scientific revolution in india essay

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Scientific Revolution in India: A Retrospective View through Historical, Social and Political angle

One of the main obstacles to the research and scientific development in our country was superstitious society. Today much such credulity still exists in our society and the paradox is that the rocket science or the nuclear power could not mop the darkness of ignorance up from the masses. The Chandrayan may infuse a few minds but the moonlight could not illuminate the yards of the ordinary people. The reach of science is fathomless, but science as a subject and moreover as virtue could not ignite the maximum minds. A new thrust is required in society so as to grow scientific tempered minds among people, and this trust must be given from childhood. The more people become open to science, the more the nation will go further. Since our independence, almost three generations have passed through the annals. But unfortunately, lion’s shares of the people still carry the darkened mind. The reasons would not be palatable for many those who are holding the steering of the authority. India as a land of diversified cultures and knowledge gradually trailed not because of old or ancient but more for our modern people who loved politics more than the progress of the country. Ajit Doval, the chief security in-charge of our country, once told that our country was defeated by our own people. After independence, there should have been more investment in science and technology, research and education. Concentrated investment in education, science and technology and research centralized and benefitted limited areas and people. The tradition to carry coal to the New Castle continued and there was a plethora of growth, but not development. Alas! All growths are not development. The reasons are many and not inexplicable. If today a snake-bitten person is taken to a charmer, or a mother in village refuses polio drops for her baby, or a man’s shadow, if cast on some yard, and considered omen because he is low born, it is the defeat of ours, the science. The government needs more strategic plans to disseminate scientific awareness among people pedagogy and andragogy.

Let me start with one of the best beginnings of a novel, my intention is to relate the past of Indian culture and ethos, which the modern Indians could not uphold the pride and while writing this essay I felt somewhat close to the situation, though in a different perspective, what Charles Dickens thought while writing the A Tale of Two Cities, and our political leaders lost the pride in their political prejudices.

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.”

India has progressed a lot in many fields, especially in science and technology but not to be smug. We have become successful to use natural resources judiciously, unlike previous days, and taped the energy in prudence. Food productivity has been increased in quantum, medical science has been able to cure many diseases and invent medicines and surgery erstwhile considered impossible and that too with less or no pain and bleeding. The continual flow of electricity has been possible due to usage of advanced technology. Transport and communication have been much faster than ever before. Credit definitely goes to our scientists and engineers. These have been possible due to continuously striving for excellence. Yet when we look back at the social and historical background of the human race, we look back in anger. India is found much behind in many sectors.

The amputation left us socked for many years. And we sill after 73 years of Independence we blame at the British. We learn by rote and say blatantly that the British ruled us over two hundred years. We call us and others too, a developing country. How many years are needed to be a developed country? Whatever we have achieved today, less or more, is not the question, the question is why not more and at the earliest? Still today in the twenty-first century unscientific ways of agriculture is practised; the farmers burn the buts of the hay after harvesting. There is an unequal distribution of irrigation. People still cut the trees for their fuel, two states fight over distribution of waters, the Supreme Court remains an onlooker, rationing becomes the tool of voting, Arunachal Pradesh gets trains after seventy years of independence, wild animals get run over by trains and two government brawl and try-catch fish in troubled water. A particular area every year sufferers and remains in spate, and there is always political issues and disputes, mostly created by the political leaders, and never get permanent embankment. Such unending stream of issues will hint on one thing that is lack of honest intention of the rulers and ill-motivated politics.

Let us now a categorically account for India’s so far development in science and technology. After more than seventy years of independence the numbers of scientific institutions (major) are 216 under these categories:-

Agricultural Science—66

Biological and Medical Science—60

Chemical Science—09

Physical Science and Mathematics —16

Earth Science –16

Engineering Sciences—23

Material, Minerals and Metallurgy—09

Multidisciplinary and Other Areas —17 Total of 216

These are centrally funded and called to be premier institutions. Apart from that states funded institutions are there but they are either tottering or not in the list of choice by the students because of their decadent situation. Why such snail pace was there in establishing institutions, that is almost three institutions per year. If more efforts and money would have been spent, in compare to elections, and other expenditure, more brains, more intelligence, more merits could have been cultivated. India, one of the most ancient civilizations, one of the most educated religions, has a very wretched picture of scientific temperament.

We had everything, we had wealth, and we had merits but unfortunately due to a surprising lackadaisical attitude Indians, as a whole, could not come together in exchanging knowledge and education. India once was common land, from Kashmir to Kanyakumarika, united by different Kings and Emperors, from Chola Dynasty to Satvahana, from Ashoka to Chandragupta Maurya, and the sixteen Mahajanapada of ancient India, now separated by religions, caste, creed and languages. We were never religious fanatics that remained submerged in the abysmal depth of ignorance; neither were we a race who wandered from place to place. Indian (Hindus) were a stable race and the stability gave birth to the two world-famous epics, in which our ancestors imagined advanced weapons like Sudarshana Chakra (the beautiful wheel, the primary weapon of Lord Krishna), the vehicle Pushpaka Vimana (a flying vehicle) thought much before Wright brothers, and fourth dimension as a cycle of life and death much before H.G.Wells. Why these brilliant ideas were not put into trials by our scientists and government? Sheer lack of professionalisms, innovative ideas, and torpor confined them in a continuous fight over politics and power. I shall come to the main point of this essay and reason to stop further explanation is pocas palabras.

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Scientific Revolution

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The Scientific Revolution (1500-1700), which occurred first in Europe before spreading worldwide, witnessed a new approach to knowledge gathering – the scientific method – which utilised new technologies like the telescope to observe, measure, and test things never seen before. Thanks to the development of dedicated institutions, scientists conducted yet more experiments and shared their knowledge, making it ever more accurate. By the end of this 'revolution', science had replaced philosophy as the dominant method of acquiring new knowledge and improving the human condition.

Defining a 'Revolution'

Dating the beginning and end of the Scientific Revolution is problematic. Historians do not all agree on precise dates as the 'revolution' was not a single dramatic event but, rather, a long and gradual series of discoveries and changes in attitudes to knowledge. The period of the 16th and 17th centuries as a whole generally covers most of the pertinent events and discoveries. There is also the problem of what to call these events. This was not a 'revolution' in the usual sense of the term, that is, a movement involving all classes, in all places, over a short space of time with a defined end goal which was ultimately achieved. Rather, from around 1500 to around 1700, there was a gradual but marked shift in how thinkers approached the acquisition of knowledge of the world around us. Modern historians often shy away from using such a dramatic term as 'revolution' to describe any deep change in human behaviour, since such a blanket term caries with it uncalled-for baggage of meanings and masks a number of anomalies, not least in this case that the 'revolution' was never complete or completed. That something momentous did occur is, however, clear from even the briefest assessment of how knowledge was gathered before and how it has been gathered ever since the Scientific Revolution.

Through the two centuries of the Scientific Revolution, natural philosophers who still adhered to ancient wisdom were slowly replaced in importance by practical scientists who used scientific instruments like the telescope and barometer to test their hypotheses and then share and review their findings. In this way, universal laws could be formed which were then further tested and used to predict outcomes in yet more experiments. Mathematics, in particular, came to dominate thought as more traditional methods of pursuing knowledge like magic, alchemy , and astrology were sidelined in favour of more objective, empirical, and evidence-based experimentation. In addition, the great trio of ancient thinkers who had held sway right through the Middle Ages – Aristotle (l. 384-322 BCE), Claudius Ptolemy (c. 100 to c. 170 CE), and Galen (129-216 CE) – were swept away as early modern minds finally looked to the future instead of the past.

Instruments like the pendulum clock and thermometer made it possible to accurately measure the world around us while optical instruments revealed things previously unimaginable such as the real nature of the surface of the Moon and the intricate anatomy of tiny insects. In all of these senses, then, there was indeed a 'revolution' that resulted in old theories, many of which had been held since antiquity as true, being cast aside and brand new ones replacing them based on new discoveries, new methodologies, and entirely new fields of study.

The Scientific Method

A distinctive feature of the change in thought during the Scientific Revolution was a reconsideration of how new knowledge should be acquired and tested. Practical experiments had been conducted ever since antiquity, but through the Middle Ages, a certain theoretical approach to knowledge, first pioneered by thinkers like Aristotle, had come to dominate. Verbal arguments had become more important than what could actually be seen in the world. Further, natural philosophers had become preoccupied with why things happen instead of first ascertaining what was actually happening in nature and how it was happening. One of the first to question this approach was the English statesman and philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626).

Bacon called for a more systematic and practical approach where empirical (observable) consequences of experiments were collated, assessed using reason, and then openly shared for review by other thinkers. The ultimate objective of this activity should be used to test the validity of existing knowledge and forge a new understanding of the world around us so that the human condition can be practically improved. For these reasons, Bacon is considered one of the founders of modern scientific research and scientific method, even as "the father of modern science". Bacon's approach did become a reality, but with important additions such as the use of a hypothesis as part of the experimental process, the application of mathematics to create universal laws, and the addition of new technology that greatly improved the senses.

The scientific method came to involve the following key components:

conducting practical experiments
conducting experiments without prejudice of what they should prove
using deductive reasoning (creating a generalisation from specific examples) to form a hypothesis (untested theory), which is then tested by an experiment, after which the hypothesis might be accepted, altered, or rejected based on empirical (observable) evidence
conducting multiple experiments and doing so in different places and by different people to confirm the reliability of the results
an open and critical review of the results of an experiment by peers
the formulation of universal laws (inductive reasoning or logic) using, for example, mathematics
a desire to gain practical benefits from scientific experiments and a belief in the idea of scientific progress

(Note: the above criteria are expressed in modern linguistic terms, not necessarily those terms 17th-century scientists would have used since the revolution in science also caused a revolution in the language to describe it.)

Important Inventions

The Scientific Revolution witnessed a great number of new inventions, that is, technological innovations that allowed the new scientists to not only discover new things about the world but also ways to measure, test, and assess these new phenomena. The most important inventions in the Scientific Revolution include:

the telescope (c. 1608)
the microscope (c. 1610)
the barometer (1643)
the thermometer (c. 1650)
the pendulum clock (1657)
the air pump (1659)
the balance spring watch (1675)

Important Discoveries

With the above inventions and others, scientists in many different countries made many new discoveries, and whole new specialisations of study became possible, such as meteorology, microscopic anatomy, embryology, and optics.

The Italian Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) built the most powerful of the early telescopes, and with it, he discovered the mountains and valleys of the Moon's surface, previously thought to be made of some unknown substance. Galileo identified four moons of the planet Jupiter and the phases of Venus . He observed sunspots, leading him to suggest the Sun was a turning sphere. The German Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) created a new type of telescope, which used two convex lenses, and he used it to observe the heavenly bodies and confirm the heliocentric view of our galaxy proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543 CE). At last, the geocentric model of Ptolemy was shown to be wrong. In addition, Kepler demonstrated that the planets moved in elliptical and not circular orbits.

The Italian astronomer Gian Domenico Cassini (1625-1712) identified the spaces in the rings of Saturn . Johannes Hevelius (1611-1687) in Danzig (modern Gdańsk) discovered the first variable star and created a detailed map of the Moon's surface. The English astronomer Edmond Halley (1656-1742) established an observatory on the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic in 1677 and created the first chart of the southern stars using a telescope. Halley also discovered the acceleration of the Moon, noted the movement of the stars in relation to each other (proper motion), and identified the comet of 1682 as the same one of 1607 and 1531.

The English scientist Isaac Newton (1642-1727) invented the reflecting telescope in 1668, which used a curved mirror. Newton discovered that white light was made up of a spectrum of coloured light, and he formed his universal theory of gravity, which explained why objects fell on earth and why the heavenly bodies move as they do.

The invention of the microscope, in many ways the natural opposite of the telescope, is usually credited to the spectacle-maker Hans Lippershey (c. 1570 to c. 1619), then living in the Netherlands. The Italian Marcello Malpighi used a microscope to discover capillaries in the blood system in 1661. This was the missing link between arteries and veins, and it confirmed William Harvey's discovery of blood circulation . Galen's views of how the human body worked were now proven to be wholly inadequate or plain wrong.

The English experimentalist Robert Hooke (1635-1703) used his microscope to create sensational drawings of a new miniature world published in his Micrographia in 1665. The Dutchman Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) pioneered a new type of microscope using a glass bead as a lens, which gave him a much greater magnification than previously possible. Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria, protozoa, red blood cells, spermatozoa, and how minute insects and parasites reproduce. Another Dutch microscopist, Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680), discovered that caterpillars contain what become the wings of the butterfly after metamorphosis. Finally, Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) was the founder of plant anatomy based on his in-depth study of the sexual organs of plants.

The barometer was invented in 1643 by the Italian Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647), and it allowed scientists to understand atmospheric pressure. The Frenchman Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) used a barometer to demonstrate that air pressure changes with altitude. The German Otto von Guericke (1602-1686) noted that air pressure varied depending on the weather. The barometer was actually named by the English scientist Robert Boyle (1627-1691), who also worked on air pumps. Boyle and his associate Robert Hooke were able to demonstrate how a vacuum could exist, and they subjected all manner of specimens to changes in air pressure inside their air pump. Boyle was thus able to formulate a universal principle that became known as 'Boyle's Law '. This law states that the pressure exerted by a certain quantity of air varies inversely in proportion to its volume (provided temperatures are constant).

A related device, the liquid thermometer, was invented in Florence around 1650, and it transformed medicine , allowing doctors to measure a patient's temperature beyond a mere 'hot', 'cold' or 'normal'. The device meant many other experiments could now be made and the results accurately measured and compared.

The first working model of the pendulum clock was invented by the Dutchman Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) in 1657. In a pendulum clock, the regularity of the pendulum's swing precisely controls the falling of a weight. The best pendulum clocks lost a maximum of 15 seconds per day compared to 15 minutes with a mechanical clock. Timekeeping became even more accurate with the invention in 1675 of watches using a balance spring. This great leap forward in accuracy not only helped scientists better monitor their experiments and time their observations of objects in space but it also revolutionised the very idea of time for everyone. This was the first step towards having a universal time, and with it came the concepts of being early, on time, and late in daily life.

Institutionalised Science

Another key development of the Scientific Revolution, besides a new method and new technology, was the foundation of dedicated research bodies. At this time, universities (with the possible exception of departments of medicine) were not concerned with research, but only with teaching. A new type of institution was required where scientists could work together, share their findings, and, most importantly of all, receive funding for their work. These were the new academies and societies that sprang up across Europe. The first such society was the Academia del Cimento in Florence, founded in 1657. Others soon followed, notably the Royal Society in London in 1663 and the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris in 1667. Those responsible for the foundation of the Royal Society credited Bacon with the idea, and they were keen to follow his principles of scientific method and his emphasis on sharing and communicating scientific data and results. The Berlin Academy was founded in 1700 and the St. Petersburg Academy in 1724. These academies and societies became the focal points of an international network of scientists who corresponded, read each other's works, and even visited each other's laboratories and observatories as the new scientific method took hold. The public was involved, too, either indirectly through access to published journals and books or directly with the opportunity to attend experiments and demonstrations in the societies' headquarters or out in the field.

Establishment of the French Academy and Paris Observatory

That there was an increase in international cooperation in the Scientific Revolution is indicated in the invitation to non-nationals to become fellows of these societies. There were attempts to standardise certain experiments across borders and the instruments different scientists were using. For example, the German Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1736) devised his Fahrenheit scale for thermometers around 1714. Anders Celsius (1701-1744) from Sweden came up with a rival scale, but having two scales on thermometers was a vast improvement from the early days when scientists in different countries simply used their own scales, a situation that made comparisons of results extremely difficult. There was, too, cooperation between scientists despite them belonging to rival European empires, and it was through these colonial empires, especially the Dutch, French, and British, that the ideas of the Scientific Revolution spread far beyond Europe.

Reaction to the Scientific Method

The reaction to the Scientific Revolution was not all positive. Some intellectuals were sceptical that the new scientific instruments could be trusted. There remained sceptics of experimentation in general, those who stressed that the senses could be misled when the reason of the mind could not be. One such doubter was René Descartes (1596-1650), but if anything, he and other natural philosophers who questioned the value of the work of the practical experimenters were responsible for creating a lasting new division between philosophy and what we would today call science. The term "science" was still not widely used in the 17th century, instead, many experimenters referred to themselves as practitioners of "experimental philosophy". The first use in English of the term "experimental method" was in 1675. The development of these terms illustrates that a break was happening between theoretical and practical thinkers.

Some even questioned whether humanity should be delving into a previously unseen world, which they considered should remain God 's affair. There was a clash between science and religion when it came to the view of how the universe was organised. Church figures preferred to hold on to the idea that the Earth and humanity must be at the centre of the universe, and so thinkers like Galileo, who supported Copernicus ' heliocentric model, were found guilty of heresy. However, most scientists were Christians and had no wish to challenge the teaching of the Bible . Many scientists simply wanted to explain how the world was made as it is. Indeed, some argued that the telescope and microscope demonstrated just how intricate life is, and so one should, they thought, hold even more wonder at God's work.

There was still room for God in this new scientific world, since thinkers like Isaac Newton, for example, could only explain that gravity moved planets, he could not explain where gravity came from or why it existed. There were still many limits to human knowledge. Doctors now knew why certain diseases might come about but still had only limited knowledge of how to cure them. The great longitude problem of how navigators could track their position around the globe remained unsolved. Technology was still frustratingly limited in many areas.

Into the Future

New scientific instruments meant that discoveries came thick and fast, often causing bewilderment at just how complex life could be. Telescopes at one end of the scale and microscopes at the other revealed that a whole new system of measurement was required for the human mind to grasp the scale of the wonders of the visible universe. Previously, the human body had been used as a base of the measurement system, soon nanometers and light years would be required. There were momentous changes in how people of all classes viewed the new worlds opened up by the scientists. This is best seen in the popular fiction of the period, which began to discuss intriguing yet also troubling ideas like the infinity of the universe or that tiny parasites themselves had even smaller parasites, which themselves had yet smaller parasites. Could it be possible to one day travel to the Moon? Since the Earth was no longer the centre of the universe, did this not mean there could be other planets with other life forms?

There was, though, amongst this perplexity, a new confidence and belief, certainly amongst the scientists, that technology and science, given time, could provide all the answers humanity needed to live better, longer, and more happily. New clock mechanisms with their sophisticated gears, the use of pistons in air pumps, and the discovery of the power of air pressure all inspired engineers to invent new machines like the steam engine as another, even greater revolution, appeared on the horizon: the British Industrial Revolution .

The Scientific Revolution had another lasting effect, and that is the establishment of science as the most recognised method of finding truth, a position of dominance it still holds today. When we talk about theories, hypotheses, laws of nature, evidence, facts, and progress we use terms which were coined during the Scientific Revolution; to discuss knowledge today without using these terms is unthinkable, and there, perhaps, lies the true legacy of this revolution in ideas, methods, and technology.

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Bibliography

Burns, William E. The Scientific Revolution in Global Perspective. Oxford University Press, 2015.
Burns, William E. The Scientific Revolution. ABC-CLIO, 2001.
Bynum, William F. & Browne, Janet & Porter, Roy. Dictionary of the History of Science . Princeton University Press, 1982.
Fermi, Laura & Bernardini, Gilberto. Galileo and the Scientific Revolution. Dover Publications, 2013.
Gleick, James. Isaac Newton. Vintage, 2004.
Henry, John. The Scientific Revolution and the Origins of Modern Science . Red Globe Press, 2008.
Jardine, Lisa. Ingenious Pursuits. Nan A. Talese, 1999.
Wootton, David. The Invention of Science. Harper, 2015.

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What is the Scientific Revolution?

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Scientific Revolution

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Table Of Contents

Scientific Revolution is the name given to a period of drastic change in scientific thought that took place during the 16th and 17th centuries. It replaced the Greek view of nature that had dominated science for almost 2,000 years. The Scientific Revolution was characterized by an emphasis on abstract reasoning, quantitative thought, an understanding of how nature works, the view of nature as a machine , and the development of an experimental scientific method .

The Enlightenment , like the Scientific Revolution, began in Europe . Taking place during the 17th and 18th centuries, this intellectual movement synthesized ideas concerning God, reason, nature, and humanity into a worldview that celebrated reason. This emphasis on reason grew out of discoveries made by prominent thinkers—including the astronomy of Nicolaus Copernicus and Galileo , the philosophy of René Descartes , and the physics and cosmology of Isaac Newton —many of whom preceded the Enlightenment.

The sudden emergence of new information during the Scientific Revolution called into question religious beliefs, moral principles, and the traditional scheme of nature. It also strained old institutions and practices, necessitating new ways of communicating and disseminating information. Prominent innovations included scientific societies (which were created to discuss and validate new discoveries) and scientific papers (which were developed as tools to communicate new information comprehensibly and test the discoveries and hypotheses made by their authors).

Scientific Revolution , drastic change in scientific thought that took place during the 16th and 17th centuries. A new view of nature emerged during the Scientific Revolution, replacing the Greek view that had dominated science for almost 2,000 years. Science became an autonomous discipline , distinct from both philosophy and technology , and it came to be regarded as having utilitarian goals. By the end of this period, it may not be too much to say that science had replaced Christianity as the focal point of European civilization. Out of the ferment of the Renaissance and Reformation there arose a new view of science, bringing about the following transformations: the reeducation of common sense in favour of abstract reasoning; the substitution of a quantitative for a qualitative view of nature; the view of nature as a machine rather than as an organism; the development of an experimental, scientific method that sought definite answers to certain limited questions couched in the framework of specific theories; and the acceptance of new criteria for explanation, stressing the “how” rather than the “why” that had characterized the Aristotelian search for final causes.

The growing flood of information that resulted from the Scientific Revolution put heavy strains upon old institutions and practices. It was no longer sufficient to publish scientific results in an expensive book that few could buy; information had to be spread widely and rapidly. Natural philosophers had to be sure of their data, and to that end they required independent and critical confirmation of their discoveries. New means were created to accomplish these ends. Scientific societies sprang up, beginning in Italy in the early years of the 17th century and culminating in the two great national scientific societies that mark the zenith of the Scientific Revolution: the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge , created by royal charter in 1662, and the Académie des Sciences of Paris, formed in 1666. In these societies and others like them all over the world, natural philosophers could gather to examine, discuss, and criticize new discoveries and old theories. To provide a firm basis for these discussions, societies began to publish scientific papers. The old practice of hiding new discoveries in private jargon, obscure language, or even anagrams gradually gave way to the ideal of universal comprehensibility. New canons of reporting were devised so that experiments and discoveries could be reproduced by others. This required new precision in language and a willingness to share experimental or observational methods. The failure of others to reproduce results cast serious doubts upon the original reports. Thus were created the tools for a massive assault on nature’s secrets.

The Scientific Revolution began in astronomy. Although there had been earlier discussions of the possibility of Earth’s motion, the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to propound a comprehensive heliocentric theory equal in scope and predictive capability to Ptolemy’s geocentric system . Motivated by the desire to satisfy Plato’s dictum, Copernicus was led to overthrow traditional astronomy because of its alleged violation of the principle of uniform circular motion and its lack of unity and harmony as a system of the world. Relying on virtually the same data as Ptolemy had possessed, Copernicus turned the world inside out, putting the Sun at the centre and setting Earth into motion around it. Copernicus’s theory , published in 1543, possessed a qualitative simplicity that Ptolemaic astronomy appeared to lack. To achieve comparable levels of quantitative precision, however, the new system became just as complex as the old. Perhaps the most revolutionary aspect of Copernican astronomy lay in Copernicus’s attitude toward the reality of his theory. In contrast to Platonic instrumentalism , Copernicus asserted that to be satisfactory astronomy must describe the real, physical system of the world.

The reception of Copernican astronomy amounted to victory by infiltration. By the time large-scale opposition to the theory had developed in the church and elsewhere, most of the best professional astronomers had found some aspect or other of the new system indispensable. Copernicus’s book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri VI (“Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs”), published in 1543, became a standard reference for advanced problems in astronomical research, particularly for its mathematical techniques. Thus, it was widely read by mathematical astronomers, in spite of its central cosmological hypothesis , which was widely ignored. In 1551 the German astronomer Erasmus Reinhold published the Tabulae prutenicae (“Prutenic Tables”), computed by Copernican methods. The tables were more accurate and more up-to-date than their 13th-century predecessor and became indispensable to both astronomers and astrologers.

During the 16th century the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe , rejecting both the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems, was responsible for major changes in observation, unwittingly providing the data that ultimately decided the argument in favour of the new astronomy. Using larger, stabler, and better calibrated instruments, he observed regularly over extended periods, thereby obtaining a continuity of observations that were accurate for planets to within about one minute of arc—several times better than any previous observation. Several of Tycho’s observations contradicted Aristotle’s system: a nova that appeared in 1572 exhibited no parallax (meaning that it lay at a very great distance) and was thus not of the sublunary sphere and therefore contrary to the Aristotelian assertion of the immutability of the heavens; similarly, a succession of comets appeared to be moving freely through a region that was supposed to be filled with solid, crystalline spheres. Tycho devised his own world system —a modification of Heracleides’ —to avoid various undesirable implications of the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems.

At the beginning of the 17th century, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler placed the Copernican hypothesis on firm astronomical footing. Converted to the new astronomy as a student and deeply motivated by a neo- Pythagorean desire for finding the mathematical principles of order and harmony according to which God had constructed the world, Kepler spent his life looking for simple mathematical relationships that described planetary motions. His painstaking search for the real order of the universe forced him finally to abandon the Platonic ideal of uniform circular motion in his search for a physical basis for the motions of the heavens.

Learn how Johannes Kepler challenged the Copernican system of planetary motion

In 1609 Kepler announced two new planetary laws derived from Tycho’s data: (1) the planets travel around the Sun in elliptical orbits , one focus of the ellipse being occupied by the Sun; and (2) a planet moves in its orbit in such a manner that a line drawn from the planet to the Sun always sweeps out equal areas in equal times. With these two laws, Kepler abandoned uniform circular motion of the planets on their spheres, thus raising the fundamental physical question of what holds the planets in their orbits. He attempted to provide a physical basis for the planetary motions by means of a force analogous to the magnetic force , the qualitative properties of which had been recently described in England by William Gilbert in his influential treatise , De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus et de Magno Magnete Tellure (1600; “On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies, and the Great Magnet of the Earth”). The impending marriage of astronomy and physics had been announced. In 1618 Kepler stated his third law, which was one of many laws concerned with the harmonies of the planetary motions: (3) the square of the period in which a planet orbits the Sun is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the Sun.

A powerful blow was dealt to traditional cosmology by Galileo Galilei , who early in the 17th century used the telescope , a recent invention of Dutch lens grinders, to look toward the heavens. In 1610 Galileo announced observations that contradicted many traditional cosmological assumptions. He observed that the Moon is not a smooth, polished surface, as Aristotle had claimed, but that it is jagged and mountainous. Earthshine on the Moon revealed that Earth, like the other planets, shines by reflected light. Like Earth, Jupiter was observed to have satellites; hence, Earth had been demoted from its unique position. The phases of Venus proved that that planet orbits the Sun, not Earth.

75 Years of Indian Science and Technology: A Mission in Sustainability and Self-Sufficiency

Rachana bhattacharjee.

Image for representational purposes only

At the start of India’s 75th year of Independence, Dr. Jitendra Singh, Minister of State (Independent Charge) for the Ministry of Science and Technology and Earth Sciences, said , “We are a frontline nation in various fields in the world, and a lot of credit for this goes to the hard work and dedication of our scientific fraternity. They have contributed enormously to India’s rapid ascent in the last 75 years.” A year later, as India celebrated the completion of 75 years of Independence and looked towards the future with new inspiration, this pride in the nation’s achievements, this belief in the country’s people, continued to ring true.

Indeed, in 1947, after a war for independence, India found itself socio-economically broken and in need of rapid reconstruction. The government and the people came together across various fields, and through policy and innovation, step by step, India grew stronger, achieving many milestones and becoming recognised globally.

The Foundations

The story broadly begins with the formulation of the first 5-year plan in 1951 , which focused on agriculture, science, infrastructure, and education, and importantly, on laying the foundation for fundamental research. Over the first few decades, India built and improved academic institutes, laboratories, and research centres across the country. To augment these efforts and provide direction to the research in the country, several government organisations were also set up , such as the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1942, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1954, Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) in 1958, the departments of Electronics and Science and Technology in 1971, Department of Space in 1972, and Department of Environment in 1980. In addition, in 1976, another crucial step was taken: India adopted a “scientific temper” in its Constitution , declaring the development of a scientific temper, humanism, and the spirit of inquiry to be the duty of every Indian citizen.

Agriculture

By 1976, India had already achieved two major milestones in self-sufficiency, the Green Revolution and White Revolution. In the 1960s, research on high-yielding wheat varieties at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute, supported by the indigenous development of technology such as tractors and agri-pesticides by CSIR and Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), helped India increase its wheat and rice production significantly. This enabled the country to move away from large-scale imports permanently. At the same time, Dr. Verghese Kurien and his team at Anand, Gujarat, revolutionised the milk industry and removed the need for milk imports by proving, for the first time in the world, that buffalo milk could be processed and stored as milk powder . Dr. Kurien was instrumental in creating nationwide dairy cooperatives that ensured no milk went to waste.

This was followed by the Yellow Revolution and Blue Revolution in the late 1980s, which boosted the production of edible oilseeds and made India the second largest fish producing country, respectively. In the 1990s came the Golden Revolution , which aimed at scaling up honey and horticultural production.

Through these years and into the 21st century, India has grown to become self-sufficient in the cultivation of various spices, medicinal plants, and aromatic plants that are an important presence in Indian culture and lifestyle, such as asafoetida, mentha, lavender, and saffron. And true to a legacy that began with the Green Revolution, India continues to advance in agri-genomics and genome editing to improve yields and adapt farmed varieties to the changing times.

The 1960s—the time of the Green Revolution—is also the decade in which India reached its first defence milestone: the launch of the first indigenous naval submarine, INS Kalvari . This was the start of a long list of ‘Made-in-India’ technologies not just in defence but across fields. However, in the defence sector, India went on to successfully build, test, and deploy the Agni and Prithvi missiles , supersonic fighter aircrafts such as Tejas, nuclear missiles (Pokhran II) , the world’s fastest supersonic cruise missile of its kind BrahMos , ballistic missile submarine INS Arihant , and aircraft carrier INS Vikrant , to name a few. These have been possible through the indigenous development , often from scratch, of individual state-of-the-art technologies for defence aircraft and equipment components, such as Autoclave Technology to process lightweight composites used in modern-day civil and military airframes, and head-up displays (HUDs).

In addition to aircraft, missiles, and submarines, there have been several other key developments in the recent past , such as the anti-satellite technology developed under Mission Shakti, which has made India the 4th nation to demonstrate this capability based on indigenous technology; Astra, the first indigenous beyond visual range air-to-air missile, which has placed India among a select few nations that possess this technology; the ATAGS 155 mm gun, which has the longest firing range in the world; radars like the weapon locating radar Swathi and low-level tracking radars for applications in mountains; electronic warfare systems; underwater weapons and countermeasure systems; and drones and anti-drone systems.

At present , the DRDO is conducting research on ways to integrate technologies such as quantum systems, hypersonic systems, advanced materials, and artificial intelligence into the defence sector. In fact, the Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSDTV) was successfully tested in 2020, making India the 4th country to showcase the use of this technology.

The space sector is another area where India has built technology indigenously and received global recognition. This saga begins in 1975 with the launch of Aryabhata , the first Indian satellite—which was equipped with instruments for conducting experiments in x-ray astronomy and solar physics—and the launch of SITE (Satellite Instructional Television Experiment), which brought community TV sets even in remote areas of India. These, and later, the launch of the Indian National Satellite (INSAT) and Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) in the 80s, ushered in an era of prosperity through mass communication, remote sensing, weather prediction, atmospheric and space research, and more.

In 1980, India successfully launched its first Satellite Launch Vehicle, SLV-3. In 1984, India sent Rakesh Sharma , its first astronaut, into outer space. In the 2000s, India began to build its own rockets, which not only carried indigenous satellites and research instruments, but also sent instruments from other developed nations into space. Notable among missions run by Indian rockets are Chandrayaan 1 (India’s first mission to the moon; through which India became the 4th country to send a probe to the lunar surface; and in which, India made the pathbreaking discovery of water molecules on the lunar surface), the Mars Orbiter Mission (where India became the first nation to enter the Martian orbit in its maiden attempt), launch of GSLV-D5 (which was powered by the first Indian made cryogenic engine), and the world record set by successfully placing 104 satellites in orbit during a single launch.

In addition to these missions, in the 21st century, India continues to develop its space sector through the creation of organisations like the Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACe) under the Department of Space, to promote greater private and citizen participation in the sector—this has led to the successful launch of four student satellites—and institutes to train engineers for the Indian Space Programme, such as the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology in Thiruvananthapuram.

In the coming years, India is gearing up for several ambitious missions, including a soft landing on the moon (Chandrayaan 3), a human spaceflight mission (Gaganyaan), a solar mission (Aditya L1), and a Venus orbiter mission (Shukrayaan). In an exclusive interview for the PSA Office, Mr. S. Somnath, Secretary, Department of Space (DoS) and Chairperson, ISRO, talked about how these missions “define our identity as a technology-creating nation striving to lead one of the most powerful and influential space programmes in the 21st century world.” The nation also remains immersed in research to build small satellite launch vehicles, air-breathing rocket propulsion systems, reusable rocket technology, and more. “These missions are opportunities to train a young scientific workforce that looks beyond routine tasks and drives fundamental knowledge creation. We aim to involve engineers, mathematicians, astronomists, astrophysicists, and entrepreneurs for building capacity for national missions and commercial economic ventures,” said Mr. Somnath.

Societal welfare and sustainability

From the 1980s and 90s, India made many achievements in various fields of science and technology where progress was focused solely on improving lives on the ground. At the turn of the decade in the 80s, India adopted Mark-II handpumps across rural areas, countering drought in a major way. In 1983, the first Indian scientific base station was set up in Antarctica . In 1984, the setting up of C-DOT (Centre for Development of Telematics) pooled the nation’s telecom researchers and resources under one roof, kickstarting the telecom revolution. In 1986, the first Railway passenger reservation system was set up, which was the largest such project demonstrating the application potential of information technology.

The year 1986 also marked the birth of the country’s first test tube baby , Harsha; this feat, in combination with the pioneering of in vitro fertilization by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) earlier in the decade, placed India on the world map in the field of assisted reproduction. In 1991 , DNA fingerprinting was first used as evidence in a legal dispute—opening doors to new possibilities in forensics, genome research, and genetic testing in healthcare—and PARAM, India’s first supercomputer, was built. In 1998, Kalpakkam , India’s nuclear power generation and fuel reprocessing plant, was established.

Kalpakkam has gone on to achieve considerable significance in terms of the nation’s sustainability goals in the decades since its opening. Recently, it became the location for two water desalination plants built by DAE, which supply potable water to a nearby township. It is also the location for a novel sewage treatment plant by DAE. In a way, it is becoming the site that recalls the wide array of research work that the DAE conducts , from developing research nuclear reactors to discovering effective isotopes for radiotherapy, and inventing low-cost water purification systems that require no electricity.

Heading into the 21st century , India conducted its first electronic-voting-machine-based elections in 2004; developed Aadhar, a unique identification number for all residents, in 2009; was declared polio-free in 2014; and set up an arctic observation station, IndARC, in 2015. In the 2020s, the momentum continues with the development of a hydrogen-powered car , the first indigenous social humanoid robot , the first indigenous server RUDRA , a manned submersible Samudrayan , and indigenous COVID-19 vaccines , among other innovations.

Today, India has to its credit several indigenous diagnostic kits , including those for HIV; several vaccines , such as those for rotavirus, multibacillary leprosy, dengue, malaria, chikungunya, and influenza; drugs , such as anti-fungal compositions and affordable generic versions of western brands; and medical devices, such as Sohum , for the early detection of hearing impairment in children, and NeoBreath , a foot-operated resuscitation device for neonatal care. These, supported by healthcare-focused policies, have contributed greatly to the improvement in life expectancy from 32 years in 1947 to 69.4 years in 2021. They have also helped reduce maternal mortality from 2000 to 113 per 100,000 live births and infant mortality from 145 to 28.7 per 1000 live births, during the same time period.

Overall, India is one of the top nations in terms of renewable energy installations , has nurtured the 3rd largest start-up ecosystem in the world, and houses the world’s largest vaccine producer . The nation is well-known globally for participation in international mega-science projects such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), Large Hadron Collider (LHC, CERN), International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), and Square Kilometre Array (SKA).

On the road to India@100

The foundations set up in the early years after independence—which have been bolstered and upgraded through the establishment of new institutes and laboratories, new and evolving policies and initiatives, and new targets in the form of national goals—have played a crucial role in setting the nation’s course towards self-reliance and sustainability, resulting in the achievements we celebrate today.

With these achievements have come learnings, skill, and development, which have prepared us to take on the grand challenges that remain to be solved in our country. Now, at the beginning of what the Hon’ble Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi, has termed ‘Amrit Kaal ’—or the auspicious era of the 25 years remaining until India@100—several cogs have already been set in motion towards achieving India’s developmental goals. The Atal Innovation Mission has set up incubation centres for start-ups in a wide range of fields; scientific exploration missions, such as the Deep Ocean Mission or space missions have opened doors to new discoveries; the Digital India movement has been launched to develop semiconductors, spread the network of optical fibres for 5G to rural areas, and drive transformation in education, healthcare, and agriculture through digitalisation; production-linked incentive (PLI) schemes have been set up to boost manufacturing and bring in technologies from abroad; and progressive policies regarding drones have opened up a myriad of possibilities for goods deliveries, digital mapping, surveillance, and flying taxis. This list is not exhaustive.

In his speech on India’s 76th Independence Day, the Prime Minister urged the nation to work towards self-reliance in renewables in terms of harnessing solar and wind energy, producing hydrogen fuel and biofuel, and promoting electric vehicles. He emphasized the need for more sustainable practices in agriculture, such as using nanofertilizers and shifting to organic and chemical-free farming. He also hailed the technological successes of the country and highlighted our power to become a technology hub in the coming decades.

Indeed, it is only on the back of science, technology, and innovation that India will grow to become a force to reckon with on the global stage.

If you would like to dive into 75 years of Indian science, technology, and innovation in further detail, read the curated list of articles below:

• Science Reporter Issue 2021 , http://nopr.niscair.res.in/jinfo/sr/2021/Science%20Reporter%20August%202021.pdf

o “Some Leaders Who Helped Shape Science in India, and Who Left us Recently” by Prof. K. VijayRaghavan o “Celebrating 75 Years of India’s S&T Journey: Major Recent Contributions of DST” by Ashutosh Sharma, Akhilesh Gupta, and Jenice Jean Goveas o “From Sounding Rocket to Launch Vehicles: Achievements of Department of Space” by K. Sivan o “Changing the Tide in Public Health Systems in 75 Years: Role of ICMR” by Balram Bhargava and Rajni Kant o “The Journey of Building Defence Technological Capability” by G. Satheesh Reddy o “75 Years of India’s Independence and 80 Years of CSIR” by Shekhar C. Mande, Geetha Vani Rayasam, and G. Mahesh o “Indian Agriculture: Journey from Begging Bowl to Sustainable Food Security” by Trilochan Mohapatra and P. K. Rout o “Department of Atomic Energy: A Proud Symbol of AatmaNirbhar Bharat” by K. N. Vyas and M. Ramanamurthi o “DBT: Building a Strong Biotechnology Research and Translation Ecosystem” by Renu Swarup and A. Vamsi Krishna o “Ministry of Earth Sciences: Contributing Towards a Weather-Ready and Climate-Smart India” by M. Rajeevan, Gopal Iyengar, and Bhavya Khanna

• “India Today 41st anniversary: A look at science and technology from 1975–2016” by India Today Desk. https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20161226-india-today-41st-anniversary-science-technology-progress-830064-2016-12-15 • “Seven defining scientific contributions that impact every Indian” by Dinesh C. Sharma for Down To Earth. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-technology/seven-defining-scientific-contributions-that-impact-every-indian-58467 • “India at 75 | Timeline: Science” by R. Ramachandran for Frontline. https://frontline.thehindu.com/science-and-technology/india-at-75-timeline-science-and-technology-75-years-of-independence/article65731123.ece • “India’s key scientific and technological milestones since independence” by the Ministry of Culture. https://amritmahotsav.nic.in/blogdetail.htm?67 • “India’s Scientific Growth Story” by the Embassy of India Moscow. https://www.indianembassy-moscow.gov.in/pdf/snt/India@75%20Science%20Technology%20Innovation%20Growth%20Story.pdf • “India at 75: High points in science, technology and innovation” by Shekhar Mande for The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/high-points-in-science-technology-and-innovation/article65775873.ece • “IIA explores stellar mysteries over 75 years” by the Department of Science and Technology. IIA explores stellar mysteries over 75 years | Department Of Science & Technology (dst.gov.in) • “Indian Agriculture After Independence” by H. Pathak, J. P. Mishra, and T. Mohapatra. Indian-Agriculture-after-Independence.pdf (icar.org.in) • “First in their field: women who led the way” by the Ministry of Culture. https://amritmahotsav.nic.in/blogdetail.htm?74 • “A Brief history of vaccines and vaccination in India” by Chandrakant Lahariya in the Indian Journal of Medical Research . https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4078488/#:~:text=The%20Pasteur%20Institute%20of%20India,(OPV)%20in%20197030 • “English Rendering of Prime Minister’s Address from the Ramparts of Red Fort on 76th Independence Day” by Pravishti Tithi for PIB Delhi. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1851994 • “Scientific fraternity in the country celebrated 75th year of India’s Independence with the rendering of the National Anthem” by PIB Delhi. https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1745501 • Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC). https://www.psa.gov.in/pm-stiac

Rachana Bhattacharjee is an author, creative lead, and one of countless chroniclers of the information age.

The Government of India established the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser (PSA) in November 1999. The PSA's office aims to provide pragmatic and objective advice to the Prime Minister and the cabinet in matters of Science and Technology.

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The Evolution of Science and Technology in India since Independence

2008, UNESCO History of Humanity Volume VII The Twentieth Century Edited by Sarvepalli Gopal and Sergei L. Tikhvinsky Co-edited by I. A. Abu-Lughod, G. Weinberg, I. D. Thiam and W. Tao Scientific and Cultural Development Volume VII The Twentieth Century

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The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry

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Ideologies of the scientific revolution: the rise and fall of a historiographical concept, two new conceptions of the scientific revolution compared, the origins of modern science, making the history of early modern science: reflections on a discipline in the age of globalization *, concepts of the 'scientific revolution': an analysis of the historiographical appraisal of the traditional claims of the science, archimedean science and the scientific revolution, introduction: darwin in the larger intellectual context, scientific revolution, history and sociology of, the intellectual roots of engineering science, early modern jesuit science. a historiographical essay, related papers.

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The Historiography of Scientific Revolutions: A Philosophical Reflection

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Scientific revolution has been one of the most controversial topics in the history and philosophy of science. Yet there has been no consensus on what is the best unit of analysis in the historiography of scientific revolutions. Nor is there a consensus on what best explains the nature of scientific revolutions. This chapter provides a critical examination of the historiography of scientific revolutions. It begins with a brief introduction to the historical development of the concept of scientific revolution, followed by an overview of the five main philosophical accounts of scientific revolutions. It then challenges two historiographical assumptions of the philosophical analyses of scientific revolutions.

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Acknowledgments

An early draft of this chapter was presented at Evidence Seminar, University of Kent on 24 May 2022. I thank the audience there for the helpful comments and discussion.

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16 Significant Science and Tech Discoveries Ancient India Gave the World

India was actively contributing to the field of science and technology centuries long before modern laboratories were set up. Here is a list of the ancient Indian discoveries that introduced and strengthened the fundamentals of modern science.

“We owe a lot to the ancient Indians, teaching us how to count. Without which most modern scientific discoveries would have been impossible.” – Albert Einstein

O ne of the oldest civilizations in the world, the Indian civilization has a strong tradition of science and technology. Ancient India was a land of sages and seers as well as a land of scholars and scientists. Research has shown that from making the best steel in the world to teaching the world to count, India was actively contributing to the field of science and technology centuries long before modern laboratories were set up. Many theories and techniques discovered by the ancient Indians have created and strengthened the fundamentals of modern science and technology. While some of these groundbreaking contributions have been acknowledged, some are still unknown to most.

Here is a list of 16 contributions, made by ancient Indians to the world of science and technology, that will make you feel proud to be an Indian.

1. the idea of zero.

Photo Source Left /Right

Little needs to be written about the mathematical digit ‘zero’, one of the most important inventions of all time. Mathematician Aryabhata was the first person to create a symbol for zero and it was through his efforts that mathematical operations like addition and subtraction started using the digit, zero. The concept of zero and its integration into the place-value system also enabled one to write numbers, no matter how large, by using only ten symbols.

2. The Decimal System

Photo Source Left / Right

India gave the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols – the decimal system. In this system, each symbol received a value of position as well as an absolute value. Due to the simplicity of the decimal notation, which facilitated calculation, this system made the uses of arithmetic in practical inventions much faster and easier.

3. Numeral Notations

Photo Source

Indians, as early as 500 BCE, had devised a system of different symbols for every number from one to nine. This notation system was adopted by the Arabs who called it the hind numerals. Centuries later, this notation system was adopted by the western world who called them the Arabic numerals as it reached them through the Arab traders.

4. Fibbonacci Numbers

The Fibonacci numbers and their sequence first appear in Indian mathematics as mātrāmeru, mentioned by Pingala in connection with the Sanskrit tradition of prosody. Later on, the methods for the formation of these numbers were given by mathematicians Virahanka, Gopala and Hemacandra , much before the Italian mathematician Fibonacci introduced the fascinating sequence to Western European mathematics.

5. Binary Numbers

Binary numbers is the basic language in which computer programs are written. Binary basically refers to a set of two numbers, 1 and 0, the combinations of which are called bits and bytes. The binary number system was first described by the Vedic scholar Pingala, in his book Chandahśāstra , which is the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody ( the study of poetic metres and verse).

6. Chakravala method of Algorithms

The chakravala method is a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations, including the Pell’s equation. This method for obtaining integer solutions was developed by Brahmagupta, one of the well known mathematicians of the 7 th century CE. Another mathematician, Jayadeva later generalized this method for a wider range of equations, which was further refined by Bhāskara II in his Bijaganita treatise.

7. Ruler Measurements

Excavations at Harappans sites have yielded rulers or linear measures made from ivory and shell. Marked out in minute subdivisions with amazing accuracy, the calibrations correspond closely with the hasta increments of 1 3/8 inches, traditionally used in the ancient architecture of South India. Ancient bricks found at the excavation sites have dimensions that correspond to the units on these rulers.

You May Also Like : 16 Fascinating Facts about Mohenjodaro and Indus Valley, a Civilisation Far Ahead of its Time

8. A Theory of Atom

One of the notable scientists of the ancient India was Kanad who is said to have devised the atomic theory centuries before John Dalton was born. He speculated the existence of anu or a small indestructible particles, much like an atom. He also stated that anu can have two states — absolute rest and a state of motion. He further held that atoms of same substance combined with each other in a specific and synchronized manner to produce dvyanuka (diatomic molecules) and tryanuka (triatomic molecules).

9. The Heliocentric Theory

Photo Story

Mathematicians of ancient India often applied their mathematical knowledge to make accurate astronomical predictions. The most significant among them was Aryabhatta whose book, Aryabhatiya, represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. He correctly propounded that the Earth is round, rotates on its own axis and revolves around the Sun i.e the heliocentric theory. He also made predictions about the solar and lunar eclipses, duration of the day as well as the distance between the Earth and the Moon.

10. Wootz Steel

A pioneering steel alloy matrix developed in India, Wootz steel is a crucible steel characterized by a pattern of bands that was known in the ancient world by many different names such as Ukku, Hindwani and Seric Iron . This steel was used to make the famed Damascus swords of yore that could cleave a free-falling silk scarf or a block of wood with the same ease. Produced by the Tamils of the Chera Dynasty, the finest steel of the ancient world was made by heating black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible kept inside a charcoal furnace.

11. Smelting of Zinc

India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique derived from a long experience of ancient alchemy. The ancient Persians had also attempted to reduce zinc oxide in an open furnace but had failed. Zawar in the Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the world’s first known ancient zinc smelting site. The distillation technique of zinc production goes back to the 12th Century AD and is an important contribution of India to the world of science.

12. Seamless Metal Globe

Photo Source Left/ Right

Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, the first seamless celestial globe was made in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in the reign of the Emperor Akbar. In a major feat in metallurgy, Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting to make twenty other globe masterpieces in the reign of the Mughal Empire. Before these globes were rediscovered in the 1980s, modern metallurgists believed that it was technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology.

13. Plastic Surgery

Written by Sushruta in 6th Century BC, Sushruta Samhita is considered to be one of the most comprehensive textbooks on ancient surgery. The text mentions various illnesses, plants, preparations and cures along with complex techniques of plastic surgery. The Sushruta Samhita ’s most well-known contribution to plastic surgery is the reconstruction of the nose, known also as rhinoplasty.

14. Cataract Surgery

The first cataract surgery is said to have been performed by the ancient Indian physician Sushruta, way back in 6th century BCE. To remove the cataract from the eyes, he used a curved needle, Jabamukhi Salaka , to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. The eye would then be bandaged for a few days till it healed completely. Sushruta’s surgical works were later translated to Arabic language and through the Arabs, his works were introduced to the West.

15. Ayurveda

Long before the birth of Hippocrates, Charaka authored a foundational text, Charakasamhita, on the ancient science of Ayurveda . Referred to as the Father of Indian Medicine, Charaka was was the first physician to present the concept of digestion, metabolism and immunity in his book. Charaka’s ancient manual on preventive medicine remained a standard work on the subject for two millennia and was translated into many foreign languages, including Arabic and Latin.

16. Iron-Cased Rockets

The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the 1780s by Tipu Sultan of Mysore who successfully used these rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. He crafted long iron tubes, filled them with gunpowder and fastened them to bamboo poles to create the predecessor of the modern rocket. With a range of about 2 km, these rockets were the best in the world at that time and caused as much fear and confusion as damage. Due to them, the British suffered one of their worst ever defeats in India at the hands of Tipu.

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Also Read : Modern India Can Learn a Lot from These 20 Traditional Water Conservation Systems

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Science and Technology in India, Progress, Achievements, and Concerns

Science and technology have played a pivotal role in shaping India's modern identity and driving its socio-economic development. Know all Achievements Science and Technology in India.

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Science and technology have played a pivotal role in shaping India’s modern identity and driving its socio-economic development. With a rich history dating back centuries, India has made significant strides in recent years, positioning itself as a global player in the field of science and technology.

Science and Technology in India

Science and technology have significantly influenced India’s development. With a rich historical legacy, India has made remarkable strides in recent times. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has gained global acclaim with missions to the moon and Mars, while the IT and pharmaceutical sectors are thriving. These advancements have driven economic growth, improved healthcare, and strengthened the agricultural sector. However, India must address funding, education, and digital access disparities to maintain this momentum and ensure technology benefits all.

History of science and technology in India

India’s history of science and technology is a tapestry of remarkable accomplishments spanning millennia. Ancient Indian mathematicians blazed a trail with the invention of the decimal system and the concept of zero, while astronomers made precise celestial observations. The “Sushruta Samhita” demonstrated advanced surgical knowledge, and India’s metallurgical expertise was renowned. The medieval period witnessed architectural marvels like the Taj Mahal. British colonialism influenced the growth of modern scientific institutions.

Post-independence, India prioritized education and research, giving rise to institutions like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs). Contemporary India excels in space exploration, IT, pharmaceuticals, and renewable energy, solidifying its global stature in science and technology. Science and technology have always been integral to Indian culture, with a rich tradition of natural philosophy. The Indian Renaissance, coinciding with the independence struggle, saw significant progress by Indian scientists. Post-independence, the government established robust S&T infrastructure, with the Department of Science and Technology playing a pivotal role.

Role of Science & Technology in India

The role of science and technology in India is pivotal, with significant contributions to the nation’s development and progress. This role can be understood through various dimensions:

Economic Growth

Science and technology play a critical role in driving economic growth. They underpin various industries, including information technology, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and manufacturing. India’s burgeoning software and IT services sector, in particular, has led to substantial foreign exchange earnings and job creation. The advancements in these industries have significantly contributed to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and overall economic development.

Agricultural Transformation

Science and technology have been instrumental in transforming India’s agriculture sector. The Green Revolution, initiated in the mid-20th century, introduced high-yield crop varieties, modern irrigation techniques, and improved agricultural practices. These innovations increased agricultural productivity, ensuring food security for the growing population.

Healthcare Advancements

Technological advancements in the field of medicine have improved healthcare outcomes in India. Advanced medical equipment, telemedicine, and innovative treatment methods have enhanced the quality of healthcare services. India has also become a prominent player in pharmaceuticals, producing a wide range of affordable generic drugs and vaccines.

Education and Research

Science and technology have fostered a culture of innovation and research in India. The establishment of institutions like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISERs), and world-class research facilities has nurtured a new generation of scientists and engineers. These institutions have not only contributed to cutting-edge research but have also attracted international collaborations.

Space Exploration

The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has achieved significant milestones in space exploration. India’s Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) in 2013 marked its entry into interplanetary space exploration. ISRO’s missions have contributed to advancements in communication, remote sensing, and global positioning systems, benefiting a wide range of sectors, including agriculture, disaster management, and urban planning.

Global Contributions

India has become a global contributor in science and technology. Its space missions and pharmaceutical industry have not only served domestic needs but have also had a global impact. India’s information technology sector provides crucial services to businesses and organizations around the world. The nation’s scientists and engineers are increasingly engaged in collaborative research projects with international partners, contributing to global scientific advancements.

Innovation and Entrepreneurship

Science and technology have fostered innovation and entrepreneurship. Start-ups in the technology, biotechnology, and clean energy sectors have gained prominence, attracting investments and generating job opportunities. India’s government and private sector actively support the growth of a vibrant start-up ecosystem.

Recent Developments of science and technology in India

India has a rich history of remarkable achievements in the field of science and technology, spanning from ancient innovations to modern breakthroughs. Here are some notable contributions:

Revolutionizing Agriculture

India’s Green Revolution, a monumental achievement, transformed the country’s agricultural landscape. Agro-scientists introduced high-yielding seeds, modern farming techniques, and improved irrigation practices. As a result, India became self-sufficient in food production, reducing reliance on foreign grain imports and ensuring food security.

Pioneering Satellite Communication

Under the visionary leadership of Vikram Sarabhai, India ventured into space technology. The successful launch of the Space Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) and the INSAT system in 1983 established India as a significant player in satellite communication. This achievement has had a profound impact on telecommunications, broadcasting, and weather forecasting.

Global Pharmaceutical Hub

India has earned its reputation as “the pharmacy of the world.” Government initiatives, including the establishment of Hindustan Antibiotics Limited and Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited, along with private sector contributions, have led to the production of affordable and effective drugs and vaccines with a global impact.

Indigenous Defence Advancements

The Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) has been pivotal in developing indigenous defence systems, including advanced aircraft, weaponry, tanks, electronic warfare technologies, and missile systems. India’s successful nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998 have reinforced national security and sovereignty.

Space Exploration Excellence

The establishment of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) in 1969 marked a significant milestone. ISRO’s missions, including Chandrayaan (2008) and Mangalyaan (2014), have propelled India to the forefront of space exploration. India became the first nation to reach the orbit of Mars on its maiden attempt, expanding our knowledge of celestial bodies.

Global IT Dominance

The establishment of the Department of Electronics in 1970, coupled with the emergence of public sector companies like ECIL and CMC, challenged the dominance of global IT giants. Today, India stands as the world’s largest exporter of IT services, with companies like Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) ranking among the top 10 IT firms globally, contributing significantly to the nation’s economic growth and technological prowess.

Achievements of India in Science and Technology

In the realm of space exploration, India has achieved notable milestones through the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). ISRO has successfully launched numerous satellites for communication, Earth observation, and navigation. The Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan), launched in 2013, marked a historic achievement, making India the fourth country in the world to reach Mars on its maiden attempt. Additionally, the Chandrayaan-2 mission was launched to explore the Moon, comprising an orbiter, lander, and rover.

Nuclear Technology

India has made significant strides in nuclear technology, developing capabilities for both civilian and military purposes. The Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998 demonstrated India’s nuclear capabilities to the world. The Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) and the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) have played pivotal roles in advancing nuclear science within the country.

Information Technology

India has established itself as a global IT hub, with companies like Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Infosys, and Wipro leading the industry. These companies have contributed to Silicon Valley and the global tech industry, while Indian engineers and entrepreneurs have made substantial contributions in the field of information technology.

Pharmaceutical and Healthcare

India is a major player in the pharmaceutical industry, producing a significant portion of the world’s generic drugs. Indian pharmaceutical companies have played a crucial role in the global fight against diseases like HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria. This contribution to healthcare has had a global impact.

Renewable Energy

India has made significant progress in the field of renewable energy, setting ambitious goals for solar and wind energy generation. The International Solar Alliance (ISA), initiated by India, promotes cooperation among countries in harnessing solar energy, contributing to sustainable development.

Biotechnology

In the field of biotechnology, India has made advancements through research institutions and companies. These advancements encompass genetic engineering, vaccine development, and crop improvement, making significant contributions to the global biotech sector.

Supercomputing

India’s indigenous supercomputer, Param, has been a valuable tool for scientific research and weather forecasting. It showcases India’s capabilities in high-performance computing.

Agriculture and Green Revolution

The Green Revolution in the 1960s and 1970s, led by scientists like Norman Borlaug, transformed agricultural practices in India. It significantly increased food production and played a crucial role in improving food security.

Space Research and Navigation

India’s space research extends to navigation with the launch of its regional satellite navigation system called NavIC. NavIC provides accurate positioning information services to users in India and neighboring regions, enhancing navigation capabilities.

Science and Innovation

Indian scientists and researchers have made substantial contributions to various scientific fields, including physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics. Their work has elevated India’s standing in the global scientific community and contributed to scientific knowledge worldwide.

Concerns in Science and Technology in India

India’s science and technology landscape faces several concerns that impact its growth and competitiveness:

Funding Challenges: The level of investment in research and development in India is often insufficient to support cutting-edge scientific endeavors and technological innovations. Inadequate funding hampers the country’s ability to tackle critical challenges and compete globally.
Educational Variability: Disparities in the quality of science and technology education across the country hinder the development of a skilled workforce. Education reform is needed to make curriculum more relevant and equip students with practical skills.
Brain Drain: The emigration of highly skilled researchers and scientists to foreign countries in pursuit of better opportunities results in a substantial loss of expertise and innovation within India.
Innovation Ecosystem: Establishing a thriving innovation ecosystem with support for startups and entrepreneurship remains a challenge. Translating research into commercially viable products or services can be difficult.
Infrastructure Gaps: Inadequate infrastructure, including state-of-the-art research facilities, hinders scientific progress and innovation.

Way Forward

To bolster India’s science and technology sector, key measures are vital. Firstly, an increase in research and development funding is imperative, with a greater budget allocation to support innovative projects and cutting-edge scientific endeavors. Concurrently, a focus on education reform is essential, enhancing the quality of science and technology education with modernized curricula and practical skill development.

Mitigating the brain drain necessitates incentives to retain talented researchers and scientists while nurturing an innovation ecosystem through support for startups and streamlined regulations promotes the commercialization of research. Infrastructure development, including state-of-the-art research facilities, will facilitate scientific progress. These measures collectively position India to contribute significantly to global scientific advancements and ensure socio-economic development.

Science and Technology in India UPSC

Science and Technology is a significant subject within the Civil Services Examination. It’s evident from the numerous questions related to this subject that appear in both the UPSC Prelims and Mains. To assist IAS aspirants in their exam preparations, this article offers downloadable PDFs of UPSC notes on Science and Technology. In the UPSC Mains, Science and Technology form part of the GS III syllabus. Additionally, science subjects such as Botany, Chemistry, and Biology are among the optional subject choices for the IAS Mains exam. These scientific subjects offer the potential for high scores, but often, aspirants face challenges in balancing static and dynamic aspects while making notes, especially when dealing with contemporary issues from the news.

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Science and Technology in India FAQs

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Science and technology in modern India drive economic growth, healthcare advancements, and agricultural transformation while fostering innovation, global contributions, and socio-economic development.

What is the future of science and technology in India?

India aspires for advancements in experimental physics, astrophysics, drug development, diagnostics, and biotechnology, aiming to push scientific frontiers.

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Science and technology underpin various industries, such as information technology, pharmaceuticals, and biotechnology, contributing to GDP and job creation.

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Published: 01 January 1938

Progress of Science in India

Nature volume 141 , page 68 ( 1938 ) Cite this article

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IN the second part of his address, Sir James Jeans referred to the progress of science during the quarter of a century since the Congress was founded, and to the contributions of Indian workers. Restricting himself to the field of mathematics and physics, he mentioned the remarkable discoveries made in pure mathematics by Ramanujan in his short life; the work of Sir Venkata Raman in sound and the theory of music, and his discovery of the spectral effect now known everywhere by his name; the investigations of Prof. M. Saha in astrophysics, “which gave us our first clear understanding of the meaning of stellar spectra, and so unlocked the road to vast new fields of astronomical knowledge”; and also the work of many Indians, especially Chandrasekhar and Kothari, on conditions in the interiors of stars. Many, other than mathematicians and physicists, would also be thinking of the great experimental skill of the late Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose. In 1911, Sir James said, there were no Indian-born fellows of the Royal Society; now there are four. In 1911, the Royal Society published no papers by Indians; in 1936, the Society published ten. The past twenty-five years have been one of the greatest periods in the history of science, a period of unprecedented progress in which India has taken its part and which has seen the remarkable growth of India as a scientific nation.

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Progress of Science in India. Nature 141 , 68 (1938). https://doi.org/10.1038/141068b0

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/141068b0

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Introduction

The Age of Science of the 1600s and the Enlightenment of the 1700s, also dubbed the Age of Enlightenment, introduced countless new concepts to European society. These ideas continue to permeate modern society. Many modern institutions have much of their foundations in the ideals of these times.

An Era of Enlightened Despotism

A new form of government began to replace absolutism across the continent. Whilst monarchs were reluctant to give up their powers, many also recognized that their states could potentially benefit from the spread of Enlightenment ideas. The most prominent of these rulers were Frederick II the Great Hohenzollern of Prussia, Joseph II Hapsburg of Austria, and Catherine II the Great Romanov of Russia.

In order to understand the actions of the European monarchs of this period, it is important to understand their key beliefs. Enlightened despots rejected the concept of absolutism and the divine right to rule. They justified their position based on their usefulness to the state. These despots based their decisions upon their reason, and they stressed religious toleration and the importance of education. They enacted codified, uniform laws, repressed local authority, nobles, and the church, and often acted impulsively and instilled change at an incredibly fast rate.

Catherine the Great 1762-1796

Catherine the Great came to power because Peter III failed to bear a male heir to the throne and was killed. Her enlightened reforms include:

• Restrictions on torture

• Religious toleration

• Education for girls

• 1767 Legislative Commission, which reported to her on the state of the Russian people

• Trained and educated her grandson Alexander I so that he could progress in society because of his merit rather than his blood line

She was friends with Diderot, Rousseau, Voltaire. However, Catherine also took a number of decidedly unenlightened actions. In 1773 she violently suppressed Pugachev’s Rebellion, a massive peasant rebellion against the degradation of the serfs. She conceded more power to the nobles and eliminated state service. Also, serfdom became equivalent to slavery under her.

Foreign Policy

Catherine combated the Ottoman Empire. In 1774, Russia gained a warm water port on the Black Sea.

Frederick II the Great 1740-1786

Frederick II Hohenzollern of Prussia declared himself “The First Servant of the State,” believing that it was his duty to serve the state and do well for his nation. He extended education to all classes, and established a professional bureaucracy and civil servants. He created a uniform judicial system and abolished torture. During his tenure, Prussia innovated agriculture by using potatoes and turnips to replenish the soil. Also, Frederick established religious freedom in Prussia.

Joseph II Habsburg 1765-1790

Joseph II Habsburg (also spelled as Hapsburg) of Austria could be considered perhaps the greatest enlightened despot, and he was purely enlightened, working solely for the good of his country. He was anti-feudalism, anti-church, and anti-nobility. He famously stated, “The state should provide the greatest good for the greatest number.” He created equal punishment and taxation regardless of class, complete freedom of the press, toleration of all religions, and civil rights for Jews. Under Joseph II a uniform law code was established, and in 1781 he abolished serfdom and in 1789 ordered the General School Ordinance, which required compulsory education for Austrian children. However, Joseph failed because he angered people by making changes far too swiftly, and even the serfs weren’t satisfied with their abrupt freedom.

As a result of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, England already had a Parliament and thus enlightened despotism did not take hold in England.

After Louis XIV the “Sun King,” Louis XV took control from 1715 until 1774. Like his predecessor, he was an absolute monarch who enacted mercantilism. As a result of the influence and control of absolutism in France, France also did not encounter an enlightened despot. In order to consummate an alliance between his nation and Austria, Maria Theresa of Austria married her daughter, Marie Antoinette, to Louis XV’s heir, Louis XVI. Louis XV recognized that the fragile institutions of absolutism were crumbling in France, and he famously stated, “Après moi, le déluge”, or “After me, the flood.”

A War-Torn Europe

War of austrian succession.

The war of Austrian Succession of 1740 to 1748 pitted Austria, England, and the Dutch against Prussia, France, and Spain. Upon Maria Theresa’s acquisition of the Austrian throne, Frederick the Great of Prussia attacked Silesia, and war broke out. In 1748 peace came at the Treaty of Aix la Chapelle. The treaty preserved the balance of power and the status quo ante bellum. Austria survived but lost Silesia, which began “German Dualism” or the fight between Prussia and Austria over who would dominate and eventually unite Germany.

The Seven Years War

The peace in 1748 was recognized as temporary by all, and in 1756 Austria and France allied in what was known as the Diplomatic Revolution. The reversal of the traditional France versus Austria situation occurred as a result of both nation’s fear of a rising, militant Prussia. To consummate the marriage, Louis XVI married Marie Antionette. The Seven Years War engaged Austria, France, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and Saxony against Prussia and England. The purpose of the war was to annihilate Prussia, and took place at a number of fronts: in Europe, in America (where American citizens know it as the French and Indian War) and in India. At the Peace of Paris in 1763, the war concluded, and Prussia retained all of its territory, including Silesia. France ceded Canada to Britain and the North American interior to Spain, and removed its armies from India. It did, however, get to keep its West Indies colonies. At this point, Great Britain became the supreme naval power and it began its domination of India.

The Partitioning of Poland

Poland was first partitioned on February 19, 1772, between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, in an agreement between them to gain more land and power in Europe. Poland was able to be partitioned because it was weak and had no ability to stop the larger and more powerful nations. The balance of power was not taken into consideration by France or England because the partitioning did not upset the great powers of Europe. The second partition involved Russia and Prussia taking addition land from Poland. After the second partition, which occurred on January 21, 1792, the majority of their remaining land was lost to Prussia and Russia. The third partition of Poland took place in October of 1795, giving Russia, Prussia, and Austria the remainder of the Polish land. Russia ended up with 120,000 square kilometres, Austria 47,000 square kilometres, and Prussia 55,000 square kilometres. This took Poland off of the map.

Science and Technology

The Enlightenment was notable for its scientific revolution, which changed the manner in which the people of Europe approached both science and technology. This was the direct result of philosophic enquiry into the ways in which science should be approached. The most important figures in this change of thinking were Descartes and Bacon.

The philosopher Descartes presented the notion of deductive reasoning – that is, to start with a premise and to then discard evidence that doesn’t support the premise. However, Sir Francis Bacon introduced a new method of thought. He suggested that instead of using deductive reasoning, people should use inductive reasoning – in other words, they should gather evidence and then reach a conclusion based on the evidence. This line of thought also became known as the Scientific Method.

Changes in Astronomy

The Scientific Revolution began with discoveries in astronomy, most importantly dealing with the concept of a solar system. These discoveries generated controversy, and some were forced by church authorities to recant their theories.

Pre-Revolution: Aristotle and Ptolemy

Ancient Greek philosophers Aristotle and Ptolemy had a geocentric, or Earth-centred, view of the universe. Of the ten spheres of the heavens, Earth and heavy objects (such as sinners) were at the centre, and lighter objects (such as angels) were in the higher spheres. This view was adopted as Church doctrine.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

During the Renaissance, study of astronomy at universities began. Regiomontanus and Nicolas of Cusa developed new advances in mathematics and methods of calculation. Copernicus, although a devout Christian, doubted whether the views held by Aristotle and Ptolemy were completely correct. Using mathematics and visual observations with only the naked eye, he developed the Heliocentric, or Copernican, Theory of the Universe, stating that the Earth revolves around the sun.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

Tycho Brahe created a mass of scientific data on astronomy during his lifetime; although he made no major contributions to science, he laid the groundwork for Kepler’s discoveries.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Kepler was a student of Brahe. He used Brahe’s body of data to write Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion, most significantly noting that planets’ orbits are elliptical instead of circular.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Galileo is generally given credit for invention of the telescope; although the device itself is not of Galileo’s design, he was the first to use it for astronomy. With this tool, he proved the Copernican Theory of the Universe. Galileo spread news of his work through letters to friends and colleagues. Although the Church forced him to recant his ideas and spend the rest of his life under house arrest, his works had already been published and could not be disregarded.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Newton is often considered the greatest scientific mind in history. His Principia Mathematica (1687) includes Newton’s Law of Gravity, an incredibly ground-breaking study. Newton’s work destroyed the old notion of an Earth-centred universe. Newton also had a great influence outside of science. For example, he was to become the hero of Thomas Jefferson.

Developments in Medicine Andreas

Vesalius (1514-1564).

Vesalius studied human cadavers, a practice forbidden by church doctrine. His writing The Structure of the Human Body in 1543 renewed and modernized the study of the human body.

William Harvey (1678-1757)

William Harvey wrote On the Movement of the Heart and Blood in 1728, on the circulatory system.

Society and Culture

As a result of new learning from the Scientific Revolution, the world was less of a mystical place, as natural phenomena became increasingly explainable by science. According to Enlightened philosophers:

• The universe is a fully tangible place governed by natural rather than supernatural forces.

• Rigorous application of the scientific method can answer fundamental questions in all areas of inquiry.

• The human race can be educated to achieve nearly infinite improvement.

Perhaps most importantly, though, Enlightened philosophers stressed that people are all equal because all of us possess reason.

There were a number of precursors to the Enlightenment. One of the most important was the Age of Science of the 1600s, which presented inductive thinking, and using evidence to reach a conclusion. The ideas of Locke and Hobbes and the notion of the social contract challenged traditional thinking and also contributed to the Enlightenment. Scepticism, which questioned traditional authority and ideas, contributed as well. Finally, the idea of moral relativism arose – assailing people for judging people who are different from themselves.

The Legacy of the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment began in France, as a result of its well-developed town and city life, as well as its large middle class that wanted to learn the ideas. The Enlightenment promoted the use of one’s reason, rather than accepting tradition. It rejected the traditional attitudes of the Catholic Church. Many “philosophers,” or people who thought about subjects in an enquiring, inductive manner, became prominent. Salons were hosted by upper-middle class women who wanted to discuss topics of the day, such as politics.

The Enlightenment stressed that we are products of experience and environment, and that we should have the utmost confidence in the unlimited capacity of the human mind. It stressed the unlimited progress of humans, and the ideas of atheism and deism became especially prominent. Adam Smith’s concept of free market capitalism sent European economics in a new direction. Enlightened despots such as Catherine the Great and Joseph II replaced absolute monarchs and used their states as agents of progress. Education and literacy expanded vastly, and people recognized the importance of intellectual freedoms of speech, thought, and press.

Conflict with the Church

Although the ideas of the Enlightenment clashed with Church dogma, it was mostly not a movement against the Church. Most Enlightened philosophers considered themselves to be followers of deism, believing that God created an utterly flawless universe and left it alone, some describing God as the “divine clockmaker.”

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

• dies before the enlightenment

• English Revolution shapes his political outlook

• Leviathan (1651) – life is “nasty, brutish, and short” – people are naturally bad and need a strong government to control them.

• may be considered to be the father of the enlightenment: because of all the opposition he inspired.

John Locke (1632-1704)

• specifically refuted Hobbes

• humanity is only governed by laws of nature, man has right to life, liberty, and property

• there is a natural social contract that binds the people and their government together; the people have a responsibility to their government, and their government likewise has a responsibility to its people

• Two Treatises on Civil Government justified supremacy of Parliament

• Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) – Tabula rasa – human progress is in the hands of society

Philosophers

Voltaire (1694-1776).

• stressed religious tolerance

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

• Spirit of the Laws – checks and balances on government, no one group having sole power

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

• social contract

• “general will” – government acts for the majority

739px-Boucher_Diane_sortant_du_bain_Louvre_2712-300x243.jpg

The Rococo Art movement of the 1700s emphasized elaborate, decorative, frivolous, and aristocratic art. Often depicted were playful intrigue, love, and courtship. The use of wispy brush strokes and pastels was common in Rococo Art. Rococo Art is especially associated with the reign of Louis XV Bourbon in France. The French artist Boucher painted for Madame Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV. The most famous paintings of Boucher include Diana Leaving her Bath and Pastorale, a painting of a wealthy couple under a tree.

Article Sources and Contributors

European History/Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?oldid=2129260 Contributors: Adrignola, Belteshazzar, Booyabazooka, Derbeth, Emviki, Gmcfoley, Hagindaz, Herbythyme, Hotgoblin, Iamunknown, Joeybob12, Jomegat, Magicmonster, Mike.lifeguard, Panic2k4, QuiteUnusual, Recent Runes, Spongebob88, Ultimadesigns, Webaware, Wutsje, Xania, 94 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Boucher Diane sortant du bain Louvre 2712.jpg Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?...ouvre_2712.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol

European History/Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment. Provided by : Saylor. Located at : https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/HIST312-2.2-European-History-Scientific-Revolution-and-Enlightenment.pdf . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
Aristotle Altemps. Authored by : Jastrow. Located at : http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg%20 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
Heliocentric solar system. Authored by : RuM. Located at : http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heliocentric_solar_system.png%20 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
Hw-newton.jpg. Located at : http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hw-newton.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
JohnLocke.jpg . Authored by : Helix84. Located at : http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:JohnLocke.jpg%20 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Located at : http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_(painted_portrait).jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
Boucher Diane sortant du bain Louvre . Authored by : Bibi Saint-Pol. Located at : http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boucher_Diane_sortant_du_bain_Louvre_2712.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

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The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction

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1 (page 4) p. 4 New worlds and old worlds

Published: April 2011
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‘New worlds and old worlds’ outlines the background of the scientific revolution in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The Italian Renaissance was not the first rebirth of Latin civilization, but the previous ones were curtailed by the natural disasters of the 14th century. The Italian Renaissance allowed the development of humanism, a movement which revived the study of Roman and Greek learning and restored many ancient texts, and the invention of movable-type printing also increased the availability of books. Reforms within Christianity caused turbulence throughout Europe, and Iberian explorers returned with strange reports from the new continent of America.

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Scientific Revolution in India: A Retrospective View through Historical, Social and Political angle

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Here is a list of 16 contributions, made by ancient Indians to the world of science and technology, that will make you feel proud to be an Indian.

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2. The Decimal System

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3. Numeral Notations

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4. Fibbonacci Numbers

5. Binary Numbers

6. Chakravala method of Algorithms

7. Ruler Measurements

8. A Theory of Atom

9. The Heliocentric Theory

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10. Wootz Steel

11. Smelting of Zinc

12. Seamless Metal Globe

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13. Plastic Surgery

14. Cataract Surgery

15. Ayurveda

16. Iron-Cased Rockets

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