Psychology
A sample size is estimated before a qualitative study begins, but the final sample size depends on the study scope, data quality, sensitivity of the research topic or phenomenon of interest, and researchers’ skills. For example, a study with a narrow scope, skilled researchers, and a nonsensitive topic likely will require a smaller sample. Data saturation frequently is a key consideration in final sample size. When no new insights or information are obtained, data saturation is attained and sampling stops, although researchers may analyze one or two more cases to be certain. (See Sampling types .)
Some controversy exists around the concept of saturation in qualitative nursing research. Thorne argues that saturation is a concept appropriate for grounded theory studies and not other study types. She suggests that “information power” is perhaps more appropriate terminology for qualitative nursing research sampling and sample size.
Researchers are guided by their study design when choosing data collection and analysis methods. Common types of data collection include interviews (unstructured, semistructured, focus groups); observations of people, environments, or contexts; documents; records; artifacts; photographs; or journals. When collecting data, researchers must be mindful of gaining participant trust while also guarding against too much emotional involvement, ensuring comprehensive data collection and analysis, conducting appropriate data management, and engaging in reflexivity.
Data usually are recorded in detailed notes, memos, and audio or visual recordings, which frequently are transcribed verbatim and analyzed manually or using software programs, such as ATLAS.ti, HyperRESEARCH, MAXQDA, or NVivo. Analyzing qualitative data is complex work. Researchers act as reductionists, distilling enormous amounts of data into concise yet rich and valuable knowledge. They code or identify themes, translating abstract ideas into meaningful information. The good news is that qualitative research typically is easy to understand because it’s reported in stories told in everyday language.
Evaluating qualitative research studies can be challenging. Many terms—rigor, validity, integrity, and trustworthiness—can describe study quality, but in the end you want to know whether the study’s findings accurately and comprehensively represent the phenomenon of interest. Many researchers identify a quality framework when discussing quality-enhancement strategies. Example frameworks include:
With all frameworks, many strategies can be used to help meet identified criteria and enhance quality. (See Research quality enhancement ). And considering the study as a whole is important to evaluating its quality and rigor. For example, when looking for evidence of rigor, look for a clear and concise report title that describes the research topic and design and an abstract that summarizes key points (background, purpose, methods, results, conclusions).
Qualitative research not only generates evidence but also can help nurses determine patient preferences. Without qualitative research, we can’t truly understand others, including their interpretations, meanings, needs, and wants. Qualitative research isn’t generalizable in the traditional sense, but it helps nurses open their minds to others’ experiences. For example, nurses can protect patient autonomy by understanding them and not reducing them to universal protocols or plans. As Munhall states, “Each person we encounter help[s] us discover what is best for [him or her]. The other person, not us, is truly the expert knower of [him- or herself].” Qualitative nursing research helps us understand the complexity and many facets of a problem and gives us insights as we encourage others’ voices and searches for meaning.
When paired with clinical judgment and other evidence, qualitative research helps us implement evidence-based practice successfully. For example, a phenomenological inquiry into the lived experience of disaster workers might help expose strengths and weaknesses of individuals, populations, and systems, providing areas of focused intervention. Or a phenomenological study of the lived experience of critical-care patients might expose factors (such dark rooms or no visible clocks) that contribute to delirium.
Qualitative nursing research guides understanding in practice and sets the foundation for future quantitative and qualitative research. Knowing how to conduct and evaluate qualitative research can help nurses implement evidence-based practice successfully.
When evaluating a qualitative study, you should consider it as a whole. The following questions to consider when examining study quality and evidence of rigor are adapted from the Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research.
o What is the report title and composition of the abstract? o What is the problem and/or phenomenon of interest and study significance? o What is the purpose of the study and/or research question? | → Clear and concise report title describes the research topic and design (e.g., grounded theory) or data collection methods (e.g., interviews) → Abstract summarizes key points including background, purpose, methods, results, and conclusions → Problem and/or phenomenon of interest and significance is identified and well described, with a thorough review of relevant theories and/or other research → Study purpose and/or research question is identified and appropriate to the problem and/or phenomenon of interest and significance |
o What design and/or research paradigm was used? o Is there evidence of researcher reflexivity? o What is the setting and context for the study? o What is the sampling approach? How and why were data selected? Why was sampling stopped? o Was institutional review board (IRB) approval obtained and were other issues relating to protection of human subjects outlined? | → Design (e.g., phenomenology, ethnography), research paradigm (e.g., constructivist), and guiding theory or model, as appropriate, are identified, along with well-described rationales → Design is appropriate to research problem and/or phenomenon of interest → Researcher characteristics that may influence the study are identified and well described, as well as methods to protect against these influences (e.g., journaling, bracketing) → Settings, sites, and contexts are identified and well described, along with well-described rationales |
o What data collection and analysis instruments and/or technologies were used? o What is the method for data processing and analysis? o What is the composition of the data? o What strategies were used to enhance quality and trustworthiness? | → Sampling approach and how and why data were selected are identified and well described, along with well-described rationales; participant inclusion and exclusion criteria are outlined and appropriate → Criteria for deciding when sampling stops is outlined (e.g., saturation) and rationale is provided and appropriate → Documentation of IRB approval or explanation of lack thereof provided; consent, confidentiality, data security, and other protection of human subject issues are well described and thorough → Description of instruments (e.g., interview scripts, observation logs) and technologies (e.g., audio-recorders) used is provided, including how instruments were developed; description of if and how these changed during the study is given, along with well-described rationales → Types of data collected, details of data collection, analysis, and other processing procedures are well described and thorough, along with well-described rationales → Number and characteristics of participants and/or other data are described and appropriate → Strategies to enhance quality and trustworthiness (e.g., member checking) are identified, comprehensive, and appropriate, along with well-described rationales; trustworthiness framework, if identified, is established from experts (e.g., Lincoln and Guba, Whittemore et al.) and strategies are appropriate to this framework |
o Were main study results synthesized and interpreted? If applicable, were they developed into a theory or integrated with prior research? o Were results linked to empirical data? | → Main results (e.g., themes) are presented and well described and a theory or model is developed and described, if applicable; results are integrated with prior research → Adequate evidence (e.g., direct quotes from interviews, field notes) is provided to support main study results |
o Are study results described in relation to prior work? o Are study implications, applicability, and contributions to nursing identified? o Are study limitations outlined? | → Concise summary of main results are provided and thorough, including relation to prior works (e.g., connection, support, elaboration, challenging prior conclusions) → Thorough discussion of study implications, applicability, and unique contributions to nursing is provided → Study limitations are described thoroughly and future improvements and/or research topics are suggested |
o Are potential or perceived conflicts of interest identified and how were these managed? o If applicable, what sources of funding or other support did the study receive? | → All potential or perceived conflicts of interest are identified and well described; methods to manage potential or perceived conflicts of interest are identified and appear to protect study integrity → All sources of funding and other support are identified and well described, along with the roles the funders and support played in study efforts; they do not appear to interfere with study integrity |
Jennifer Chicca is a PhD candidate at the Indiana University of Pennsylvania in Indiana, Pennsylvania, and a part-time faculty member at the University of North Carolina Wilmington.
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In order to make a decision about implementing evidence into practice, nurses need to be able to critically appraise research. Nurses also have a professional responsibility to maintain up-to-date practice. 1 This paper provides a guide on how to critically appraise a qualitative research paper.
Useful terms
Some of the qualitative approaches used in nursing research include grounded theory, phenomenology, ethnography, case study (can lend itself to mixed methods) and narrative analysis. The data collection methods used in qualitative research include in depth interviews, focus groups, observations and stories in the form of diaries or other documents. 3
Title, keywords, authors and abstract.
In a previous paper, we discussed how the title, keywords, authors’ positions and affiliations and abstract can influence the authenticity and readability of quantitative research papers, 4 the same applies to qualitative research. However, other areas such as the purpose of the study and the research question, theoretical and conceptual frameworks, sampling and methodology also need consideration when appraising a qualitative paper.
The topic under investigation in the study should be guided by a clear research question or a statement of the problem or purpose. An example of a statement can be seen in table 2 . Unlike most quantitative studies, qualitative research does not seek to test a hypothesis. The research statement should be specific to the problem and should be reflected in the design. This will inform the reader of what will be studied and justify the purpose of the study. 5
Example of research question and problem statement
An appropriate literature review should have been conducted and summarised in the paper. It should be linked to the subject, using peer-reviewed primary research which is up to date. We suggest papers with a age limit of 5–8 years excluding original work. The literature review should give the reader a balanced view on what has been written on the subject. It is worth noting that for some qualitative approaches some literature reviews are conducted after the data collection to minimise bias, for example, in grounded theory studies. In phenomenological studies, the review sometimes occurs after the data analysis. If this is the case, the author(s) should make this clear.
Most authors use the terms theoretical and conceptual frameworks interchangeably. Usually, a theoretical framework is used when research is underpinned by one theory that aims to help predict, explain and understand the topic investigated. A theoretical framework is the blueprint that can hold or scaffold a study’s theory. Conceptual frameworks are based on concepts from various theories and findings which help to guide the research. 6 It is the researcher’s understanding of how different variables are connected in the study, for example, the literature review and research question. Theoretical and conceptual frameworks connect the researcher to existing knowledge and these are used in a study to help to explain and understand what is being investigated. A framework is the design or map for a study. When you are appraising a qualitative paper, you should be able to see how the framework helped with (1) providing a rationale and (2) the development of research questions or statements. 7 You should be able to identify how the framework, research question, purpose and literature review all complement each other.
There remains an ongoing debate in relation to what an appropriate sample size should be for a qualitative study. We hold the view that qualitative research does not seek to power and a sample size can be as small as one (eg, a single case study) or any number above one (a grounded theory study) providing that it is appropriate and answers the research problem. Shorten and Moorley 8 explain that three main types of sampling exist in qualitative research: (1) convenience (2) judgement or (3) theoretical. In the paper , the sample size should be stated and a rationale for how it was decided should be clear.
Qualitative research encompasses a variety of methods and designs. Based on the chosen method or design, the findings may be reported in a variety of different formats. Table 3 provides the main qualitative approaches used in nursing with a short description.
Different qualitative approaches
The authors should make it clear why they are using a qualitative methodology and the chosen theoretical approach or framework. The paper should provide details of participant inclusion and exclusion criteria as well as recruitment sites where the sample was drawn from, for example, urban, rural, hospital inpatient or community. Methods of data collection should be identified and be appropriate for the research statement/question.
Overall there should be a clear trail of data collection. The paper should explain when and how the study was advertised, participants were recruited and consented. it should also state when and where the data collection took place. Data collection methods include interviews, this can be structured or unstructured and in depth one to one or group. 9 Group interviews are often referred to as focus group interviews these are often voice recorded and transcribed verbatim. It should be clear if these were conducted face to face, telephone or any other type of media used. Table 3 includes some data collection methods. Other collection methods not included in table 3 examples are observation, diaries, video recording, photographs, documents or objects (artefacts). The schedule of questions for interview or the protocol for non-interview data collection should be provided, available or discussed in the paper. Some authors may use the term ‘recruitment ended once data saturation was reached’. This simply mean that the researchers were not gaining any new information at subsequent interviews, so they stopped data collection.
The data collection section should include details of the ethical approval gained to carry out the study. For example, the strategies used to gain participants’ consent to take part in the study. The authors should make clear if any ethical issues arose and how these were resolved or managed.
The approach to data analysis (see ref 10 ) needs to be clearly articulated, for example, was there more than one person responsible for analysing the data? How were any discrepancies in findings resolved? An audit trail of how the data were analysed including its management should be documented. If member checking was used this should also be reported. This level of transparency contributes to the trustworthiness and credibility of qualitative research. Some researchers provide a diagram of how they approached data analysis to demonstrate the rigour applied ( figure 1 ).
Example of data analysis diagram.
The study’s validity is reliant on the statement of the question/problem, theoretical/conceptual framework, design, method, sample and data analysis. When critiquing qualitative research, these elements will help you to determine the study’s reliability. Noble and Smith 11 explain that validity is the integrity of data methods applied and that findings should accurately reflect the data. Rigour should acknowledge the researcher’s role and involvement as well as any biases. Essentially it should focus on truth value, consistency and neutrality and applicability. 11 The authors should discuss if they used triangulation (see table 2 ) to develop the best possible understanding of the phenomena.
In qualitative research no hypothesis is tested, therefore, there is no specific result. Instead, qualitative findings are often reported in themes based on the data analysed. The findings should be clearly linked to, and reflect, the data. This contributes to the soundness of the research. 11 The researchers should make it clear how they arrived at the interpretations of the findings. The theoretical or conceptual framework used should be discussed aiding the rigour of the study. The implications of the findings need to be made clear and where appropriate their applicability or transferability should be identified. 12
The discussion should relate to the research findings as the authors seek to make connections with the literature reviewed earlier in the paper to contextualise their work. A strong discussion will connect the research aims and objectives to the findings and will be supported with literature if possible. A paper that seeks to influence nursing practice will have a recommendations section for clinical practice and research. A good conclusion will focus on the findings and discussion of the phenomena investigated.
Qualitative research has much to offer nursing and healthcare, in terms of understanding patients’ experience of illness, treatment and recovery, it can also help to understand better areas of healthcare practice. However, it must be done with rigour and this paper provides some guidance for appraising such research. To help you critique a qualitative research paper some guidance is provided in table 4 .
Some guidance for critiquing qualitative research
Patient consent for publication Not required.
Competing interests None declared.
Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.
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The chapter discusses designing a research proposal in qualitative research. The main objective is to outline the major components of a qualitative research proposal with example(s) so that the students and novice scholars easily get an understanding of a qualitative proposal. The chapter highlights the major components of a qualitative research proposal and discusses the steps involved in designing a proposal. In each step, an example is given with some essential tips. Following these steps and tips, a novice researcher can easily prepare a qualitative research proposal. Readers, especially undergraduate and master’s students, might use this as a guideline while preparing a thesis proposal. After reading this chapter, they can easily prepare a qualitative proposal.
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Hossain, M.I., Mehedi, N., Ahmad, I. (2022). Designing a Research Proposal in Qualitative Research. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_18
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Writing the proposal for a qualitative research methodology study is a double challenge because of the emergent nature of qualitative research design and because a methodology study entails describing a process to produce a process. How the authors addressed this challenge is shown in the annotated text of the grant proposal--"Analytic Techniques for Qualitative Metasynthesis"--funded by the National Institute of Nursing Research. Appealing qualitative research proposals adhere to principles that engage writers and readers in an informative and mutually respectful interaction.
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Nursing research proposal | ms word | google docs | apple pages, 22+ sample nursing research proposal, what is a nursing research proposal, what purpose do we pursue in writing a nursing research paper, elements of a nursing research proposal, steps in writing a nursing research proposal, what is the use of research proposal, nursing research: are there any controversial topics, when choosing a nursing topic, what should you look for.
2. organizing and classifying information, 3. controlling the passage of time, 4. investigating the topic, 1. statement of the problem, 2. background of the problem, 3. the purpose and objectives of the research, 4. assumptions and conceptual framework, 5. research hypothesis and methodology, 6. budget, ethical considerations, references, and appendices, share this post on your network, you may also like these articles, title project proposal.
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way of learning can be adopted by novice researchers who may model themselves on more. experienced researchers, drawing on their expertise and publications in the field. This pa per aims to ...
Methods: The research method chosen and best suited to this study is descriptive qualitative research. The proposed method for data collection is open-ended semi-structured interviews which will be audio taped to maintain accurate accounts of information given. Sample: The researcher intends to use 6-8 registered nurses who fit the outlined
Presentation Techniques - how to present your nursing research proposal. Pay attention to the overall presentation of your nursing research proposal. Use clear and concise language, avoid jargon, and organize your proposal in a structured manner with appropriate headings and subheadings. Ensure that your proposal is visually appealing, with ...
word guidelines to highlight the flexibility of this qualitative analytic method. These guidelines. are (1) familiarizing yourself with your data, (2) generating initial codes, (3) The researcher read. throughout each transcript to immerse in the data, (4) reviewing themes, (5) defining and naming.
Current Nursing research proposal topics. Nursing research proposal topics can vary greatly, depending on the type of research you're looking to conduct. Some common topics include: The effects of sleep deprivation on nurses. The use of technology in nursing care. The effect of patient communication skills on nurses' outcomes.
To address this gap, the Pathway Project Mapping Tool (PPMT) was developed in 2020 and has since been used to assist students and trainees with planning quantitative research proposals (Matthews et al., 2020). The original PPMT has been used in grant writing courses, seminars, and consultations.
The aim of this article is to illustrate in detail important issues that research beginners may have to deal with during the design of a qualitative research proposal in nursing and health care. Cristina Vivar has developed a 17-step process to describe the development of a qualitative research project. This process can serve as an easy way to ...
Takeaways: Qualitative research is valuable because it approaches a phenomenon, such as a clinical problem, about which little is known by trying to understand its many facets. Most qualitative research is emergent, holistic, detailed, and uses many strategies to collect data. Qualitative research generates evidence and helps nurses determine ...
The original PPMT was initially developed to assist nursing students in planning their quantitative research proposals and has been widely used by faculty to advise student research projects. In this paper, we have adapted the 26 sections of the PPMT to provide a comprehensive checklist and road map for qualitative proposal planning.
Useful terms. Some of the qualitative approaches used in nursing research include grounded theory, phenomenology, ethnography, case study (can lend itself to mixed methods) and narrative analysis. The data collection methods used in qualitative research include in depth interviews, focus groups, observations and stories in the form of diaries ...
The aim of this article is to illustrate in detail important issues that research beginners may have to deal with during the design of a qualitative research proposal in nursing and health care ...
The qualitative research proposal H Klopper, PhD; MBA Professor, School of Nursing Science, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), South Africa Key words: Proposal, Qualitative Research, Attributes, Qualitative Process Abstract: Curationis 31(4): 62-72 Qualitative research in the health sciences has had to overcome many prejudices and
The qualitative research proposal H Klopper, PhD; iVIBA o ^ o *u A^ Professor, School of Nursing Science, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), South Afnca Key words: Proposal, Qualitative Research, Attributes, Qualitative ... the "stigma of the small sample". However, by now we know that qualitative research experts make these
The chapter discusses designing a research proposal in qualitative research. The main objective is to outline the major components of a qualitative research proposal with example (s) so that the students and novice scholars easily get an understanding of a qualitative proposal. The chapter highlights the major components of a qualitative ...
Abstract. Writing the proposal for a qualitative research methodology study is a double challenge because of the emergent nature of qualitative research design and because a methodology study entails describing a process to produce a process. How the authors addressed this challenge is shown in the annotated text of the grant proposal ...
A proposal needs to show how your work fits into what is already known about the topic and what new paradigm will it add to the literature, while specifying the question that the research will answer, establishing its significance, and the implications of the answer. [ 2] The proposal must be capable of convincing the evaluation committee about ...
• Qualitative research is often undertaken when little is known about a topic. This means a qualitative research proposal cannot be as clear in the detail as a quantitative one. Qualitative research is often exploratory and develops iteratively. It may be hard to specify what your outcomes are likely to be, beforehand.
This overview focuses on proposal writing rather than on the development of research ideas. The Proposal - your research proposal should not be more than 2000 words (maximum) in length (excluding references). Title - the title should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, "An investigation of . . ." could be omitted.
or thesis proposal or f or res earch fundi ng. ... nursing care, qualitative research ... Choosing a suitable sample size in qualitative research is an area of conceptual debate and practical ...
•The most important aspect of a research proposal is the clarity of the research problem. • An opportunity to convince the reader (or reviewer) of why the study needs to be done (and deserves funding or ethical approval). •Should also include the rationale which specifies the reasons for conducting the research in light of current knowledge.
The primary portions of a research proposal are very similar to the important steps of a research project's conclusion. Here are some steps on how to write the content of a nursing research proposal: 1. Statement of the Problem. The first stage in the creation of any research project is to identify the problem.
The following are the processes of writing a nursing research proposal's content: 1. Statement of the Problem. Identifying the problem is the initial step in any research effort. The reviewer should be able to see how important the issue is by how it is presented. It's important to be brief and to the point.
Research Design and Procedures Following these lines of thinking, a qualitative study of the social world of full-time adult undergraduates is proposed, using semi-structured interviews as the primary research approach. It is proposed to begin the interviewing process in the fall of 2010.