the essay crime and punishment was written by

An Essay on Crimes and Punishments

• Cesare Bonesana di Beccaria (author)
• Voltaire (author)

An extremely influential Enlightenment treatise on legal reform in which Beccaria advocates the ending of torture and the death penalty. The book also contains a lengthy commentary by Voltaire which is an indication of high highly French enlightened thinkers regarded the work.

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An Essay on Crimes and Punishments. By the Marquis Beccaria of Milan. With a Commentary by M. de Voltaire. A New Edition Corrected. (Albany: W.C. Little & Co., 1872).

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Beccaria – “On Crimes And Punishments”

November 4, 2018 By Margit

Cesare Beccaria is seen by many people as the “father of criminology.” Here is a brief summary of his ideas and famous essay “On Crimes and Punishments,” both in video and text format.

Table of Contents

Discussions about Crime and Punishment

Cesare Beccaria is seen by many people as the “father of criminology” for his ideas about crime, punishment, and criminal justice procedures. He was an Italian born as an aristocrat in the year 1738 in Milan. At that time European thought about crime and punishment was still very much dominated by the old idea that crime was sin and that it was caused by the devil and by demons. And in part to punish the devil and the demons that were causing crime, very harsh punishments were used. At the time when Beccaria came along, the era of Enlightenment was in full swing, and scientists were starting to challenge the old views, but the people who had political power were not ready to leave those old ideas behind yet.

Beccaria didn’t start out as an intellectual. In fact, he wasn’t considered to be above average or interested really when it came to science or philosophy. But after he completed his law studies at the University of Pavia, he started to surround himself with a group of young men who were interested in all kinds of philosophical issues and social problems. And the intellectual discussions that Beccaria was able to have with these people led him to question many of the practices that were common in his time, including the way in which offenders were being punished for their crimes.

Publication of Beccaria’s “On Crimes and Punishments”

Beccaria’s famous work, “On Crimes and Punishments,” was published in 1764, when he was 26 years old. His essay called out the barbaric and arbitrary ways in which the criminal justice system operated. Sentences were very harsh, torture was common, there was a lot of corruption, there were secret accusations and secret trials, and there was a lot of arbitrariness in the way in which sentences were imposed. There was no such thing as equality before the law. And powerful people of high status were treated very differently from people who were poor and who did not have a lot of status.

Beccaria’s ideas clashed dramatically with these practices. And I’ll go through some of the central principles that his work is based on.

Only the Law Can Prescribe Punishment

According to Beccaria, only the law can prescribe punishment. It is up to the legislator to define crime and to prescribe which punishment should be imposed. It is not up to a magistrate or a judge to impose a penalty if the legislator has not prescribed it. And neither is it up to a judge to change what the law says about how a crime should be punished. The judge should do exactly what the law says.

The Law Applies Equally to All People

In addition, Beccaria said that the law applies equally to all people. And so punishment should be the same for all people, regardless of their power and status.

Making the Law and Law Enforcement Public

Beccaria also believed in the power of making the law and law enforcement public. More specifically, laws should be published so that people actually know about them, and trials should be public, too. Only then can onlookers judge if the trial is fair.

Beccaria: Punishments Should be Proportional, Certain, and Swift

Regarding severe punishment, Beccaria said that if severe punishments do not prevent crime, they should not be used. Instead, punishments should be proportional to the harm that the crime has caused. According to Beccaria, the aim of punishment is not to cause pain to the offender, but to prevent them from doing it again and to prevent other people from committing crime. In order to be able to do that, Beccaria believed that punishment should be certain and swift. He believed that if offenders were sure that they would be punished and if punishment would come as quickly as possible after the offense, that this would have the largest chance of preventing crime.

Beccaria Argued Against the Death Penalty

As another controversial issue, Beccaria argued against the death penalty. In his view, the state does not have the right to repay violence with more violence. And in addition to that, Beccaria believed that the death penalty was useless. The death penalty is momentary, it is not lasting and therefore the death penalty cannot be very successful in preventing crimes. Instead, lasting punishments, such as life imprisonment, would be more successful in preventing crimes, because potential offenders will find this a much more miserable condition than the death penalty.

No Right To Torture

Similarly, according to Cesare Beccaria, the state does not have the right to torture. Because no one is guilty until he or she is found guilty, no one has the right to punish a person by torturing him or her. Plus, people who are under torture will want the torture to stop and might therefore make false claims, including that they committed a crime they did not commit. So torture is also ineffective.

The Power of Education

Instead of torture and severe penalties, Beccaria believed that education is the most certain method of preventing crime.

Beccaria: Controversy and Success

Beccaria’s ideas are hardly controversial today, but they caused a lot of controversy at the time, because they were an attack on the entire criminal justice system. Beccaria initially published his essay anonymously, because he didn’t necessarily consider it to be a great idea to publish such radical ideas. And this idea was partly confirmed when the book was put on the black list of the Catholic Church for a full 200 years.

But even though his ideas were controversial back then, his essay became an immediate success. In fact, Cesare Beccaria’s ideas became the basis for all modern criminal justice systems and there is some evidence that his essay influenced the American and French revolutions which happened not long after the publication of the essay. His ideas were not original, because others had also proposed them, but Beccaria was the first one to present them in a consistent way. Many people were ready for the changes that he proposed, which is why his essay was such a success.

Beccaria ends his essay with what can be seen as a kind of summary of his view:

“So that any punishment be not an act of violence of one or of many against another, it is essential that it be public, prompt, necessary, minimal in severity as possible under given circumstances, proportional to the crime, and prescribed by the laws.”

You can find Cesare Beccaria’s full essay “On Crimes and Punishments” here .

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Crime and Punishment

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Crime and Punishment , novel by Russian writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky , first published in 1866. His first masterpiece, the novel is a psychological analysis of the poor former student Raskolnikov , whose theory that he is an extraordinary person able to take on the spiritual responsibility of using evil means to achieve humanitarian ends leads him to murder . The act produces nightmarish guilt in Raskolnikov. The story is one of the finest studies of the psychopathology of guilt written in any language.

Raskolnikov, a former student, lives in poverty and chaos in St. Petersburg . He decides—through contradictory theories, including utilitarian morality and the belief that extraordinary people have the “right to transgress”—to murder Alyona Ivanovna, an elderly pawnbroker. Alyona’s half sister, Lizaveta, arrives while he is rifling through Alyona’s possessions, and he kills her too. In the meantime he befriends an alcoholic man, Marmeladov, whose daughter Sonya has been forced into prostitution to support the family. An old friend, Razumikhin, also enters his life, concerned by his aberrant behaviour. In addition, Raskolnikov’s sister, Dunya, who has left her job as a governess for Svidrigailov because of his improper advances toward her, arrives in St. Petersburg with their mother. Dunya intends to marry a man named Luzhin in order to improve their financial and social position.

The narrative follows the twists and turns of Raskolnikov’s emotions and elaborates his struggle with his conscience and the tightening noose of suspicion. He is ill through most of the story, and he angrily rejects his family’s and Razumikhin’s attempts to help him. When Marmeladov is run over by a carriage and dies, Raskolnikov gives Sonya and the family money for his funeral. He forbids Dunya to marry the pompous Luzhin, who offends Dunya to the point that she breaks off the engagement. Raskolnikov repeatedly visits Sonya, but he behaves in such an unhinged manner that she is frightened. When it seems that Porfiry, who is investigating the murder, is on the point of charging Raskolnikov, another man confesses. At a memorial dinner for Marmeladov, Luzhin falsely accuses Sonya of stealing from him, and Raskolnikov explains why he would do such a thing. Later he tells Sonya that he murdered the two women. Svidrigailov overhears the confession and subsequently uses that knowledge to try to blackmail Dunya into accepting him, but, when it becomes clear that she will never love him, he kills himself.

At last Raskolnikov turns himself in. He is sentenced to eight years of hard labour in Siberia. Sonya follows him to Siberia and visits him at every opportunity. Dunya marries Razumikhin. Raskolnikov does not repent for the murders and continues to emotionally shut out Sonya and the other prisoners. However, after an illness, he at last comes to the realization that happiness cannot be achieved by a reasoned plan of existence but must be earned by suffering. He then is able to accept and return Sonya’s love.

The narrative’s feverish compelling tone and its moving depiction of the recovery of a diseased spirit contributed to its status as a masterpiece. The novel also offers remarkable psychological portraits of the alcoholic Marmeladov and of the vicious amoralist Svidrigailov. Razumikhin exemplifies Dostoyevsky’s conviction that slow, steady, hard work is the right approach to life, and the author deliberately made Sonya an idealized symbol of pure Christian goodness. Crime and Punishment was originally published serially in a literary journal before appearing in book form in 1867.

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The first amendment, historic document, on crimes and punishments (1764).

Cesare Bonesana di Beccaria | 1764

Cesare Bonesana di Beccaria, marquis of Gualdasco and Villaregio (1738-94), was the author of On Crimes and Punishments (1764). Inspired by the discussion of criminal law in Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws , this Milanese wrote a systematic treatise on the subject that was almost immediately translated into English and French. In it, he argued that the sole purpose of punishment is deterrence, and he denounced torture, the entertainment of secret accusations, and the death penalty; suggested that pre-trial detention can rarely be justified; and called for promptitude in punishment. The impact of his little book on the post-revolutionary revisal of the laws in the various nascent American states was considerable.

Selected by

Professor of History and Charles O. Lee and Louise K. Lee Chair in the Western Heritage at Hillsdale College

Jeffrey Rosen

President and CEO, National Constitution Center

Colleen A. Sheehan

Professor of Politics at the Arizona State University School of Civic and Economic Thought and Leadership

Chapter 1: Of the Origin of Punishment

Laws are the conditions under which men, naturally independent, united themselves in society. Weary of living in a continual state of war, and of enjoying a liberty which became of little value, from the uncertainty of its duration, they sacrificed one part of it to enjoy the rest in peace and security. . . .

Chapter 2: Of the Right to Punish

Every punishment which does not arise from absolute necessity, says the great Montesquieu, is tyrannical. A proposition which may be made more general, thus. Every act of authority of one man over another, for which there is not an absolute necessity, is tyrannical. It is upon this, then, that the sovereign’s right to punish crimes is founded; that is, upon the necessity of defending the public liberty, intrusted to his care, from the usurpation of individuals. . . .

No man ever gave up his liberty merely for the good of the public. Such a chimera exists only in romances. Every individual wishes, if possible, to be exempt from the compacts that bind the rest of mankind. . . .

Observe, that by justice I understand nothing more than that bond, which is necessary to keep the interest of individuals united; without which, men would return to the original state of barbarity. All punishments, which exceed the necessity of preserving this bond, are in their nature unjust.

Chapter 6: Of the Proportion between Crimes and Punishments

It is not only the common interest of mankind that crimes should not be committed, but that crimes of every kind should be less frequent, in proportion to the evil they produce to society. Therefore, the means made use of by the legislature to prevent crimes, should be more powerful, in proportion as they are destructive of the public safety and happiness, and as the inducements to commit them are stronger. Therefore there ought to be a fixed proportion between crimes and punishments.

Chapter 12: Of the Intent of Punishments

From the foregoing considerations it is evident, that the intent of punishments is not to torment a sensible being, nor to undo a crime already committed. Is it possible that torments, and useless cruelty, the instruments of furious fanaticism, or of impotency of tyrants, can be authorized by a political body? which, so far from being influenced by passion, should be the cool moderator of the passions of individuals. Can the groans of a tortured wretch recal the time past, or reverse the crime he has committed? The end of punishment, therefore, is no other, than to prevent others from committing the like offence. Such punishments, therefore, and such a mode of inflicting them, ought to be chosen, as will make strongest and most lasting impressions on the minds of others, with the least torment to the body of the criminal.

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An essay on crimes and punishments, by cesare beccaria translated from the italian, 1775 (original published in 1764), introduction, chapter i: of the origin of punishments, chapter ii: of the right to punish, chapter vi: of the proportion between crimes and punishments, chapter xii: of the intent of punishments, chapter xix: of the advantage of immediate punishment, chapter xxvii: of the mildness of punishments.

An Essay on Crimes and Punishments

By cesare beccaria.

A shy and retiring man prone to unpredictable moods and educated in the law as well as economics, [1] Cesare Beccaria (1738 – 1794) was perhaps an unlikely figure to trigger a veritable revolution in criminology. As a young man, he fell in with brothers Pietro and Alessandro Verri and their “academy of fists,” [2] a Milanese organization referred to variously as an “intellectual circle” [3] and a “literary society,” [4] through which Beccaria was initiated into Enlightenment thought. [5] The Verri brothers supplied the assignment and the insider knowledge of the criminal justice system of the day, and at the behest of this group, Becarria completed his famous essay On Crimes and Punishments in 1764. [6]

In the time of its writing, Beccaria’s propositions that onerous punishments like torture and execution were unnecessarily cruel, disproportionate, and unlikely to serve as effective deterrents were novel. Although they owed a debt to his intellectual forebears, [7] these ideas were both radical and attractive to the European political and intellectual elite. [8] On Crimes and Punishments was rapidly translated into a host of other languages. [9] As well as informing a number of state statutes in the United States, [10] in insisting upon a balance between fidelity to the social contract and the need to ensure that criminal punishment is useful and beneficial to society, the work can be said to prefigure one of today’s two dominant schools of penological thought—utilitarianism—as well as the death penalty abolition movement. [11]

Evidence for Inclusion in Wythe's Library

Dean's Memo [12] includes the 1767 English edition of An Essay on Crimes and Punishments based on a reference in William Clarkin's biography of Wythe. In discussing Thomas Jefferson's education under Wythe, Clarkin states "[w]e do know that Jefferson studied ... Beccaria's Crime and Punishment " but Clarkin provides no source of corroborating evidence. [13] Brown's Bibliography [14] lists Beccaria's work in a choice of three languages (Italian, French, and English) and multiple editions. The Wolf Law Library purchased the first English edition as listed in Dean's memo.

Description of the Wolf Law Library's copy

Marbled boards with leather corners rebacked in period-style calf with blind tooling and red label to spine. Purchased from Meyer Boswell Books, Inc.

Images of the library's copy of this book are available on Flickr. View the record for this book in William & Mary's online catalog .

• An Essay on Crimes and Punishments (7MB PDF)
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• ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica Online , s.v. " Cesare Beccaria ," accessed October 10, 2013.
• ↑ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy , s.v. " Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) ," accessed October 10, 2013.
• ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica Online , s.v. "Cesare Beccaria."
• ↑ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy , s.v. "Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)."
• ↑ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy , s.v. "Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)".
• ↑ Memorandum from Barbara C. Dean , Colonial Williamsburg Found., to Mrs. Stiverson, Colonial Williamsburg Found. (June 16, 1975), 9 (on file at Wolf Law Library, College of William & Mary).
• ↑ William Clarkin, Serene Patriot: A Life of George Wythe (Albany, New York: Alan Publications, 1970), 42.
• ↑ Bennie Brown, "The Library of George Wythe of Williamsburg and Richmond," (unpublished manuscript, May, 2012) Microsoft Word file. Earlier edition available at: https://digitalarchive.wm.edu/handle/10288/13433 .

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On Crimes and Punishments by Cesare Beccaria: A Book Review

Beccaria was a young, 25 years old, eager to bring reforms in the Italian criminal justice system. His proposed treaties were the first systematically suggested reforms in the criminal justice system. As noted: "In order that punishment should not be an act of violence perpetrated by one or many upon a private citizen, it is essential that it should be public, speedy, necessary, the minimum possible in the given circumstances, proportionate to the crime, and determined by the law".

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Crime and Punishment

Fyodor dostoevsky.

Ask LitCharts AI: The answer to your questions

Welcome to the LitCharts study guide on Fyodor Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment . Created by the original team behind SparkNotes, LitCharts are the world's best literature guides.

Crime and Punishment: Introduction

Crime and punishment: plot summary, crime and punishment: detailed summary & analysis, crime and punishment: themes, crime and punishment: quotes, crime and punishment: characters, crime and punishment: symbols, crime and punishment: theme wheel, brief biography of fyodor dostoevsky.

Historical Context of Crime and Punishment

Other books related to crime and punishment.

• Full Title: Crime and Punishment (In Russian: Prestuplenie i nakazanie )
• When Written: 1865-1866
• Where Written: St. Petersburg
• When Published: 1866 (serially, in twelve installments)
• Literary Period: Realism
• Genre: Psychological realism
• Setting: St. Petersburg, Russia; 1860s
• Climax: Raskolnikov confesses to Sonya his murder of the pawnbroker and Lizaveta
• Antagonist: Porfiry Petrovich
• Point of View: Third-person omniscient

Extra Credit for Crime and Punishment

The Problem of Translation. The Russian language is filled with prefixes, suffixes, and forms of words that allow for numerous shades of meaning, depending on circumstances, and which allow certain ideas to recur throughout a text. For example, the Russian word for crime used often in the novel can be translated as “stepping over”—and the idea of “overstepping” the bounds of civilized society becomes a fixation of Raskolnikov’s throughout the work. Dostoevsky has been translated into English many times over the past one hundred-odd years, with the most recent version (the version used as the basis for this guide) being Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky’s 1992 translation. This latter version, in the words of the translator, attempts to capture both the “roughness” of Dostoevsky’s language and the repetitions and echoes that are a hallmark of his prose.

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The Classic Journal

A journal of undergraduate writing and research, from wip at uga, an analysis of crime and punishment.

by Paris Whitney

Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky is a novel that has been deemed controversial, yet notable over the course of centuries. This novel was influenced by the time period and setting of 19 th century St. Petersburg, Russia. Society was transitioning from medieval traditions to Westernization, which had a large impact on civilians, specifically those in poverty. Dostoevsky writes this novel centered around a poor man whose poverty drives him to test an ideology that results in his own detriment. Although this is important, the plot is only part of what makes this novel significant. What continues to make this novel memorable centuries after it was written is how Dostoevsky uses the concept of time to progress the plot and establish information, how his use of symbolism contributes to the message and meaning of the story and its characters, and how his writing has unintentionally embraced and related to different philosophies.

symbolism, nature, time, philosophy, existentialism, ego transcendence

Fyodor Dostoevsky is perhaps the most controversial author of the nineteenth century. His best-known work is Crime and Punishment , a novel that explores the psychological depths of man. At the center is Raskolnikov, a character who inflicts and experiences a great deal of suffering, all because he perceives himself to be superior to the average man.

Crime and Punishment takes place in St. Petersburg, Russia. The time is 1860, Alexander II holds reign, and consequently political skepticism is abundant. In addition to skepticism, the country’s economic state has disproportionate effects on its citizens, as the increasing wealth gap parallels the increase of turmoil in the streets. The novel follows Rodion Raskolnikov, a man of lower class whose poverty leads him to forming an idea and testing its validity. This theory is that certain men are exempt from laws created by society, as their actions against these laws are done for the greater good. In order to test this theory, Raskolnikov forms a plan to murder Alyona Ivanovna, an old pawnbroker whom he has had many exchanges with. After killing Ivanovna, he ends up killing her sister Lizaveta as well, when her appearance at Ivanovna’s apartment startles his original plan. In a frenzy, he leaves their bodies at the crime scene, and on his way out his mental state begins to spiral leading the readers to follow his psychological decline. 

Around the world, philologists and psychologists alike have studied Crime and Punishment to understand what makes this work essential to literature. Through studies of symbolism, philosophy, and psychology, it is recognized how Dostoevsky uses the concept of time to develop the story, how he uses symbolism to reflect underlying emotions and intentions of characters, and how different ideologies may be related to the meaning behind Crime and Punishment. These components used together showcase how Dostoevsky’s work remains notable for centuries.  

Crime and Punishment is a novel symbolic of the drawbacks that society can have on individuals, specifically those who are at a disadvantage as a result of their class or mental state. When Dostoevsky penned this novel, the time was 1866. 19 th century Russia was a transition period from medieval traditions to Westernization. During this transition, many people struggled to accommodate to the changing times. There was unrest in the streets, conflict amongst the classes, economic upheaval, and a lack of concern for those suffering by the government. Those who were of higher class were better able to navigate this complex transition, while those in poverty lacked the materials necessary to accommodate to the coming changes. Previously Westernized countries exhibited unrest fromtheir populations while progressing in societal advancement. There was concern about this potentially translating into Russia’s development. Russia was not exempt from these issues, and Dostoevsky was no help in assuring that peace would be maintained. Dostoevsky’s work concerned people in power when he indirectly made an association between violence and societal progression, and how this may prompt the masses to revolt against their government. Localized current events, such as a rise in domestic violence and murder, also influenced this novel. Due to these real-life events that inspired Dostoevsky’s work, it can be said that Crime and Punishment is an accurate representation of its time period [ 1 ] .

Not only was time period an influence on his work, but Dostoevsky would manipulate the concept of time itself to convey the meaning behind his stories. In Crime and Punishment , Dostoevsky writes Raskolnikov as a character continuously in a fever of thoughts. His mind is constantly running rampant, unrelenting even in slumber. Before significant events Raskolnikov would either flashback or dream of memories foreshadowing future moments. An example of this is before committing to murder Alyona Ivanovna, his subconscious takes him and the reader back to a moment where he and his father witnessed the cruel killing of a mule at the hands of a crowd for being too weak to pull a wagon . From a third person perspective, young Raskolnikov’s reaction to this moment is described hither, “But by now the poor boy is beside himself. With a shout he plunges through the crowd into the sorrel, embraces her dead, bloodstained muzzle, and he kisses her, kisses her on the eyes, on the mouth…” (Dostoevsky, 1866, pg. 57). By preceding Raskolnikov’s murderous intentions with his younger self’s mournful reaction to the mule’s death shows the audience how Raskolnikov has developed over time, and the degeneration resulting from his experiences in life.Time also seems to slow down when Raskolnikov is in moments of heightened emotion , because as he loses the ability to conceptualize, the more feverish his mind becomes. Towards the end of the novel, Raskolnikov reflects on the events that have occurred, saying “after a long time had passed, he thought his consciousness must have kept flashing on and off, with several dim, dark intervals, right up to the final catastrophe. He was absolutely convinced he had been mistaken about many things at the time; the duration of time of certain events, for example.” (Dostoevsky, 1866, pg. 417). This feverish mindset also manifests into physiological symptoms, giving Raskolnikov the appearance of being sick. “He was not completely unconscious all the time he was sick, but rather delirious, in a feverish state of half consciousness. He could recall a good deal later. Once in his room seemed full of people… They had all gone out. They were afraid of him.” (Dostoevsky, 1866, pg. 112). Dostoevsky uses syntax and diction to write these occurrences in a way that mimics Raskolnikov’s thinking. The transitions between events are frenetic, reflecting the tumultuous thoughts that plague Raskolnikov as a result of his actions. Choosing to modify the chronology of the novel in this way, he emphasizes the severity of situations by making the readers feel like they are experiencing the event as well.

In addition to this, Crime and Punishment contains levels of symbolism to enhance the mental conditions of characters . George Gibian explored traditionalsymbolism [2] within Crime and Punishment , and came to find that many motifshave religious roots. Ranging from Christianity to Paganism to Russian Orthodoxy, Dostoevsky’s implementation of images such as water, vegetation, air, and earth come together to express the mental state of the characters immersed in a particular setting. For example, Gibian described how water is used as a symbol of rebirth or regeneration. In Crime and Punishment , Raskolnikov would aimlessly walk about the setting in moments where his mind and thoughts were chaotic. He would end up in symbolically important nature scenes, for instance beside a river that ran through his town, or on the ground surrounded by bushes and trees. When near the water, he would feel the weight of guilt coming from the crimes he has committed. “He stared at the darkening water of the canal. He seemed to be scrutinizing this water. At last red circles danced before his eyes, the buildings swayed, the passersby, the embankments, the carriages- everything around him began to swirl and dance. All of a sudden he shuddered. A wild and grotesque scene saved him, perhaps, from another fainting spell.” (Dostoevsky, 1866, pg. 163). In this scene, Raskolnikov’s physiological symptoms begin to arise as his consciousness fights for contrition. This is important because Raskolnikov’s proximity to water when these feelings arise is representative of the good side of his conscience, trying to push him in the direction of what is right.

While water and vegetation are symbols that typically have a positive connotation, their presence can be used to emphasize the degeneration of one’s mental state . An example would be Svidrigailov, a character whose presence is nothing short of problematic. He strives to satisfy his erotic desires regardless of who may be harmed in the process, solidifying his position as one of the antagonists in Crime and Punishment . Svidrigailov also possesses a dislike for nature. This is shown when he visits St. Petersburg, and in his final night of life he ends up spiraling in his hotel room. During this downward spiral, he hears the sound of trees rustling outside of his window combined with rain. Instead of comforting him, they drive him further towards insanity. “‘The trees are sighing. I must admit I don’t care for the sighing of trees on a dark, stormy night- it gives me the creeps!’” He takes time to contemplate his life, saying, “ ‘I never in my life liked water… You’d think now, of all times, I’d be indifferent to these fine points of esthetics and comfort, whereas actually I’m fussier,’” (Dostoevsky, 1866, pg. 480). He resents the sound of vegetation when having a mental breakdown, and he ends up committing suicide in the midst of a fog that has emerged after a thunderstorm- showing his opposition to growing as a person. The use of nature as a way to reflect internal torments and emotions of different characters shows Dostoevsky’s proficiency in storytelling. Having the character’s surroundings speak the unspoken about what they may be feeling adds a level of meaning to the novel. This implementation of pathetic fallacy strengthens the story while aiding the reader in understanding the message of the text. When looking at the novel as a whole, it is clear nature bridges a connection between the audience and the author, by contextualizing events using the description of the setting where they take place. The narrator establishing the environment before delving into details about actions is a way to indicate to the reader potential outcomes of events, or foreshadow underlying emotions.

Symbolism in this novel does not stop with traditional aspects. Janet Tucker [3] explored the significance of clothing in respect to a character’s religious prospects and how their clothing reflects their beliefs or state of mind. When being worn by someone who has dedicated their life to Christ, clothing is modest and kept to the best of their ability. Sonya is a character in Crime and Punishment who serves as a deuteragonist, being one of the women that only have pure intentions when it comes to helping Raskolnikov. She tries to help Raskolnikov find faith and become a better person, and she does her best to comfort him in his worst moments of mental distress. Sonya even follows Raskolnikov to Siberia when he is imprisoned, despite his resistance to loving her. After analyzing this description of character, it can be said that Sonya’s clothes reflect the graciousness of her soul. She conceals her body in rags because she is poor, although she tries her best to keep them from becoming tattered, showing her values and how she maintains her composed state of mind. Comparing her to Raskolnikov, his mental state is too far distracted for him to care about trivial matters such as his appearance. His clothes are riddled with holes, and he lacks the incentive to fix the damage. An interesting point that Tucker made is how Raskolnikov uses his clothes in his crimes. He wears an overcoat that he uses to conceal his murder weapon and the items he has stolen from Ivanovna after killing her. Considering this, Tucker’s point is validated by the quality of clothing matching the quality of the person who bears it. Dostoevsky using clothing to portend the mental state and values that characters hold is a creative and effective way to give the readers insight as to how they will be progressing throughout the novel. Astute members of the audience will be able to recognize the differences among presentation of characters and base predictions about their actions off of their clothing. It is also interesting to see how characters’ religious affiliations can be observed through their attention to quality of clothing, reflecting how they choose to preserve and care for their items. In contrast to nature’s reflection of emotions, clothing gives insight about personal traits and the morals that shape a character into who they are.

While symbolism is important to developing the meaning behind Crime and Punishment , what makes this novel so notable are the philosophies it both challenges and embraces unintentionally. Existentialism [4] is a philosophy maintaining the belief that as individuals, there is a right within everyone to determine quality of life through acts of free will. It is easy to see how Crime and Punishment can be regarded by many existentialists as representative of this philosophy, but overall Dostoevsky is not one many would like to consider an archetype for existentialism. And, in retrospect, he is not. Dostoevsky’s main character in Crime and Punishment spends a lot of his time soliloquizing his belief that certain men are greater than others. Raskolnikov thinks men like this come to be by exercising their free will in ways that defy the common laws of life, but with the intention that what they are doing will better the world in the end. This idea is the reason behind Raskolnikov’s eventual murder of Alyona Ivanovna, a pawnbroker, and her half-sister Lizaveta. He kills Ivanovna as a way to test if he can be one of these people, but quickly discovers in the throes of his crime that he is not. This misconstrued idea of free will presented in Crime and Punishment can be where many begin to wonder if Dostoevsky was an existentialist. But a conclusion can be made that Dostoevsky’s free will is psychologically based and pushes the boundaries between what is right and what is wrong. Existentialism, on the other hand, is a philosophy centered around creativity and authenticity of the self.       

On a more granular level, while Dostoevsky was not an existentialist, his work shows his agreement with the philosophical concept of ego transcendence [5] . Transcendence of the ego is described as an advancement of the “authentic self” through experiences that result in a greater awareness. Once this awareness is achieved, this person usually begins to see themselves as greater than the average human. This is easily relatable to Raskolnikov’s philosophy that he reiterates often throughout the novel. The way that Dostoevsky sets his characters up for transcendence is through suffering. Richard Chapple analyzed the way Dostoevsky progresses Crime and Punishment by noting the use of the prism of the divine [6] . The prism of the divine includes 6 reasons that people suffer, and Dostoevsky provides different scenarios for representations of each reason. Raskolnikov suffers as a result of “recognition of transgression,” which is his guilt overpowering him after killing two women. It is even more stressful because in this guilt he realizes that he is not the monumental person he thought he was. In turn, he suffers because of “involvement in the torments and suffering of others,” as a result of brutally murdering his victims, followed by “greed and ambition.” Once failing to follow through with his entire plan beyond murdering Ivanovna, the weight of his ambition becomes heavy as it never had a chance at being attained. This dissatisfaction with himself contributes more to his depression than the fact that he is a murderer.

The last three prisms of the divine are “lack of faith,” “pride,” and the “inability to love.” Here, it is important to note Chapple’s perspective on how pride stems into all categories of suffering. Chapple discussed concepts such as clothing, a previously mentioned symbol, and how its relation to pride can be interpreted. He states, “The proud often suffer because of poverty or other seemingly external circumstances such as name, clothing and position. Pride generates a façade, and characters wear masks to conceal an inner reality…” (1983, p. 97). While Raskolnikov’s hubris is his biggest torment, Raskolnikov suffers for all of these reasons, and these intersections are where Sonya tries to ease his pain. When Raskolnikov is in his apartment with Sonya and is attempting to explain his crimes, she reassures him that she will not forsake him as he believes she will, going as far as to promise to follow him wherever he goes, even to prison. When he asks her what he should do, she advises him to go back to where he committed these atrocities, kiss the earth and kneel on the ground, then confess aloud that he is a murderer. By doing so, he is confessing to God and has a chance of being forgiven for his sins.

While religion plays a big role in Crime and Punishment , Dostoevsky’s implementation of Lazarus is predominately referencing the song rather than the biblical story- though that is mentioned. The Lazarus song [7] is a song that encapsulates the belief that the relationship between the rich and the poor should include the rich helping those in poverty by almsgiving. When Raskolnikov is preparing to face Porfiry Petrovich, a detective in the case of Ivanovna and Lizaveta’s murders, he says to himself “I’ll have to play the part of Lazarus for him too,” ( Crime and Punishment , 237). When Raskolnikov says this, he means that he is going to have to embrace his situation as a poor, college dropout, as a way to appear more innocent to Petrovich. This manipulation is seen from the side of poor people such as Raskolnikov, but also from those of wealth.

Raskolnikov’s sister, Dunya, was engaged to a man of the name Luzhin who expected her to marry him out of desperation. When Dunya backs out of the marriage, Luzhin scolds himself for not using his money to manipulate her into staying by purchasing expensive gifts, as opposed for thinking he should have treated her better. It is through secondary characters like these when many underlying messages are being portrayed. While Raskolnikov is the central character of Crime and Punishment , Dostoevsky uses secondary characters as a way to reflect certain aspects that Raskolnikov may be lacking, such as consciousness and an ability to recognize and admit to one’s mistakes. With Sonya, she was a part of a family that forced her into prostitution because they were too poor to provide for her, with a father who was too drunk to care. Marmeladov was the father’s name, and he is who Raskolnikov first meets in a bar and confesses to his shame about the situation he has put his daughter in. Similarly, Raskolnikov’s mother reduces his sister to working in uncomfortable scenarios in order to be able to send Raskolnikov to college. She feels guilt at this when Dunya becomes the center of town drama, after the husband in the family she works for begins to lust after her. These characters have made mistakes, but what parallels them to Raskolnikov is the fact that they acknowledge their wrongs, whereas he has to find the courage to do so .

Raskolnikov’s struggles with admitting that he can make mistakes like anybody else stem from his beliefs that there are two types of people in the world. He references Napoleon throughout the novel, because he believes him to be an example of how things considered to be bad have to happen in order for progress to be made. Pearl Niemi defines this as “power-cult [ 8] ,” the part of Raskolnikov believing in certain people’s superiority to regular laws. The part of Raskolnikov that cripples him once he tries exercising this belief can be referred to as “child-cult.” The child-cult is Raskolnikov’s emotions and thoughts that challenge the power-cult and ultimately overtake it. This duality within Raskolnikov has an interesting relation with his name. “Raskolot,” is the Russian verb meaning division, or split. When analyzing the schism between Raskolnikov’s feelings and actions, it gives his name a greater meaning and shows how Dostoevsky was very intentional with his work.

Considering what makes a novel notable, Hugh Curtler [9] elaborated on the idea that a novel which can be widely interpreted is what makes it memorable. Curtler referred to the part of the writer that allows for this to happen as the “poet,” because they write without clarification. In this respect, they acknowledge how Dostoevsky was successful at this throughout the majority of Crime and Punishment. Where Curtler thought Dostoevsky failed with this novel is in the epilogue. Instead of leaving the audience to gather their own opinions about certain aspects, he writes an epilogue that confirms what would have been better left unsaid, specifically Raskolnikov’s ability to feel emotions such as sadness, love, regret,etc .

In retrospect, Dostoevsky’s use of time, symbolism, and philosophical aspects in Crime and Punishment each provide different levels of meaning to the story. When incorporating the concept of time in terms of context and story progression, it allows the reader to grasp the importance of the events being foreshadowed, in addition to understanding the influences on decisions of characters. His attention to detail using motifs to communicate underlying emotions and intentions of his characters creates another layer of meaning for this novel, as the interpretation of these motifs make Crime and Punishment different for every reader. And lastly, Dostoevsky’s novel embraces different philosophies, while simultaneously maintaining its individuality from any one ideology. He writes this novel in a way where it applies to different ideals, wherein itself it is exclusive from being categorized, due to its unique central message. This message is one that can be applied to many time periods in history, including the 21 st century. The inevitable progression of societies tends to commonly leave those who are underprivileged to fend for themselves. When this isolation persists, is it unexpected to have people who attempt to create a life for themselves trying to prove that they are worth something, when their government treats them like nothing? Crime and Punishment provides a variety of perspectives for the audience’s consideration. Despite the many ways that this novel can be read and interpreted, one thing is clear, Crime and Punishment is illustrious.

Bourgeois, P. (1980). Dostoevsky and Existentialism: An Experiment in Hermeneutics. Journal of Thought, 15(2), 29-37. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42588842

Chapple, R. (1983). A Catalogue of Suffering in the Works of Dostoevsky: His Christian Foundation. The South Central Bulletin, 43(4), 94-99. doi:10.2307/3187246

Curtler, H. (2004). The Artistic Failure of Crime and Punishment.  Journal of Aesthetic Education,   38 (1), 1-11. doi:10.2307/3527358

Dostoevsky, F. (1866). Crime and Punishment. Signet Classics.

Gibian, G. (1955). Traditional Symbolism in Crime and Punishment.  PMLA,   70 (5), 979-996. doi:10.2307/459881

Harrison, L. (2013). THE NUMINOUS EXPERIENCE OF EGO TRANSCENDENCE IN DOSTOEVSKY. The Slavic and East European Journal, 57(3), 388-402. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/43857534

Ivanits, L. (2002). The Other Lazarus in Crime and Punishment.  The Russian Review,   61 (3), 341-357. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3664132

Kohlberg, L. (1963). Psychological Analysis and Literary Form: A Study of the Doubles in Dostoevsky. Daedalus, 92(2), 345-362. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20026782

Niemi, P. (1963). THE ART OF “CRIME AND PUNISHMENT”.  Modern Fiction Studies,   9 (4), 291-313. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/26278717

Tucker, J. (2009). Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”: Stopping History’s Clock. Russian History, 36(3), 443-453. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24664577

Tucker, J. (2000). The Religious Symbolism of Clothing in Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment. The Slavic and East European Journal, 44(2), 253-265. doi:10.2307/309952

[1] Tucker, J. (2009). Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”: Stopping History’s Clock. Russian History, 36(3), 443-453. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24664577

[2] Gibian, G. (1955). Traditional Symbolism in Crime and Punishment. PMLA, 70(5), 979-996. doi:10.2307/459881

[3] Tucker, J. (2009). Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”: Stopping History’s Clock. Russian History, 36(3), 443-453. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24664577

[4] Bourgeois, P. (1980). Dostoevsky and Existentialism: An Experiment in Hermeneutics. Journal of Thought, 15(2), 29-37. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42588842

[5] Harrison, L. (2013). THE NUMINOUS EXPERIENCE OF EGO TRANSCENDENCE IN DOSTOEVSKY. The Slavic and East European Journal, 57(3), 388-402. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/43857534

[6] Chapple, R. (1983). A Catalogue of Suffering in the Works of Dostoevsky: His Christian Foundation. The South Central Bulletin, 43(4), 94-99. doi:10.2307/3187246

[7 ] Ivanits, L. (2002). The Other Lazarus in Crime and Punishment. The Russian Review, 61(3), 341-357. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3664132

[8 ] Niemi, P. (1963). THE ART OF “CRIME AND PUNISHMENT”. Modern Fiction Studies, 9(4), 291-313. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/26278717

[9] Curtler, H. (2004). The Artistic Failure of Crime and Punishment. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 38(1), 1-11. doi:10.2307/3527358

Citation style: APA 6 th edition

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An essay on crimes and punishments

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Crime and Punishment

Introduction to crime and punishment, summary of crime and punishment.

The next day Rodion tries to wash all traces of the blood of the old woman whom he murdered a day before when the police call him. Though the call is not relevant to the murder, it is his landlady trying to extort money from him. The police suspect him of any crime and they do not find any clue either. He also hides things he has taken from the widow. Meanwhile, Rodion visits Dmitri, his friend, who has offered him work but he rejects his offer, comes back home, and faints. When he comes to his senses, he finds his landlady and his friend taking care of him. They inform him about the arrival of the doctor and a police detective. Although they sense his discomfort at the mention of the murder, they do not suspect him.

Later, Rodion’s sister and her fiancé visit him after which he meets Zamyotov, the police detective, before whom he almost admits his hand in the murder yet it doesn’t raise any kind of suspicion. Unfortunately, he finds Marmeladov killed in an accident while he assists Sonya and his mother. When his sister and brother-in-law come again to meet him, he asks them to part ways, while his friend Dmitri also tries to explain his involvement with them. After some thought, he seeks an apology for his behavior and admits having given money to Marmeladov, expressing his fury over his sister and his fiancé for marrying her. When he meets Sonya after that he agrees to join her father’s final rituals. Soon Rodion meets the investigator and talks about the murder. However, again it comes to naught, as a stranger follows him whom he found in his room in that morning. He suspects him having discovered his secret but the stranger shares another plan, talking to him about his sister’s fiancé whom he does not like, and offers a huge sum to him to leave his sister.

Following this, Rodion meets his friend Dmitri who tells him about the police and their suspicion about him being the assassin while discussing the affair of Dunya’s marriage. To their luck, Luzhin, whom Dunya is going to marry, insults everybody, causing the dissolution of the engagement. Both Rodion and Dmitri talk about establishing the business as well as helping Dunya. After a while, he leaves for Sonya where she narrates to him the story of Jesus and Lazarus when Svidrigailov spies on them. Following this incident, he meets the eavesdropping police officer Porfiry to discuss the murder but Nikolai, a suspect, arrested for that murder, breaks in and confesses his involvement, leaving him confused. Later, he comes to know that the confessor has no clues about his crime. Then, he bumps into Sonya and Luzhin after which he confesses the murder before Sonya and his motives for killing the lady. He also finds himself mixed up in the affairs of Sonya who encourages him to confess before the authority. She soon leaves and Svidrigailov informs her that he knows about the murder too.

Major Themes in Crime and Punishment

Major characters of crime and punishment, writing style of crime and punishment, analysis of the literary devices in crime and punishment, related posts:, post navigation.

Crime and Punishment: An Evolution of the Narrative Techniques of Dostoevsky by Wes Schaller

The notebooks of Fyodor Dostoevsky have both complicated and enriched the analyses of Crime and Punishment . Whereas some writers may employ the notebooks to supplement and illuminate their ideas, others may regard them as irrelevant territory—not to be used within the realm of critical analyses. This dilemma will necessarily be addressed later on, for the disparity between an author’s evolving intent and his final product is indeed significant, though I will endeavor to make relevant what some may perceive as irrelevant. Nevertheless, the driving purpose of this essay is to shed light on certain narrative techniques by comparing Dostoevsky’s rough draft of Crime and Punishment —written as a first-person narrative—to the final product—written in third-person omniscient. Incorporating such a comparison into creative-writing courses entails numerous advantages, precisely because the change in narration yields significant effects; illustrating these effects can ultimately broaden a writer’s understanding of how the narrative voice functions in any given novel.

One writer in particular has done well to build a foundation for this study: Gary Rosenshield, in his article “First- versus Third-Person Narration in Crime and Punishment ,” juxtaposes passages from the rough draft and the final version, bringing evolving elements of narration into focus. Rosenshield’s choice of passages follows a simple logic: only so many pieces of the rough draft are comparable to the final version, such that they “result in significantly different effects” (399). Upon comparison, it becomes clear that Dostoevsky made a wise decision in switching to third-person narration, for the advantages of the final product are irrefutable and abundant. Yet Rosenshield’s analysis, despite its accuracy, is incomplete and potentially misleading; it suggests that third-person narration is invariably preferable, and fails to acknowledge the advantages of the first-person original. Thus, I will revisit the same passages juxtaposed by Rosenshield, [*] explain and examine his analysis, and then cast light on certain comparisons that have yet to be illuminated.

But first, the issue of relevancy. An author’s intentionality is a subjective requisite for interpreting literature, and Dostoevsky’s intent has been the subject of much debate. The notebooks of Dostoevsky, however, seem to make possible the merging of intent with content—that is, they make possible an objective interpretation of the author’s work. Consequently, Edward Wasiolek, in “The Notebooks for Crime and Punishment ,” raises a valid question: “Is not the work enough? … Many have told us, again and again, that to go outside the work, whether to life or time or rough draft, is fruitless, unilluminating, perhaps even dishonest” (5). Of course, Wasiolek is in favor of stepping “outside the work,” but the warning he echoes is apt to be considered by instructors. I argue that the relevancy of the notebooks is entirely dependent on how they are used; in the present case, the differences between the passages from the rough draft and those of the final product can only inform, not confuse. Other portions of the notebooks suggest alternative modes of narration, plot, and character development. Ultimately, the notebooks have become almost necessary companions to Crime and Punishment —instructors who are reluctant to incorporate them into the classroom risk withholding gold mines of knowledge, and thus risk rendering their lessons incomprehensive. This essay is an example of how visiting the notebooks—contrary to what many have told us—can prove fruitful, illuminating, and honest.

The following passages illustrate Raskolnikov’s escape from the murder scene. Whereas the final version emphasizes action, the notebooks feature a retrospective analysis:

Notebooks: In the streets. How did I have enough strength for that! My strength was leaving me so quickly that I began to lose consciousness. Remembering now in detail everything that happened there, I see that I have almost forgotten not only how I walked in the streets, but even in what streets. I remember only that I returned home by a completely opposite way. My strength and my memory were leaving me with extraordinary speed. I still remember that minute when I managed to get to V. Prospect, but after that I remember only badly. I remember as if in a dream someone hailing me close by: What do you know; he’s drunk. I must have been very pale or was swaying. (Dostoevsky 106-107)

Final Version: And yet by no means did he dare to quicken his pace, though there were about a hundred steps to go before the first turning. “Shouldn’t I slip through some gate and wait somewhere on an unfamiliar stairway? No, no good. Shouldn’t I throw the axe away somewhere? Shouldn’t I take a cab? No good! No good!”

Here at last was the side street; he turned down it more dead than alive; now he was halfway to safety, and he knew it—not so suspicious; besides, there were many people shuttling along there, and he effaced himself among them like a grain of sand. But all these torments had weakened him so much that he could barely move. Sweat rolled off of him in drops; his whole neck was wet. “There’s a potted one!” someone shouted at him as he walked out to the canal. (Dostoevsky 85-86)

There exists a multitude of narrative disparities between these two passages. As Rosenshield argues, the notebooks compromise the experience by filtering it through the “consciousness of the narrating self,” the result of which is a certain “temporal and psychological distance” (400). Indeed, with the notebooks, Raskolnikov the Narrator is not in harmony with Raskolnikov the Experiencer; iterating the phrase “I remember” reinforces that this is a reflection of a past event, thus evaporating suspense and removing the reader from the action. The final version closes this distance by merging Raskolnikov’s consciousness with the experience—or as Rosenshield puts it, “the interior monologue and … the surrounding narrative describe the same moment in time” (401). This fusion is achieved in several ways. One, the use of dialogue to convey emotions keeps Raskolnikov in the moment. Iteration of words—each question beginning with “Shouldn’t I” and answered with “No good”—indicates a crippling mental acceleration; Raskolnikov’s consciousness is shuffling through options at lightning speed and discarding them all the same, until relieved by the sight of the side street. Secondly, the final version shows rather than tells, allowing the reader to ‘hear’ the shout of a passerby (“There’s a potted one!”) as opposed to merely being ‘told’ that the shout occurred. Furthermore, as Rosenshield notes, the final version maintains a “chronological continuum” (401), such that events are reported, not as they are remembered, but as they actually occur.

What Rosenshield fails to acknowledge, however, is the unique psychological insight that the first-person narration provides. “Raskolnikov” is derived from “raskol,” which in Russian means “split” or “schism.” This theme of division is evident in Raskolnikov’s personality—his oscillating between crime justified by intellect and altruism justified by emotion. Therefore, I argue, Dostoevsky wrote the notebooks with the intent of rendering the narrative equally schismatic. The “temporal and psychological distance” results in two Raskolnikovs—the narrator and the experiencer—engaging in a sort of dialogue, unlocking certain psychological insight not present in the final version. For instance, Raskolnikov in the final version, given his iterated questioning and dismissal of options, seems to be experiencing a sort of mental acceleration; the rough draft, however, reveals that this panic is derived not from acceleration, but rather from fatigue. His “strength” is waning rapidly, insofar that he is beginning to “lose consciousness.” He is unable to execute a rational decision, because each passing second is the loss of physical and mental energy. Moreover, the spectator in the final version suspects that Raskolnikov is drunk because he is sweating, but the ‘dialogue’ between the narrator and experiencer yields extra details: “as if in a dream … I must have been very pale or was sweating.” Rather than listening to an omniscient narrator judging these events from a distance, the reader ‘hears’ the voice of Raskolnikov, instilled with painful retrospection, revisiting the disturbed vision of a dream-like state of mind. Indeed, it is the converse of the final product: it tells rather than shows. Nevertheless, Raskolnikov’s presence in the notes is genuine and powerful. Whereas in the final version we judge and analyze him, in the notes we are invited to appreciate, if not empathize with, his psychological condition.

This notion of psychological insight is particularly evident in the next set of passages. What follows is an unambiguous difference between cognitive reflection and omniscient narration:

Notebooks: I became myself again when I went through the gate of our house; no one was there. But I was in such a state as to be past fear and taking precautions … I had already started up the stairs, but suddenly I remembered the ax. I don’t understand how I could even for a single moment forget about it; it was after all necessary. It tortured me now. It was the last pressing difficulty I had to take care of. I had to put it back, and that was of first importance, and yet I was so exhausted I had forgotten about that. Oh God what torments they were! How difficult it all was, and it was only a miracle that it was all accomplished, that I passed through all those terrors then without being noticed. (Dostoevsky 107)

Final Version: He was not fully conscious when he entered the gates of his house; at least he did not remember about the axe until he was already on the stairs. And yet a very important task was facing him: to put it back, and as inconspicuously as possible. Of course, he was no longer capable of realizing that it might be much better for him not to put the axe in its former place at all, but to leave it, later even, somewhere in an unfamiliar courtyard. (Dostoevsky 86)

The narration of the notebooks is again schismatic; Raskolnikov continues to share his story as if he were now an evolved being, using the phrases “such a state” and “I don’t understand how I could …” to qualify his self-analysis. The final version, instead, evaluates Raskolnikov externally, employing the omniscient tone in “Of course,” and the hedged assertion “might be” to illustrate how Raskolnikov could have acted otherwise. Rosenshield does well to note that the third-person narrator “makes this statement as if it were fact, not commentary”—the difference lying in the choice of words: “no longer capable of realizing” rather than “should have realized” (403-404). The result of this omniscience is a fusion of narration and analysis—a more concise paragraph that facilitates characterization without compromising action.

Nonetheless, where the final version succeeds in what Rosenshield calls “immediacy,” it is weak in its psychology. The notebooks again provide valuable insight about Raskolnikov’s mental state, telling us that he is “past fear and taking precautions.” This explains why he doesn’t consider leaving the axe in the courtyard. The final version generalizes Raskolnikov as “not fully conscious,” but the notebooks make clear that his emotions are oscillating—his apathy is established (“past fear”) and then immediately replaced with anxiety when he remembers the axe (“It tortured me now”). Although they narrate the same event, the two versions paint entirely different pictures of Raskolnikov and his emotions. Again, it is this dialogue between the narrator and experiencer that unlocks psychological insight; the retrospective “I” voice grants the reader access to the cognitive rhythms of the murderer.

Interestingly, the following passages show how psychological insight can maintain suspense in the narrative. Chronologically, the two follow an identical linearity:

Notebooks: Coming down again through the gate I saw that the door to the caretaker’s room was ajar but not locked. Therefore the caretaker was either there or somewhere close by in the yard. But I had so lost by then the capacity to reason and control myself that I walked up directly to the door and went down the usual three steps into the caretaker’s place and opened the door. What I would have said to the caretaker if he had asked me: “What do you want?” I would have said nothing; I would not have been able to say anything, and would have betrayed myself by my strange look. But the caretaker was not there. I took out the ax and put it in its former place under the bench, covering it with a log, so that it lay as before. I remember as in a dream that I was even glad and satisfied when I was finished with the ax. Then I went out, closed the door, and went home. I met no one, not a single soul right up to the apartment itself. The landlady’s door was closed. Entering my room I immediately threw myself on the bed. I didn’t fall asleep, but fell into unconsciousness or semi-unconsciousness, because if at that time anyone had entered my room, I would have leaped up at once and cried out. Scraps and fragments of thoughts swarmed in my head … a whole storm of them … I don’t remember a single one … (Dostoevsky 107)

Final Version: Yet everything worked out well. The caretaker’s door was closed but not locked, meaning that the caretaker was most likely there. But by then he had so utterly lost the ability to understand anything that he went straight up to the door and opened it. If the caretaker had asked him, “What do you want?” he might simply have handed him the axe. But once again the caretaker was not there, and he had time to put the axe in its former place under the bench; he even covered it with a log, as before. He met no one, not a single soul, from then on all the way to his room; the landlady’s door was shut. He went into his room and threw himself down on the sofa just as he was. He did not sleep, but was as if oblivious. If anyone had come into his room then, he would have jumped up at once and shouted. Bits and scraps of various thoughts kept swarming in his head; but he could not grasp any one of them, could not rest on any one, hard as he tried … (Dostoevsky 86)

The third-person narration succeeds in almost all ways, mostly due to its conciseness. This is the final moment of the crime, in which the fate of Raskolnikov will be determined by his next few actions; to hinder its pacing with psychological reflection would be counter-intuitive. Rosenshield acknowledges, correctly, that the constant awareness of Raskolnikov’s retrospective tone in the notebooks “diffuses suspense and divides the reader’s attention” (405). Indeed, suspense is amplified in the final version, but with the glaring exception of its opening sentence: “Yet everything worked out well.” It is not the sudden revelation that undermines suspense—Dostoevsky’s anti-climactic idiosyncrasy has its intentionality—but rather the manner in which it is presented. It reads more as a dismissive statement—an omniscient tone that hastens to invalidate Raskolnikov’s concerns about his fate. Looking back to the previous passage of the notebooks, this same revelation appears, yet the suspense is maintained by emotions (“Oh God what torments they were!”) and hyperbole (“it was only a miracle that it was all accomplished”). With access to Raskolnikov’s psychology, we are galvanized to explore the subsequent archive, curious to know exactly why the narrator is recalling these events in agony.

It is clear that third-person narration is better suited for the overall purpose of Crime and Punishment . As Rosenshield argues, the novel’s “broad canvas, including characters, episodes, and background material … could not be presented easily or objectively through the distorting prism of Raskolnikov’s consciousness” (405). Nevertheless, we should not overlook the advantages offered by the notebooks; psychology is an essential ingredient in fiction and, for some, the reason why fiction is read altogether. Also, the disadvantages of the notebooks illuminate the advantages of the novel.

Application

Raskolnikov is arguably one of the most complex characters in literature. His schismatic nature, both as an egoist-altruist and as a metaphor for the historicity of Russia, 1 is what makes Crime and Punishment a timeless evaluation of the human condition. By reading the book and then its notes, one can gain a new understanding of this character—unlock a new layer of verisimilitude. Therefore, instructors are recommended to assign the reading of the notebooks after the reading of the novel, and then have students think critically about the differing narrations. The following questions, each with their own subjective answers, can facilitate discussion and promote new ways of thinking about narrative techniques:

• What significant advantages were gained in Dostoevsky’s choice to switch from first-person narration to third-person narration?
• Consider the retrospective tone of the narrator in the notebooks. How does the separation between the past and present versions of Raskolnikov affect the reader’s experience of the events?
• Think about the psychological insight that the notebooks provide. What new information—emotional, intellectual, or otherwise—is learned about Raskolnikov in the notebooks? How does this contribute to the narrative?
• How, if possible, could the advantages of the notebooks (e.g., psychological insight) and the advantages of the novel (e.g., pacing, immediacy) be combined with a new narrative approach?

An instructor can utilize these questions in a way that corresponds to his or her teaching style; such a truth is almost self-evident, and thus a prescriptive approach to the application of these questions is unnecessary. Learning theory, however, is a sort of inevitable theme of any essay with a pedagogical motive, regardless of its climate for prescription. It is with the learning objective, not so much the conceptual framework, that we are concerned here.

The immediate objective is to bring the contrast of the above narrations into focus. This can be achieved in several ways, ranging from assigning an essay on the above questions, to simply juxtaposing the passages on a projector and encouraging in-class discussion. But the ultimate and more prudent goal is to have students explore certain narrative techniques to their own advantage. After all, the aim of creative-writing courses is not to prescribe techniques, but to evolve one’s craft. * It is rare that we have the opportunity to study an author’s mind at work. Dostoevsky’s notebooks make this possible. And perhaps the most important truth to take away from the notebooks is that, with every story, even brilliant authors undergo a process: they brainstorm plots, hypothesize outcomes and reevaluate approaches; they materialize their characters through language, and only when their language is refined by a precise intentionality do their characters become ‘real.’ Becoming a “good writer” does not mean rising above this process. In fact, it means quite the opposite. Mastering one’s craft is tantamount to mastering one’s intent—students must realize that, as the content of their stories change, so, too, must their writing approaches. Instructors can teach this concept by allowing students to undergo a process similar to Dostoevsky’s. An example assignment, with three phases, would follow a distinct logic:

• Write a scene in first-person narration, the objective being to convey, in detail, psychological information (emotional, intellectual, or otherwise) about your character, while at the same time describing some sort of action taking place.
• Evaluate the scene (e.g., in the spirit of workshop). Pay close attention to the balance between the character’s thoughts and the action taking place. Is focus given to one more than the other? If so, how does this affect the reader’s experience of the scene?
• Rewrite the scene, only this time with a new objective: to facilitate the pacing and immediacy of the action . The essential psychological information about your character should be maintained, but in a more concise manner, as not to distract the reader from the action. Consider how you can integrate the character’s thoughts with the action, allowing for a seamless narration. You may, if desirable, rewrite the scene in third-person omniscient.

This being a sample assignment, instructors are encouraged to develop the individual tasks to better serve the edification of their students. What I want to emphasize, and essentially make static, are two aspects of the assignment: separate phases, and the notion of a “seamless narration.” The separate phases are precisely what render the assignment a process ; rather than immediately seeing the assignment from start to finish, students will receive each task individually and thus undergo an evolution of their approaches. Ideally, in Phase One a student will already begin to notice the disadvantages of overemphasizing psychological reflection in a scene of action. By Phase Two, as students workshop their scenes, these disadvantages will become empirical. Finally, in Phase Three, the goal is clear: a seamless narration that integrates a character’s consciousness with a scene of action. Instructors are strongly recommended to reiterate the term seamless narration . For in attempting to conceptualize a narrative that doesn’t distract the reader—one in which consciousness and action work together, much like hydrogen combines with oxygen to form vast currents of uninterrupted water—no term is more accurate. Ultimately, when the connection between intent and technique is concretized, one can approach the page with a new sense of innovation.

Works Cited

Dostoevsky, Fyodor, and Edward Wasiolek. The Notebooks for “Crime and Punishment.” Chicago: University, 1967. Print.

Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, Richard Pevear, and Larissa Volokhonsky. Crime and Punishment . New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993. Print.

Rosenshield, Gary. “First- versus Third-Person Narration in Crime and Punishment .” The Slavic and East European Journal . 17.4 (1973): 399-407. Print.

            1. For an insightful study regarding the historical implications of Crime and Punishment , see Ilya Kliger’s article “Shapes of History and the Enigmatic Hero in Dostoevsky: The case of Crime and Punishment ” ( Comparative Literature 62.3 (2010): 228-245).

[*] In this essay, passages from the notebooks are taken from Edward Wasiolek’s 1967 translation, and passages from the final version are taken from Richard Pevear’s and Larissa Volokhonsky’s 1992 translation. Consequently, the passages may not be identical to those selected by Rosenshield. The effects of comparison, however, are the same.

* As a student, I have found that my craft has not so much improved as it has evolved . Here, I risk a discussion of semantics, though I believe that every story—fictional or nonfictional—has its own conceptual framework, an approach that is inherently connected to its purpose. Language has evolved us. Words and their infinite meanings shape the world around us, affect how we interact with our world, and in some ways change our way of thinking altogether. These ideas are especially true in storytelling. Generally speaking, I want to become a ‘master’ of my craft; but more accurately, as I foster individual stories, I find that a particular voice, narration or structure is being unlocked . This, as the notebooks make evident, is what Dostoevsky experienced himself—a parallel evolution of intent and technique.

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Utilitarianists’ Ideology in “Crime and Punishment” by Fyodor Dostoyevsky Research Paper

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A great Russian writer and thinker Dostoevsky illuminates the impact of distorted utilitarianists’ ideology on a simple Russian student in his novel Crime and Punishment . Implementing his own views concerning the progress and happiness, the author proves the inconsistency of the misinterpreted and not successfully adapted Western European conception, developing the themes of suffering and universal values.

The main character of the novel Crime and Punishment by Dostoyevsky was influenced by the ideas of West European utilitarianism, based on the theories of correct actions and values. “New, “strange, unfinished ideas’ ‘ of Western origin take a hold in his mind” (Hudspith 104). Raskolnikov tried to evaluate his every decision mathematically, considering the worth of its possible impacts, attempting to measure even the things, which can not be measured. “He draws up his theory to the Napoleonic superman, permitted to step across conventional moral boundaries in pursuit of glory, while the ordinary masses are compelled to live within the restrictions of these boundaries” (Hudspith 104). Regarding himself a superman, Rodion thought that his unique intellectual abilities allowed him to break not only the moral rules, but the society laws as well. It was characteristic of the utilitarian ideology, according to which “Mankind… obtains a greater sum of happiness when each pursues his own” (West 213). Still, Raskolnikov’s decisions can not be regarded the consequences of the utilitarian influence, they rather reflect the misrepresented propositions of European theory in the consciousness of a haughty Russian man. The main character misinterpreted the main points due to his personal views and adapted them to his intentions so as to find in them support and theoretical basis for his reasoning. “Raskolnikov’s scheme to rebuild Petesburg, based on the same principles of utilitarianism and superior will that underlie the crime, should have buttressed his conviction that the murder is justifiable” (Peace 46). His reasoning, though spoken mostly to himself, was not sincere, the whole city improvement was not his main goal. Being isolated and discriminated by the society, Rodion could not think of making it happier, this idea could not occur to him, this was only a plausible pretext for committing the crimes. “He committed his crime not to help them, but to tower above them” (Hudspith 104). Thus, Raskolnikov’s mathematical evaluation of the moral dilemma can not be regarded empirical implementation of the ideas of European utilitarianism, being misinterpreted at the discretion of an arrogant young man, claiming to have extraordinary abilities and the right to rule the destinies.

Describing the consequences to which the young man’s passion for the utilitarian philosophical theories led, Dostoyevsky opposed his conception of the human happiness to that accepted by European philosophers. “The whole meaning of progress, Dostoyevsky had written as early as 1861, comes down to ‘self-enlightenment in the name of love of one another’” (Scanlan 191). While the European standards of progress emphasized the importance of the personal happiness of every individual, Dostoevsky proclaimed the priority of brotherhood and love for others. He regarded Chernyschevsky’s utilitarianism to be “an unintended distortion of such English utilitarianists as Bentham and Mill” (Hudspith 78). Chernyschevsky’s theories were rather popular among the young people, but Dostoevsky found misconceptions in them. For example, Chernyshevsky believed that “Good is superlative of utility, a very useful utility. Evil consists in what is not useful, and theoretical miscalculations have caused humanity more misery than the plague” ( Hudspith 188). But the reasons for Rodion’s plans failure are not only his miscalculations, his failure demonstrates inability of common people to calculate the universal values mathematically and the imperfection of the human nature in general. Proclaiming the importance of the spiritual side of life, Dostoevsky regarded the earthly period of life to be transitional and developing before the paradise of Christ. (Scanlan 191). Putting individual interests on the first place and realizing all wishes of the earthly life were out of the question for him. Dostoevsky’s attempt to criticize the misconceptions of the utilitarians’ ideology is reflected in the novel Crime and Punishment. Certainly, the main propositions of European theories are intentionally exaggerated and distorted demonstrating the possible impact of this distortion. The crime was followed by the punishment and the moral suffering of a man who was assured that he would manage to calculate everything mathematically. But such categories as psychic pain and remorse can not be measured or calculated. The plot of the novel is aimed to contrast the European standard of progress to its Russian unsuccessful implementation.

The theme of suffering, that runs the entire novel thorough, reflects Dostoevsky’s ideas of an ideal man opposed to the Napoleonic ideas of a superman. “He insisted that to make progress the individual must strive toward an ideal that is ‘opposed’ to his nature and which he must continually ‘negate’” (Scanlan 191). Every character of the novel goes his/her path of suffering. Every member of the Marmeladov’s family suffers much. Living in poverty Sonia was induced to go on the streets to support her family. Raskolnikov himself suffers from the feeling of remorse having committed the murders. At the beginning of the novel Rodion follows the postulates of utilitarianists’ ideology, trying to change this world for the better, having the false idea of his extraordinary abilities and his exceptionality. But the miserable condition of the main character at the end of the novel leads the readers to the conclusion that his choice was wrong notwithstanding his calculations and reasoning. Dostoevsky denies the right of the individuals that got a false idea of their superiority, to rule the destinies and neglect the interests of the minority whatever calculations they may be guided. Suffering of the main character was inevitable for the progress, according to Dostoevsky’s views. A person, ignoring the spiritual side of life, guided by the material profits only was sure to suffer a defeat. Not taking into consideration the moral values which are one of the compulsory propositions of the utilitarianists’ ideology, the main character suffers from his lack of education, which could help him to interpret the European conceptions and lack of self-efficiency, which resulted in the desire to tower above the society in which he was isolated.

Another theme that helped the author to implement most of his philosophical views was the theme of moral values. Though the universal values in their accustomed sense are denied during the characters’ conversations, the ending of the novel proves the failure of the life position deprived from spirituality. The main character is contradictory and it is noticeable that two sides of human nature or different ideologies are struggling inside of him. It is obvious, that the spiritual side was to win in Dostoevsky’s character. In some episodes it seems that Raskolnikov does not believe in his words himself. “One death and a hundred lives in exchange – it’s simple arithmetic!” (Dostoevsky 157). But the arithmetical calculations did not seem so simple to the main character as he said. He was misled by the wrong ideas, got carried away by the philosophy that seemed convenient to him at some moment and forgot about the importance of moral values. But this was not characteristic of Rodion, as he was kind and sensitive by nature, in several episodes he was able to empathize with others, though criticizing himself after calculating the worth of his actions, he did not realize his own motivation and it was only impulse that guided him.

He wants to help the girl that who has been seduced, but then pours scorn on the feebleness of the necessary “percentage” that must go to rack and ruin; he leaves some money at the Marmeladovs’, but scolds himself for a gesture that in economic terms is a useless drop in the ocean (Hudspith 105).

In other words, Dostoevsky’s main character suffers from the inner struggle of the distorted interpretation of the utilitarianists’ ideology and moral values which were cultivated to him by Russian culture.

The inner struggle in the soul of the main character represents the opposition of two doctrines. Intentionally distorting the main propositions of the utilitarianists’ ideology Dostoevsky demonstrates the inconsistency of the conception of progress as it floated around Western Europe in Russia due to differences in the people’s mentality and different historical ways of development.

Bibliography

Dostoyevsky, Fedor. Crime and Punishment. EasyRead Large. 2006: 512.

Hudspith, Sarah. Dostoyevsky and the idea of Russianness: A New perspective on Unity and Brotherhood. RoutledgeCurzon. 2004: 228.

Peace, Richard. Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s Crime and Punishment: A casebook. Oxford University Press. 2006: 198.

Scanlan, James Patrick. Dostoyevsky the Thinker. Cornell University press. 2002: 251.

West, Henry. The Blackwell Guide to Mill’s Utilitarianism . Blackwell Publishing. 2006: 275.

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Home — Essay Samples — Literature — Novel — Analysis Of The Novel `Crime And Punishment’ Written By Fyodor Dostoevskys

Analysis of The Novel `crime and Punishment’ Written by Fyodor Dostoevskys

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Crime and Punishment

The attack on rationalism in 'crime and punishment' anonymous 12th grade.

The novel Crime and Punishment , written by Fyodor Dostoyevsky and published in 1866, focuses on many philosophical and psychological themes. One of the themes is the distinction between rationalism and anti-rationalism. Rationalist ideas are based on reason and logic; anti-rationalist ideas, on the other hand, rely on faith and emotions instead of intellect. In the novel, there are both rational and anti-rational characters. Rational characters include Raskolnikov and Luzhin, and one anti-rational character is Sonia. Dostoyevsky uses these characters to effectively criticize rationalism. Crime and Punishment demonstrates the flaws of rationalist ideas and the significance of anti-rationalism using the thoughts and experiences of Raskolnikov, Luzhin, and Sonia.

Raskolnikov’s theory about extraordinary people follows the ideas of rationalism but is eventually disproved by a metaphorical dream. According to his theory, extraordinary people “transgress the law, are destroyers or are inclined destroy . . . for the destruction of the present in the name of the better” (Dostoyevsky 260). In other words, extraordinary men are above the law and can end other people’s lives in order to improve humanity. He uses this theory to justify his...

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