screening Initiative
• Mammography Screening and Breast Cancer Mortality
• Skin Cancer: Examination and Prevention
• Cancer Burden and Prevention Strategies
• Mindfulness-Based Therapy for Cancer Patients
• Cervical Cancer Prevention Among British Women
• Breast Cancer Studies: Evaluation and Analysis of Scientific Papers
• Value Care of Cancer
• Community Cancer Screening and Detection Project
• Cancer Care Approaches: Diagnosis, Side Effects, and Treatment
• Music Therapy Effects for Breast Cancer Patients
• Gastric Cancer Treatment: Data Collection
• Cancer: Steps of the Implementation Plan
• Cervical Cancer Screening Methodology
• Endometrial Cancer Symptoms in Women After 35
• Birth Control Pills and Cervical Cancer Development
• Lung Cancer, Its Etiology Pathophysiology
• Who Work with Cancer Patients?
• Cancer Diagnostics, Staging and Complications
• Breast Cancer: Disease Screening and Diagnosis
• Mindfulness-Based Music Therapy in Cancer Patients
• Prostate Cancer: African American Cancer Initiative
• Possible Trends in the Cause of Cancer
• Cancer Diagnosis, Complications and Treatment
• Inner Strength in Women Survivors of Cancer
• From Breast Cancer to Zika Virus – Nursing Issues
• Postmenopausal Women with Breast Cancer
• Tanning Booths and Skin Cancer Relationship – Medicine
• A Research of Breast Cancer Survival
• Can Aspirin Help Reduce the Risk of Lung Cancer?
• What Are the Challenges for Relative Effectiveness Assessment and Early Access of Cancer Immunotherapies in Europe?
• Does Cellular Phone Use Contribute to Cancer Formation?
• Has Medical Innovation Reduced Cancer Mortality?
• Can Diet and Exercise Help Prevent Cancer?
• Does Detecting Breast Cancer with MRIs Increase the Rate of Mastectomies?
• How Are Cancer Cells Structurally Different From Normal?
• Can Elderly Patients With Pancreatic Cancer Gain Survival Advantages Through More Radical Surgeries?
• How Does Cancer Affect Individuals From All Backgrounds?
• Can Immunogenic Chemotherapies Relieve Cancer Cell Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors?
• Does Diet Really Help Prevent Colon Cancer?
• Why Do African American Women Contract Breast or Cervical Cancer More Than Any Other Ethnic Group?
• How Does Cancer Form and Spread in the Human Body?
• Can Korean Red Ginseng Increase the Life Span of Cancer Patients?
• Does Natural Killer Cell Deficiency Increase the Risk of Cancer?
• Why Do Women Generally Get Breast Cancer Rather Than Other Cancers?
• Should the Cervical Cancer Vaccine for Girls Be Compulsory?
• Can Religion Help the Healing Process of Cancer?
• Does Green Tea Offer the Prescription for Beating Cancer?
• How Can Nanomedicine Help Cure Cancer?
• What Are the Symptoms and Treatments for Breast Cancer?
• Does Medicare Coverage Improve Cancer Detection and Mortality Outcomes?
• Are Pet Owners Really at Greater Risk of Cancer?
• How Can People Protect Themselves From Cancer?
• Does the Immune System Naturally Protect Against Cancer?
• Understanding cancer: causes, types, and risk factors.
• Complementary and alternative medicine for cancer patients.
• Environmental factors affecting cancer risk.
• The connection between cancer and aging.
• The role of artificial intelligence in cancer diagnosis.
• Strategies for improving quality of life after cancer treatment.
• Precision oncology: how it works.
• The significance of biomarkers in cancer diagnosis and prognosis.
• The role of diet in preventing and managing cancer.
• Ways to reduce cancer risks.
• Breast cancer awareness campaign: causes and prevention.
• Art therapy sessions for cancer patients.
• A healthy eating cookbook for a balanced diet during chemotherapy.
• Inspirational storytelling: collecting personal stories of cancer survivors.
• Raising awareness of the effects of smoking on cancer risk.
• Cancer prevention podcast: interviewing experts.
• Decision-making guide for cancer treatment for patients and their families.
• Surveying the impact of cancer treatment on patients’ daily lives.
• Volunteer-based transportation services for cancer patients.
• A social media campaign for raising awareness about cancer.

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StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 272 Cancer Research Topics for Undergraduates and High School Students. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/cancer-essay-topics/

"272 Cancer Research Topics for Undergraduates and High School Students." StudyCorgi , 9 Sept. 2021, studycorgi.com/ideas/cancer-essay-topics/.

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StudyCorgi . "272 Cancer Research Topics for Undergraduates and High School Students." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/cancer-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "272 Cancer Research Topics for Undergraduates and High School Students." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/cancer-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Cancer were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 20, 2024 .

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Small-molecule inhibition of kinesin KIF18A reveals a mitotic vulnerability enriched in chromosomally unstable cancers

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