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UWSpace is the University of Waterloo's institutional repository for the research and scholarship produced by its faculty, students, and staff. UWSpace contains all theses and dissertations published from October 2006 on, and a subset from 1996 through 2006, when electronic submission was optional. Older theses can be accessed by searching the  library catalogue  by title or author last name. 

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• Dissertations and Theses Global Full text of many North American, European, United Kingdom and Ireland graduate students theses and dissertations. Coverage: Indexing 1637-, Full Text 1997-
• Theses Canada Portal Access Canadian electronic and non-digital theses and dissertations. Coverage: index 1965 - present; full text 1998 - present more... less... Theses Canada is a program between Library and Archives Canada (LAC) and nearly 70 universities accredited by Universities Canada. For the full text of recent theses, also check Proquest's "Dissertations and Theses Global." Note: Access Theses Canada Portal is available free to the public How to search Consult the Theses Canada Portal help page for information on searching this site.
• UWSpace UWSpace is the University of Waterloo's institutional repository for the research and scholarship produced by its faculty, students, and staff. Coverage: mid 1990s - present more... less... Contains the research outputs of faculty and staff, dissertations, and undergraduate theses of 4th year honours students. This collection also includes a subset of Waterloo theses dated 1998-2002 that were scanned through the Theses Canada program.

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Student theses

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Accommodation and intraocular pressure.

Supervisor: Gilmartin, B. (Supervisor) & Wolffsohn, J. S. (Supervisor)

Student thesis : Doctoral Thesis › Doctor of Philosophy

A clinical evaluation of corneal endothelial cell density in patients wearing PMMA corneal contact lenses

Student thesis : Master's Thesis › Master of Philosophy

A collection of studies on the biometry of myopic and non-myopic eyes

Supervisor: Logan, N. S. (Supervisor) & Cubbidge, R. P. (Supervisor)

A comparison between static and kinetic visual attention as a means of detecting age-related deterioration of the visual system and driving performance

Supervisor: Dunne, M. C. (Supervisor)

A comparison of computer aided learning and traditional didactic lectures for teaching clinical decision making skills to optometry undergraduates

A comparison of single vision aspheric spectacle lenses for aphakia, a comparison of two fast threshold strategies, spark and sita in threshold perimetry.

Supervisor: Heitmar, R. (Supervisor) & Cubbidge, R. (Supervisor)

Student thesis : Doctoral Thesis › Ophthalmic Doctorate

A critical evaluation of contrast susceptibility as a predictor of driving accident involvement

Advising modifiable lifestyle changes and public health: the role, knowledge, and education of uk optometrists.

Supervisor: Logan, N. (Supervisor) & Mellor, D. (Supervisor)

Student thesis : Doctoral Thesis › Doctor of Optometry

A longitudinal study of ocular biometry and vision-related quality of life in Singapore young adults

Supervisor: Sheppard, A. L. (Supervisor)

Ambulatory EEG monitoring in the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy and related disorders

Supervisor: Jeavons, P. (External person) (Supervisor) & Harding, G. F. A. (External person) (Supervisor)

Analysis of Variables Measured in the Visual Screening of University of Birmingham Freshmen and a Critical Review of Visual Screening Methods and Approach

Student thesis : Master's Thesis › Master of Science (by Research)

An analysis of progressive addition spectacles lens design by the use of interferometry

An analysis of the impact of visual impairment on nutritional intake, activities of daily living and vision related quality of life in adults with vi.

Supervisor: Bartlett Eperjesi, H. E. (Supervisor), Cooke, R. (Supervisor) & Farrow, C. (Supervisor)

An assessment of the technique and clinical application of visual evoked response measurements

An evaluation of electrodiagnostic measures of hearing, an evaluation of the emergency macular assessment clinic (emac): referral, diagnosis and treatment outcomes.

Supervisor: Naroo, S. (Supervisor) & Shah, S. (Supervisor)

A new algorithm for the relationship between vision and ametropia

Supervisor: Dunne, M. C. (Supervisor) & Armstrong, R. A. (Supervisor)

An investigation into the relationship between pupil and accommodation responses during near vision

Supervisor: Gilmartin, B. (Supervisor)

An investigation of reading ability and visual function with eccentric visual field

An investigation of the pressaccidic spike potential.

Supervisor: Jones, L. (External person) (Supervisor) & Harding, G. F. A. (External person) (Supervisor)

An investigation to determine the influence of illumination sources on colour discrimination in normal subjects and smokers

Supervisor: Cubbidge, R. P. (Supervisor)

An optical study of human ocular dimensions

Supervisor: Barnes, D. A. (External person) (Supervisor)

Anterior segment anomalies and effects on visual quality

Supervisor: Naroo, S. A. (Supervisor) & Eperjesi, F. (Supervisor)

Application of digital image processing techniques to the photometric testing of vehicle headlamps

Application of naïve bayesian artificial intelligence to referral refinement of chronic open angle glaucoma, application of naïve bayesian sequential analysis to primary care optometry, aspects of tear fluid composition in hydrogel contact lens wear, aspects of tonic accommodation and tonic vergence, assessment of the oculomotor response in human factor environments.

Supervisor: Wolffsohn, J. S. (Supervisor)

A study of short latency photically evoked potentials in man

A study of some indicators of corneal metabolic activity in periods of contact lens wear, a study of the effects of orally administered female hormones on the volume and composition of lacrimal fluid related to the toleration of corneal contact lenses.

Supervisor: Sabell, A. G. (External person) (Supervisor)

A study of the somatosensory evoked potential in man using brain mapping techniques

Automated assessment of visual fields and their inter-relation to evoked potentials in visual disorders.

Supervisor: Harding, G. F. A. (External person) (Supervisor)

Autonomic dysfunction and systemic oxidative stress associated with glaucomatous optic neuropathy

Supervisor: Hosking, S. L. (Supervisor)

Behavioural correlates of ocular accomodation and the autonomic nervous system

Supervisor: Wolffsohn, J. S. (Supervisor) & Gilmartin, B. (Supervisor)

Bio-adhesive polymers containing liposomes for DED treatment

Supervisor: Davies, L. N. (Supervisor) & Wolffsohn, J. S. (Supervisor)

Biomechanical aspects of the anterior segment in human myopia

Biometric and physiological factors in human ocular perfusion, blood vessel diameter in glaucoma, cataract, macular characteristics and assessing lens opacities, changes in ocular refraction in the strabismic child: a longitudinal study, changes in tear film metrics and ocular signs induced by different types of refractive correction in an aging population.

Supervisor: Davies, L. N. (Supervisor), Wolffsohn, J. S. (Supervisor) & García-Lázaro, S. (External person) (Supervisor)

Characteristics of visual function in Asperger’s syndrome and the autism spectrum

Supervisor: Cubbidge, R. P. (Supervisor), Hosking, S. L. (Supervisor) & Seri, S. (Supervisor)

Clinical applications of the visual evoked potential: a comparative study of diffuse flash and pattern reversal stimulation

Clinical studies of spatial and temporal aspects of vision: an investigation using psychophysical and electrophysiological techniques.

Supervisor: Drasdo, N. (External person) (Supervisor)

Computer modelling of the actions of extraocular muscles

Contact lenses and sport.

Supervisor: Naroo, S. A. (Supervisor) & Wolffsohn, J. S. (Supervisor)

Contiguous visual and brain stem auditory evoked potential recordings of premature infants

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SUNY Optometry Masters Thesis Collection

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Digital eye strain and pupillary response to blue light

Upregulation of Gap Junction Connexins in Glaucoma

Diurnal Variations in Scotopic and Photopic Flash Electroretinogram

Retinal ganglion cell function in diabetes mellitus, development of a pediatric digital eye strain questionnaire.

Cognitive Demand, Concurrent Viewing Distance, and Digital Eye Strain

Effects of Test Flash Duration on the Photopic Negative Response (PhNR) of the Flash Electroretinogram

Accommodation over Time in Children Wearing Multifocal Soft Contact Lenses for Myopia Control

Regional Differences in the Relationship Between Retinal Structure and ON-OFF Pathway Function in Myopic Patients

Effects of scheduled breaks on digital eye strain and the 20-20-20 rule.

Effects of Gingko biloba on Systemic and Retinal Blood Circulation

Digital Eye Strain and Repeated Clinical Testing

The Relationship Between Meibomian Gland Morphology, Dry Eye Disease, and Electronic Device Use in Pediatric Patients

Complexity of mental geometry for 3D pose perception

Feasibility and applicability of a clinical assessment of both the ON and OFF pathways in patients with glaucoma and controls.

Effects Of Correcting Fixation Disparity On Digital Eye Strain

Gap Junctional Coupling between Retinal Amacrine and Ganglion Cells Underlies Coherent Spike Activity Integral to Global Object Perception

The Effect of Multifocal Contact Lenses on Accomodation and Phoria in a Pediatric Population

Exploring the veridicality of shape-from-shading for real 3D objects

Reading from an Electronic Reading Device versus Hardcopy Text

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Master's Thesis: A Revolution in Vision Testing: The Ophthalmoscope and American Optometry

2004, A Revolution in Vision Testing: The Ophthalmoscope and American Optometry

Some medical historians and even practitioners ascribe to the perception that technology, now an essential component of medicine, has to some extent contributed to impersonal care and to physicians trusting machinery over their own senses and intuition. Although the ophthalmoscope, invented in the nineteenth century, can represent the historical shift in medicine to scientific, objective methods, it helped modernize European and American ophthalmology and optometry. This instrument, “planted” in this country before the Civil War, elicited various responses as its use widened throughout the medical and paramedical ranks during the Progressive Era. The ophthalmoscope and other precise, noninvasive instruments advanced all aspects of eye care, including vision testing, and provided a scientific method of diagnosing and treating visual problems. Without the ophthalmoscope, optometrists would not have been able to defend before doubters their ability to handle the objective portion of vision testing and deliver the best care they knew how to give. Using Progressive Era-inspired rhetoric and organizational techniques, optometrists sought to win both the public’s and the medical community’s trust in order to be able to test vision and refer patients to physicians. These accomplishments legitimized and enriched the profession, preventing it from either being absorbed by ophthalmology or declining into a trade. This essay describes how the use of the ophthalmoscope prevailed and ultimately contributed to the growing acceptance of optometry as a professional specialization in eye care by both the public and the medical community especially during the Progressive Era, a pivotal time in the United States. It could be said that the use of the ophthalmoscope and a few other diagnostic instruments was a litmus test for the acceptance of truly modern, professional methods in the realm of eye care, and it ultimately did not contribute to a “dehumanized” vision test.

Related Papers

Controlled Clinical Trials

Wendy Marsh-tootle

Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry

The provision and funding of low-vision rehabilitation (LVR) are very variable across Canada. Quebec is well served by 14 government-funded rehabilitation centers. In most provinces, there are no such multidisciplinary services-optometrists offer LVR from their offices to a greater or lesser degree or undertake assessments in centers run by CNIB (formerly Canadian National Institute for the Blind). No integrated model for LVR exists across Canada. This document proposes such a model, which focuses on the profession of optometry, but may also be applicable to ophthalmology. This article describes different models of LV provision, the evidence for their relative effectiveness, the current situation in Canada, including the variability between areas and the need to increase referrals to LVR, and the current international consensus for LV provision. With the projected increase in people with LV, a generally accepted LV model for Canada is required to improve patient care. It has become ...

Health Expectations

Jacques Desallais

manish kumar sah

G. Ratnarajan , N. Astbury

Clinical Optometry

Priya Reddy

Ragni Mishra

Aim: To find out non-tolerance to spectacle in a busy community Optometric practice, with single practitioner. Objective: (1) T o the spectacle lenses are not dispensed as prescribed; (2) To estimate the type of spectacle lenses (spherical or spherocylindrical) are more often dispensed inaccurately. Methods: Spectacle non-tolerance was defined practically, as a patient who had collected spectacles from the practice and subsequently returned because they were either having problems with, or were unable to wear, their new spectacles. Patients over 16 years of age, who met the above definition of non-tolerance, were sequentially recruited over a 3 month period. Patients experiencing adaptation problems were first seen by a dispensing optician and any dispensing issues resolved. If the spectacle dispensing was felt to be correct, or if the non-tolerance persisted, then the patient was reexamined by an optometrist and the results analyzed. Results: Non-tolerance examinations accounted for 33 of the 165 (20%) eye examinations during the study period. Gender was not a factor in non-tolerance but age was the factor in non tolerance, presbyopes accounting for 31% and young adult accounting for 27%. The common reasons for non-tolerance were dispensing related (52%), prescription related (48%). Of prescription related errors major problem in over correction of myopia followed by under correction of hyperopia, convergence issue, inaccurate cylindrical axis, problems with the near/intermediate addition and binocular balancing. Conclusions: Spectacle prescription non-tolerance forms a small, but important, form of adverse reaction in optometry clinics. Most non-tolerances can be resolved by small changes, within 0.50 D, to the prescription.

BMC Ophthalmology

Abdulkabir Ayanniyi

Optometry and Vision Science

Stacy Lyons , Nancy Carlson

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50 Thesis Topics in Ophthalmology to Know What to Write About

Table of Contents

Ophthalmology Thesis Topics: What Should They Be?

Thesis topics in ophthalmology should represent solid research in the sphere on the basis of strong evidence. While writing a thesis, one should pay attention to the statistical measures in the field to address the methods and techniques of solving difficult medical tasks. Thesis topics in ophthalmology are significant for the examination of the urgent topics on eye diseases and the discovery of the means of treating the eye conditions.

Ophthalmologists have long been engaged in eye treatment, the study of physiology, but in recent years, science has made a huge leap forward. Today, these doctors create new methods of treatment, conduct scientific activities, trying to find the causes of the development of various diseases, work with congenital and acquired pathologies.

Ophthalmology Research Data to Think Over

If we talk only about statistics in America , then 24, 4 million Americans suffer from cataracts. By the age of 75, this figure reaches half the total population of America of this age. Glaucoma, in turn, affects 2.7 million Americans over 40 years of age.

These figures determine the demand for ophthalmologists in the labor market and the popularity of training in the specialty “Ophthalmology”. Innovative techniques, modern scientific knowledge, and equipment today make it possible to cure eye diseases, which 10 or 15 years ago deprived patients of sight forever.

This is why medical students, encouraged to “ write my thesis for me ” on innovative ophthalmological treatments, engage in scientific activities starting from college. The successful writing of a dissertation is almost a guarantee of the high professionalism of the graduate and his readiness to help people maintain the ability to see the world. Below we have collected 50 topics of dissertations in ophthalmology. Choose the most interesting to prove that you have the right to call yourself a doctor and treat people.

To begin with, due to the negative impact of computers and laptops, the majority of individuals experience eye pain and dry eye condition. This might be an important topic for discussion since it is estimated that millions of adults suffer from the dry eye. The controversies in ophthalmology have arisen over a long time concerning the etiology of dry eye and experience of pain. The evidence from other fields shows that alterations in the central nervous system exacerbate the irritative symptoms and eye pain. Sometimes, the patient can complain about chronic pain syndrome that is characterized by systemic pain.

Dry eye disease occurs in 5% to 35% of the world population and is more present in females. The condition has severe consequences for life quality negatively influencing visual activity, productivity at work, social interaction, and physical functioning. The sources reveal that individuals with dry eyes of the moderate and severe degree have similar either social or psychological life as people experiencing angina of the same degree or those who made hospital dialysis. The dry eye condition is connected with the disorder of the tear film, meibomian glands, violation of normal ocular surface, and inflammation of the eye surface. The disease is accompanied by the huge discomfort, disturbance of tear film, and visual difficulties that might lead to the damage of the ocular surface. Patients suffering from dry eye disease have problems with focus because of the tear film osmolarity and ocular surface inflammation.

Corneal sensation remaining intact is essential to keep the healthy ocular surface as well as quality and quantity of tears because corneal nerves have the direct trophic impact on maintaining the corneal epithelium. Corneal confocal microscopy (CCM) might be used to reflect the cornea involving the sub-basal nerve layer in people with dry eye disease. As a matter of fact, the condition can be triggered by the majority of mechanisms that result in the ocular irritation; however, it is still not understood what is the cause of dry eyes when the tears are normally produced and the ocular surface is moist enough.

To conclude, the discordant dry eye appears because of the tear production discordance and ocular surface staining. The processes in the central nervous system are interchangeably connected with the severe symptoms of eye strain and ocular surface damage. Further research should be done to relieve the symptoms and find the adequate treatment of the disease.

50 Ophthalmology Dissertation Topics to Choose From

Feel free to check the following list of topics.

• Surgical Treatment of Exophoria Complicated by Horizontal V-Syndrome;
• Possibilities of Detecting Early Disturbances in Eye Hydrodynamics in Patients with Cataracts and Ocular Manifestations of Pseudoexfoliation Syndrome;
• Ultrasound Biomicroscopy in the Diagnosis of Pathology of the Extreme Periphery of the Fundus;
• Experimental Clinical Rationale for the Use of Nd: Yag Laser with a Wavelength of 1.44 Microns in the Technology of Anterior Capsulorhexis and Remote Hemostasis;
• Medico-Technological System of Surgical Treatment of Progressive Keratectasia of Various Origins;
• Subthreshold Micropulse Laser Treatment with a Wavelength of 577 Nm in the Treatment of Central Serous Chorioretinopathy;
• The Clinical and Experimental Rationale for the Combined Use of Neodymium Ion 1.44 Microns and Helium-Neon 0.63 Microns Lasers in Cataract Surgery;
• Yag-Laser Activation of Trabeculae in the Treatment of Patients with Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma;
• The Study of the Effectiveness of Micropulse Laser Irradiation with a Wavelength of 577 Nm in Macular Edema After Surgical Removal of Idiopathic Epiretinal Membrane;
• The Clinical and Experimental Rationale for Optimized Uv-Crosslinking Technology in the Treatment of Keratoconus;
• Clinical And Laboratory Substantiation of the Use of Orthokeratology Lenses in Progressive Myopia in Children;
• Optimization of Surgical Treatment of Retinal Vein Thrombosis Outcomes;
• The Results of Surgical Correction of High Myopia with Anterior Chamber Phakic Intraocular Lenses;
• The System of Treatment and Rehabilitation Activities in Patients with Paralytic (Paretic) Strabismus;
• Surgical Treatment of Keratectasia of Various Origins by the Intrastromal Keratoplasty Method with Polymeric Corneal Segments;
• Comparison of Spectral Optical Coherence Tomography and Confocal Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy in the Diagnosis of Primary Glaucoma;
• Clinical and Functional Results of Surgical Treatment of Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachments Using the Method of Peri-Basal Vitrectomy;
• The Modern System of Diagnostics, Treatment, and Organization of High-Tech Ophthalmic Care for Children with Active Stages of Retinopathy of Prematurity;
• Limbal Co-Transplantation in the Prevention of Rejection of Donor Corneas in High-Risk Keratoplasty;
• Vascular Disorders in the Anterior Part of the Eye at Different Stages of Pseudoexfoliation Syndrome;
• Induction of Posterior Vitreous Detachment in the Surgical Treatment of Retinal Detachment;
• Combined Phacoemulsification Method in Patients with Operated Glaucoma;
• Features of the Quality of Life of Patients with Cataract and Glaucoma Before and After Surgical Treatment;
• Ophthalmologic Diagnostics and Tactics of Treatment of Cranio-Orbital Injuries in the Acute Period of Traumatic Brain Injury;
• Features of Pupillary Reactions and Regional Hemodynamics of the Eye in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus with Different Levels of Glycemia;
• Prevention and Treatment of Corneal Lesions in Endocrine Ophthalmopathy;
• Antibacterial Drugs in the Prevention of Complications of Cataract Phacoemulsification;
• Possibilities for Stimulating the Secretion of Tears in Patients with Hypolacrimia in the “Dry” Eye Syndrome;
• Diagnosis and Treatment of Actinomycotic and Mycotic Diseases of the Lacrimal Ducts;
• Study of the Clinical Efficacy of Diaphragm Glasses;
• The Study of Sclera Rigidity In Healthy and Glaucomatous Eyes;
• Clinical and Instrumental Diagnosis of Malignant Tumors of the Orbit;
• Ophthalmotonus Biorhythms in Health and Glaucoma;
• Clinical And Laboratory Diagnosis of Early Stages of Keratoconus;
• The Clinical and Functional Rationale for the Tactics of Surgical Treatment with a Combination of Retinal Detachment with Lens Opacities;
• Combined Surgical Treatment of Retinal Detachment in the Advanced Stage of Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy;
• Mathematical, Experimental and Clinical Rationale for the Prevention and Correction of Corneal Astigmatism and Capsular Bag Pathology in Cataract Surgery;
• The Method of Combined Treatment of Progressive Myopia;
• Modification of Sinusotomy in the Treatment of Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma;
• Optimization of Diagnosis and Surgical Treatment of Involutional Entropion of the Lower Eyelid;
• Peripheral Vortical Dystrophies and Retinal Detachment in Pregnant Women: Diagnosis, Treatment, Choice of Method of Childbirth;
• Indices of Intraocular Pressure of a Newborn Child Due to the Morphological Features of the Drainage System of the Eye at Different Periods of Gestation;
• The Use of Silicone-Hydrogel Contact Lenses in the Treatment of Ulcerative Keratitis;
• Prolonged Pharmacotherapy of Glaucomatous Optic Neuropathy;
• Modern Aspects of Viscosurgery in Ophthalmology;
• Current Possibilities for the Prevention and Treatment of a Blepharo Conjunctival Form of Dry Eye Syndrome of Demodectic Etiology;
• An Experimental Study of the Effectiveness of Cell Transplantation in Post-Traumatic Pathology of the Retina;
• Vitreoretinal Changes in Case of Eye Injury by Splintering;
• Diagnosis and Treatment of Optic Nerve Hypoplasia in Children;
• Ocular Manifestations of Antiphospholipid Syndrome.

10 Resources to Find More Information on Ophthalmology Topics

Here are some scientific journals websites you may look through.

• American Journal of Ophthalmology Case Reports
• Clinical Ophthalmology
• Current Trends in Ophthalmology
• Digital Journal of Ophthalmology
• International Journal of Keratoconus and Ectatic Corneal Diseases
• International Journal of Ophthalmology & Visual Science
• IP International Journal of Ocular Oncology and Oculoplasty
• Journal of Current Glaucoma Practice
• Medical Hypothesis, Discovery, and Innovation in Ophthalmology
• Neuro-Ophthalmology & Visual Neuroscience

5 References to Write an Ophthalmology Thesis

• Bron, A. J., Tomlinson, A., Foulks, G. N., Pepose, J. S., Baudouin, C., Geerling, G., … & Lemp, M. A. (2014). Rethinking dry eye disease: a perspective on clinical implications. The ocular surface, 12(2), S1-S31.
• Dry eye disease: risk factors and selecting treatment. (2015). The Pharmaceutical Journal. http://dx.doi.org/10.1211/pj.2015.20069420
• Shtein, R. M., Harper, D. E., Pallazola, V., Harte, S. E., Hussain, M., Sugar, A & Clauw, D. J. (2016). Discordant dry eye disease (an American Ophthalmological Society thesis). Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society, 114.
• Sullivan, B. D., Crews, L. A., Messmer, E. M., Foulks, G. N., Nichols, K. K., Baenninger, P., … & Lemp, M. A. (2014). Correlations between commonly used objective signs and symptoms for the diagnosis of dry eye disease: clinical implications. Acta ophthalmologica, 92(2), 161-166.
• Yun, C., Kang, S., Kim, H., & Song, J. (2012). Prevalence of Dry Eye Disease among University Students. Journal Of The Korean Ophthalmological Society, 53(4), 505. http://dx.doi.org/10.3341/jkos.2012.53.4.505

Hopefully, you will find our article useful and be able to write the best ophthalmology dissertation ever! Despite choosing a topic, the thesis writing process takes a lot of time to take the other steps – brainstorming, research, note-taking, outlining, structuring, drafting, writing itself, formatting, proofreading, etc. If you want to save you time or nerves, you know what to do. Right? DoMyPapers.com is 24/7 open to you.

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Explore resources for postgraduate research students of UNSW School of Optometry & Vision Science. You’ll find information about our current higher degree students and their research, research topics you might choose from, and how to find a supervisor.  

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Leading vision research in seven areas

From dry eye to traumatic brain injury, our research solves vision problems that plague the nation and the world. Our research faculty are leaders in their respective fields, and they regularly publish articles and present their work at national and international conferences.

Explore our research areas

Anterior segment disorders and dry eye.

Injuries, allergies, inflammation, dry eye, corneal disorders, cataracts, and presbyopia can affect the eye’s ability to focus.  Our researchers are discovering new ways to detect, diagnose, and correct anterior segment disorders, both with and without contact lenses. 

Glaucoma and visual function

Our researchers are developing new methods to improve the diagnosis and treatment of glaucoma, a disease that affects 70 million people worldwide and is most severe in the elderly and in underserved populations.

Retinal disease

Our faculty are internationally known for their contributions to the science of retinal function and disease, retinal imaging technology, color vision, and visual processing. Their developments in preventing vision loss and blindness have the potential to save the vision of millions of people worldwide.

Clinical optics and myopia

Through cutting-edge clinical optics research, our faculty are improving the vision and clinical care of patients at our own clinics and around the world. We often work closely with the leading members of the contact lens and vision care industry to develop novel, improved optical designs and safer, more efficient contact lenses.

Low vision and mobility

Loss of peripheral vision, low vision, balance problems, and contrast sensitivity all affect a patient’s daily quality of life. Through research, we’re advancing visual rehabilitation methods for patients who are elderly, visually impaired, or blind.

Pediatric vision

Our research leads to earlier detection of pediatric eye problems, such as amblyopia (or “lazy eye”), and easier treatments for children and their parents. We are also working toward understanding and preventing permanent vision loss in children.

Traumatic brain injury

The eyes are a window into concussions and other traumatic brain injuries, and our researchers are focused on diagnosing and managing those injuries before they cause significant damage.

Collaborative research labs

In addition to our individual successes in faculty research, we foster a collaborative research environment to accomplish the broadest scope of research with optimized research success and productivity.

For example, the Clinical Optics Research Lab (CORL) —dedicated to improving the vision and clinical care of patients through cutting-edge research—is a result of the efforts of several IU School of Optometry faculty members.

Our research helps the world see more clearly.

School of optometry social media channels.

Research Topics

The Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences offers medical students and residents a variety of research opportunities. Please browse the basic science, translational and clinical research projects currently underway below.

Research Topic: Corneal endothelial health judged by endothelial image analysis

Description.

Endothelium is critical for dehydrating the cornea and keeping it clear. With loss of its barrier and pump function, the cornea swells and corneal transplantation may be needed.

Changes in the number, shape and size of the cells may predict loss of function.

Key Research Question/Hypothesis 

Effect of drugs, surgery, devices, and preservation media on the endothelium.

Images of the endothelium captured with either a specular or confocal microscope that can take repeated pictures of the endothelial cells non-invasively in patients. Once images are captured, they can be analyzed with special software in the Cornea Image Analysis Reading Center (CIARC) of the Department.

Student learn these techniques working with both patients and technicians, depending on the project.

Ongoing projects.

Status of IRB/IACUC approval

Image analysis studies in CIARC approved; ongoing projects have IRB approval. If launching a new project, IRB approval will need to be obtained.

Prospects for Publishing and Presenting

Excellent; we have a long track record of publications in major journals and presentations at national and international conferences.

Contact Information

Tanisha Rankins

Secretary to Dr. Jonathan Lass

• Email:  [email protected]  
• Phone: 216.983.5164

Research Topic: Retinopathy of Prematurity and other Pediatric Studies

Effect of low birth weight on the eye’s development.

Data analysis, chart review.

Several ongoing projects—long-term data collection.

Current study has IRB approval. Any new studies will need IRB approval.

Excellent; the data base study has been presented at ARVO and is in preparation for publication in a major pediatric journal.

Dr. Faruk Orge

• Email:  [email protected]
• Phone: 440.684.1743

Research Topic: Cholesterol and function of the retina

Cholesterol is essential for life in mammal. Yet, if it is chronically in excess, it is a risk factor for cardiovascular and Alzheimer's disease and likely age-related macular degeneration.

To delineate the putative link between cholesterol and age-related macular degeneration.

Characterization of retinal function of mice deficient in different enzymes involved in cholesterol elimination. Animals are assessed by optical coherence tomography, electroretinography, fluorescein angiography and optomotor response.

Students learn these techniques working with post-doctoral researchers responsible for these projects.

All studies are approved by the IACUC.

Dr. Irina Pikuleva

• Email:  [email protected]
• Phone: 216.368.3823

Research Topic: Contact Lens Related Complications

Ongoing clinical trials related to corneal infiltrative events associated with daily or extended wear of soft contact lenses. Fungal and bacterial biofilm-contact lens models and susceptibility to contact lens care products.

Assessment of sub-clinical corneal inflammation with confocal microscopy. Assessment of bacterial endotoxin and relationship to infiltrative events with soft lenses.

• Ocular and lens cultures for assessment of bioburden
• Reading/Assessment of stored confocal images
• Collection of worn lenses for biofilm formation
• Lab Assays (in conjunction with Dr. Pearlman’s lab) for endotoxin on lens surfaces or within solution

Active approved IRB protocols exist for current clinical trials on infiltrative events, biofilm studies, and assays of previously collected lenses, tears and images.

Excellent chance for authorship on investigator initiated studies of biofilm and endotoxin assays. Listing of authors will follow standard publishing guidelines. 

Other corporate-funded work may or may not allow authorship.

Dr. Loretta Szcztoka-Flynn

• Email:  [email protected]

Research Topic: Mechanisms of retinal degenerations

How do mutations in the light receptor rhodopsin cause retinal degenerations like retinitis pigmentosa? How does the retina protect against oxidative stresses that can lead to retinal degenerations such as retinitis pigmentosa and age-related macular degeneration?

A multi-disciplinary approach is employed that includes biochemistry, molecular biology, animal models and biophysics.

All animal studies have approved IACUC protocols.

Excellent with track record of publications in major journals and presentations at national and international conferences.

Information about the laboratory can be found by browsing the Park Lab webpage.

The Journal of Optometry (J Optom) is the scientific double blind peer-reviewed publication of the Spanish General Council of Optometry ( www.cgcoo.es ). Audience of J Optom includes optometrists, ophthalmologists and visual scientists, other professionals and researchers with interests in vision and the eye as well as undergraduate and post-graduate students in those fields. The J Optom welcomes the submission of original manuscripts, reviews, case reports and scientific letters describing clinical and experimental research in all fields related with the eye and vision. Journal of Optometry is an open access journal that publishes articles in English.

Indexed in:

Web of Science, Clarivate Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) Pubmed/Medline, Pubmed/Pubmed Central, Índice Bibliográfico Español en Ciencias de la Salud, CrossRef, Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), Index Copernicus, National Library of Medicine Catalog (NLM Catalog), SCImago Journal Rank, Google Scholar and Scopus

The Impact Factor measures the average number of citations received in a particular year by papers published in the journal during the two preceding years. © Clarivate Analytics, Journal Citation Reports 2022

CiteScore measures average citations received per document published.

SRJ is a prestige metric based on the idea that not all citations are the same. SJR uses a similar algorithm as the Google page rank; it provides a quantitative and qualitative measure of the journal's impact.

SNIP measures contextual citation impact by wighting citations based on the total number of citations in a subject field.

• Introduction
• Interview guide
• Preparation for the interviews and focus groups
• Data collection
• Study participants
• Data analysis
• Theme 1: retrospective perception of optometry
• Theme 2: current perception of optometry
• Theme 3: strategies to improve awareness level
• Conflicts of interest
• Acknowledgement
• Bibliography

Optometry has been an established profession in India for 60 years. Despite this, students who choose this course may have misconceptions and unrealistic expectations about the profession. The goal of this study is to understand the perceptions about optometry among optometry students, prior to and during their studies.

A snap-shot narrative qualitative study using a semi-structured open-ended questionnaire was designed to understand the perception of optometry. Optometry students and educators from three suburban colleges were invited to participate. Forty-one participants took part in 24 in-depth interviews and 5 focus groups; of those 32 were undergraduate optometry students and 9 were optometry educators. Interviews and focus groups were audio-recorded, transcribed, coded, and analyzed.

Three major themes emerged: retrospective perception of optometry, current perception and strategies to improve awareness level. All the participants mentioned that there was a considerable lack of awareness about optometry in society. None of the students stated that they chose optometry as their first choice of professional education. Most students expressed that they were provided with ample exposure during the curriculum to understand the scope of optometry. Various strategies were recommended to improve the level of awareness of optometry.

The current study highlights the lack of awareness and knowledge of optometry among the students while enrolling in the course. Knowledge about the scope of optometry practice among optometry students improved after extensive education and clinical exposure. Improving the awareness level of the profession will improve the quality of students entering the profession.

Optometric education has been established in India six decades ago, starting initially with a 2-year course, and then progressing to a 4-year graduation program. 1–3 In India, optometrists are trained in an extensive range of eye care services such as comprehensive eye examination, ocular diagnostic service, contact lenses and spectacle dispensing, vision therapy and visual rehabilitation. 4 In terms of the World Council of Optometry (WCO), Indian optometrists are highly skilled and competent. 5 They practice in multiple settings such as hospital/clinic-based practice, academics, optical retail, research, administration, marketing, and independent private practice. 6

According to the India Vision Institute report, there were approximately 49,000 practicing optometrists, and 164 institutions providing optometry education in India. 7 WCO reports that there are about 358 teaching institutes and 250,000 optometrists, globally. 5 Overall, these numbers indicate that India contributes about 19.6% of the optometrists to the world. However, the proportion might be overestimated because only 70 out of 358 known optometry organizations across the globe work in collaboration with WCO. 5,7

Despite being a well-established profession, optometric practice lacks acceptance in many countries. 8 Considering this scenario, we conducted a pilot study to explore the outlook and awareness of optometry among 9 optometry students and 2 optometry educators. Our pilot findings suggested that prior to commencing their studies, optometry students have misconceptions, false expectations and insufficient information about their profession. 9 A similar situation prevailed in many other developing countries, such as Mozambique, Saudi Arabia, and Ghana. 10–12 Eye care services in India are scattered, without formal regulation. There are no specific practice guidelines, licenses or registration for eye care professionals such as optometrists, refractionists, orthoptists, ophthalmic assistants, and ophthalmic technicians. 13 All these professions perform comprehensive eye examination and dispense spectacles and contact lenses without any specific regulatory structure, 13,14 whereas in developed countries the governments and/or law regulates the optometry education and provides practice guidelines. 15–18 Optometrists in developed countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, Ireland, United States, Canada, Australia, and European countries play an integral role in eye care practice. 20–25 Other professions such as physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and speech therapy also lack awareness but, professions such as medicine and dentistry are well-accepted among the people in India. 19

There have been no previous studies on the perception of optometry practice or optometry education in India. With respect to other nations, India is now above the Median Development Index, with a developing middle class. So there should be increasing popularity about the role of optometrists in the country, but to the best of our knowledge, there is no current information about this. While self-efficacy and efforts are both indicators of academic success, less is known about the effects of prior career knowledge and attitudes. 10,26 Students who choose their courses with a definite career plan are more likely to have academic success 27 and students who do not actively choose their courses are less likely to finish their degrees. 28 Likewise, students who were satisfied with their chosen course were more likely to succeed in their respective careers. 29 Given the importance of prior knowledge of the profession to academic success, value of course satisfaction and lack of information about optometry students’ attitudes; a qualitative study was designed to understand the retrospective perception (i.e., the perception prior to entering the course) and current perception about optometry among optometry students, via focus group discussions and interviews.

A snap-shot narrative qualitative study was conducted using in-depth interviews and focus groups. 30 The rationale was to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the retrospective perception, present knowledge and future scopes of the profession. To obtain a broad range of perspectives, optometry students and educators (optometrist) were recruited from 1) Laxmi College of Optometry, 2) ITM Institute of Health Sciences (ITMIHS), and 3) Allied Health Science - Goa Medical College and Hospital. All the three colleges offered a four-year optometry undergraduate program and were located in suburban regions of Western India. The study was conducted in adherence to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of Goa.

A semi-structured open-ended questionnaire with probes was developed based on group discussions with optometrists engaged in student recruitment procedures and first-year undergraduate students. Questions were directed on the retrospective knowledge about optometry, present perception of the profession, future perspectives, and generalized view on awareness of optometry in the community. The interview guide was reassessed and modified after each session (interview or focus group). However, the aim of the study was not altered at any point during the study period.

The interview guide used for optometry students were as follows; 1) When did you come to know about the optometry profession?, 2) How did you come to know about optometry?, 3) What information have you heard about optometry course or optometrist prior to course enrollment? (a. Course duration, b. Subjects involved in optometry, c. Practice pattern), 4) What was the perception of optometry among your family members or relatives?, 5) After enrollment into the optometry course, what is your perception about the profession and how it is different from what you already knew?, 6) What additional information did you come across during your course work?, 7) What is the role of an optometrist in eye care services?, 8) What are the future scopes in optometry?, 9) What is your future plan in the optometry profession after graduation?, 10) What is your generalized opinion on awareness of optometry in the community and why?, 11) What is the level of awareness of optometry among your family members or relatives?, 12) What is the overall level of awareness of optometry in India?, 13) What are the factors influencing the current level of awareness? (a. Eye hospital, b. Optical, c. Government policy, d. NGO initiative, e. Community outreach programs), and 14) How can we create more awareness in the community?. For optometry educators, the questionnaire was rephrased to refer to students’ in the third person, without altering the meaning of questions. For instance, question 1 was rephrased as ‘Based on your experience, when do optometry students come to know about the profession in general?’. Likewise, the rest of the 13 questions were rephrased and used as an interview guide for the educators.

All the investigators were trained in the interview methods. English was chosen as the medium of discussion for the interviews and focus groups. A calm environment was identified in each institute to facilitate audio recording. The participants were divided into students and educators. A single moderator (DV) and a note-taker (BL) who had academic teaching experience moderated the sessions of educators. For the student participants, three moderators (SS, RK, and RKL) at three different venues and a note-taker (DV) moderated the sessions. The role of the note-taker was to record the non-verbal cues of all the participants and to assist the moderators in probing questions from the interview guide. All the interviews and focus groups were planned and carried out on separate days, which facilitated the author (DV) to transcribe the interviews and rephrase the questions in accordance with the response of the previous interview. Theoretical data saturation (redundancy of information) was considered as the endpoint of the study.

The inclusion criteria for undergraduate optometry students were that they lived within 50 km of radius from the optometry college and belonged to the suburban locality. In the second group, optometry educators with academic teaching experience of at least one year and involved in optometry course recruitment process were included. Overall, the colleges had 262 students, out of which 117 students fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Using simple randomization 53 students were invited, out of which about 90% (48/53) conveyed their willingness to participate. Among the optometry educators, a total of 10 (out of 16) educators had been involved in the recruitment process and therefore fulfilled the inclusion criteria, out of which 9 were willing to participate. All the 9 educators were invited to participate in the study. The in-depth interviews were one-on-one discussion, and each focus group had 4–5 participants. At the start of each session, the participant(s) were welcomed, and refreshments were provided. The interaction between the moderator and participant(s) began with a general discussion on weather and daily news to create a friendly atmosphere. The participant(s) were then transferred to the interview site, and the agenda of the study was explained. Written informed consent was obtained from all the participants.

The discussion began with the narration of open-ended questions (one at a time), and the participants were asked to respond to the questions in English. During the interviews and focus groups, the above-mentioned interview guide was used as a reference to direct the moderator towards the study aim. Moreover, if a participant gave an uncertain or unclear statement, their reasoning was requested: such as ‘why?’ or ‘what is your opinion on it’ or ‘how?’ or ‘when?’ or ‘anything else?’. A similar approach was administered for all the questions from the interview guide. On the other hand, if the participant did not respond to all the information on a specific question, probes were given. A scenario from the present study is given as an example: “What information have you heard about optometry course before enrollment?” If the participant had not mentioned anything about the ‘course curriculum’, then “What have you heard about the course structure and subjects undertaken in the course?”. A parallel approach was followed in focus groups; also the participants were permitted to interact with each other to derive new categories. At the end of each session, the moderator summarized all the information stated by the participant. Any terminology expressed in the local language (Hindi, Konkani, and Marathi) was translated into English by the participants. Likewise, if any non-verbal cues were used during the session, the participant(s) were requested to express verbally. The data collection was concluded when no additional insights were obtained in the last 3 sessions.

After, 24 in-depth interviews and 5 focus groups in two groups of 41 participants; data saturation was observed. Thirty-two undergraduate optometry students participated in 20 interviews and three focus groups (four participants in each) in group 1, among which 6 students belonged in the first-year, 7 in the second-year, 11 in the third-year and remaining 8 were optometry interns. None of the participants from the student group took part in both the interviews and focus groups. Four in-depth interviews and two focus groups (4 in first and 5 in second) were carried out among nine educators. Four tutors participated in interviews as well as focus groups.

The audiotaped in-depth interviews and focus groups were transcribed into verbatim by the moderators who conducted the interview. Each transcript was descriptively coded, and categorized by a single moderator (DV). Generalized data coding and analysis were carried out for all transcribed interviews and focus groups irrespective of the study group using NVivo 12 software (NVivo qualitative data analysis software; QSR International Pty Ltd. Version 12.0, 2018). The software helped organize and retrieve text linked by familiar texts. Qualitative content analysis was performed to compare the responses between two groups and the level of course completion.

The 32 undergraduate optometry students who took part had a mean age of 19.36 ± 1.28 (SD) years, of which 21 participants were female. The 9 optometry educators who participated had a mean age of 30.5 ± 2.02 (SD) years and had a mean level of teaching experience of 3.83 ± 2.25 (SD) years respectively, of these educators 5 were female. The categories obtained from both groups were similar, as the study aimed to address the perception of the student community. Three major themes that emerged out of the qualitative analysis are as follows.

The outlook of optometry in society

“Most of the people in India have never heard about optometry or optometrist.” (Interview 03: Educator)

“There is no awareness of optometry in society. Even when I informed my relatives that I am pursuing an optometry course; they asked, ‘What is optometry exactly?’ Then I had to explain to them about the course and the role of an optometrist in society.” (FGD 01; P26: Student)

The reasons to undertake the course

Students’ response

“I wanted to pursue Medicine, but I couldn’t meet the eligibility criteria. I was keen on providing community service, so I started looking for other career options in health care. I came across the optometry program; I felt optometry would be an ideal career where I can serve the rural community.” (Interview 03: Student)

“While preparing for competitive examinations for health-care, I went through different courses that were available in my state (locality). That was the first time I heard that there is a branch called optometry that deals with eye care.” (Interview 17: Student)

“I read online that optometrists had very high job satisfaction in many countries compared to other health-care professions; so I opted for optometry.” (Interview 18: Student)

Educators’ response

“Some students were pursuing optometry because they required optometry skills and graduation certificate to carry over their family business (i.e. optical industry).” (Interview 02: Educator)

“Few students discontinue optometry course if they get into medicine or dental education.” (FGD 05; P39: educator)

Expectation(s) from the course

“I knew that optometry is a profession related to the eyes. I also had a thought that it is similar to an ophthalmologist except providing surgical management and drug administration.” (Interview 21: Student)

“Before entering the course, I thought an optometrist had to work in lens manufacturing units, and optical sales after completion of the course.” (Interview 7: Student)

According to the educators, first-year optometry students had inadequate knowledge about the coursework, curriculum, structure and future scopes. Likewise, some students reported that they did not have substantial information about the subjects in the syllabus and scope during the admission process. None of the students had heard about multidisciplinary practice patterns of optometry prior to the commencement of their course.

Understanding the role of an optometrist

“After completing the coursework of specialty subjects such as contact lenses, binocular vision, and low vision in the third year; I am quite confident that the optometry profession has plenty of scopes.” (Interview 15: Student)

The future scope of optometry

“Our college organizes yearly school screening programs at rural schools where we conduct vision assessment of the students and prescribe glasses. This experience has inspired me a lot, so I am considering to concentrate on pediatric optometry.” (Interview 11: Student)

The first two themes highlighted the lack of awareness of optometry in India, which led to the development of this theme. Two subthemes were derived; the role of media and public health awareness.

a. Role of media

“Media is an influential source for publicity these days; we can advertise on radio, newspapers, and television channels about optometry courses and clinics. We have thousands of friends at the social media platform, which makes it the best option to promote optometry.” (FGD 02; P28: Student)

b. Public awareness programs

“I came to know about optometry from an eye screening camp conducted near my residence. There were hundreds of people being screened and referred to eye hospital, and some were given free spectacles too. So, organizing multiple camps in the community will also create awareness about the role of an optometrist.” (FGD 03; P31: Student)

“I feel our graduates should initiate more of independent practice to improve the awareness level of optometry, rather than working in eye hospitals or optical chains. Also, we (optometrists) need the support of a national regulatory body; like the Medical Council of India and Dental Council of India to support physicians and dentists respectively.” (Interview 02: Educator)

“We organize public awareness programs and vision screening programs to create awareness about optometry.” (FGD 05; P40: Educator)

Our findings showed that, prior to entering the course, the awareness and knowledge about the optometry profession were limited among optometry students. A majority of students had heard about health-care professional courses like medicine, dentistry, and nursing during their schooling but not optometry. Moreover, most student participants in this study never intended to choose optometry as a profession in the first place. The current study results highlighted that students with good academic merits prefer medicine or other professions initially, and settle to optometry profession when failed to procure their desired profession.

The time point at which the students learn about the role of a profession is crucial. The student participants acquired basic knowledge about optometry course at the age of 17.6 (±1.2) years, which was also the time they gathered information about the career options in the health-care. Literature suggests early-to-mid adolescence is the ideal time for career exploration. 31 However, the students in this study had never heard about optometry until late adolescence, and the opinion was also backed by optometry educators. Many students perceived optometrists as spectacle dispensers or lens manufacturers when they heard about the profession for the first time. The students also reported that their family members, relatives, and peers did not perceive the profession at par with other health-care professions prior to commencement of the course. Even in most European countries, optometrists were perceived as opticians for the initial five decades. 20 Our findings also suggested that a similar situation prevails in India currently (60 years after the introduction of optometry 1–3 ). In addition, few studies have indicated a lack of awareness about the optometry profession in developing nations such as Mozambique, Ghana and Saudi Arabia. 10–12,32,33 Overall, the reason behind this lack of knowledge and awareness about optometry in these countries is not known.

Our study also showed that prior to entry, students were more aware of medicine, dentistry, and nursing compared to optometry. The roles of other professions such as physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and speech therapy are, like optometry, relatively unknown in India. 19 However, in contrast, the roles of optometry are well-understood by college students of the United States. 34 A reason for this finding could be the existence of a large number of optometrists in the United States, and there is a high probability that the participants’ encounter the profession at some point in time. The national and state regulatory bodies moderating US optometry practice might also have played a major role in enhancing the reputation of the profession. 34 Nevertheless, our results suggested that vision care services being provided in the community might contribute to the existing awareness of optometry. This agrees with other studies, which also suggest that the role of eye care hospitals and community outreach programs remains vital in generating awareness about optometry in young people and their families. 35,36 In addition, career counselors and family members were the source of information about optometry in this study. Literature suggests that parents and school teachers commonly influence school students in career decisions making. 37 Surprisingly, none of the student participants in the present study stated that their school teachers, or school counseling professionals, mentioned or discussed optometry. This indicates that there could be a considerable lack of awareness about optometry in school teachers, career counselors, and society. In the current study, the desire to help the community, support family business and job opportunities were mentioned as factors for opting optometry. Similar findings were also reported in the literature. 38,39

The perception of optometry students about their career changed after appropriate academic and clinical exposure to eye care. The students also highlighted that their family members, relatives, and peers viewed the profession positively after they enrolled in the course compared to their previous understanding. After entering the course, the students came across various aspects of optometry coursework which lead them to gain knowledge about future scopes and practice patterns in optometry. To the best of our knowledge, there are no studies that reported the changes in perception of optometry among the students pursuing the profession. A study by Thite et al. 6 reported that the Indian optometrists were involved in a range of services at eye hospitals, optical outlets, and community outreach programs. These findings are similar to our results, however, the retrospective perception of optometry showed conflicting responses which indicate a lack of initial knowledge about optometry practice. In addition, senior optometry students had a better understanding and knowledge of the career opportunities, range of vision care services and scope of practice, compared to their juniors. This suggests that optometry students need sufficient exposure and guidance to various eye care services during the curriculum to understand the broader perspective of optometry. Similarly, the literature also suggests that the knowledge about the range of practice patterns and the importance of multidisciplinary approach was higher among senior students and optometrists with higher academic qualifications, indicating the importance of more exposure. 6,40 These findings emphasize that the quality of education and optometry qualification are crucial in understanding the roles of the profession. In addition, De Souza et al. 4 and Rao 41 discussed the need for extensive training to deliver a successful eye care service in India. Thus, the standards of optometry education and the quality of eye care services may depend on the framework of the academic curriculum pursued by the students. Currently, there is no standard curriculum followed by the optometry colleges in India, and developing such a curriculum may improve the profile of the profession.

Overall, the results of the current study highlight the urgent need to create awareness about optometry in suburban India. Assessing and generating awareness about optometry prior to course enrollment will not only improve the intake of meritorious students, but also enhance academic performance, 10,27,42 professional success, 29 and future job satisfaction. 43 A study by Grembowski et al. 44 illustrated a positive association between job satisfaction and quality of health care service provided. Thus, improving the current perception of students would also result in delivering a better quality eye care service to the community. Several innovative approaches were suggested by the participants to improve public awareness and knowledge about the optometry profession in the present study. Participants suggested that community activities could be used as a platform to improve the awareness level of the profession. Advertisements were also one of the strategies recommended to improve awareness about optometry. A similar approach was suggested by Moser and Reed to improve public awareness and to ensure an advantageous optometry practice. 45 Literature suggests several developing countries have a lack of knowledge about eye care service and optometrist in their community. 10–12,32,33 The strategies identified in our study could be implemented in these countries where awareness about optometry among career seeking students is minimal. Apart from awareness of the optometry profession, the participants also reported that these strategies will create awareness about eye health in society. Similar strategies were recommended to improve eye health in the previous studies. 4,45 The current study highlights that several false assumptions might prevail about optometry among the student community. These misconceptions about the profession might diminish significantly if the proportion of independent practice increases resulting in general-public encountering the profession in large numbers and building awareness in the country. A study in the United States reported that the high proportion of practicing optometrists influenced the exposure to the profession among college entering students. 34 However, the proportion of independent optometry practice in India was reported only 22%. 6

Optometry educators emphasized the need for a national legislative body for independent optometry practice in the current study. This expectation is customary because of the existence of Medical Council of India and Dental Council of India which allows physicians and dentists to practice independently. Furthermore, there are different professionals in eye care such as optometrists, refractionists, orthoptists, ophthalmic assistants, and ophthalmic technicians who provide refractive services. 13 Whereas the role of eye care practice in developed countries are well-defined, this might be due to the presence of regulatory bodies in their nations, that maintains the standards of the services by stratifying the responsibilities of eye care practitioners. 20–25 At present, India is planning to establish a legislative and regulatory body for standardizing optometry education and moderating the practice guidelines of an optometrist in the country as suggested by the WCO. 5,46,47 Though most countries follow the WCO 5 guidelines for the optometry education program, the certifications provided to optometry course are diverse: such as bachelor in optometry, doctor in optometry, diploma in optometry, honors in optometry, etc. As per the framework and curriculum of these programs, it also differs from country to country irrespective of the presence of a regulatory body. For instance, in the United States, optometry education has evolved considerably in the last decade, with an increase in 5.7% of total clock hours in optometry education. 48 On the other hand, several other countries still follow the guidelines of WCO 5 and follow a specific pattern of curriculum. And eventually, after graduation, all these professionals from various countries will be titled as an optometrist. Now the question that arises here is ‘whether all the trained optometrists perform a similar role in society and are they competent to practice in all the platforms?’. To resolve this particular issue, the optometry profession might be coordinated by a global autonomous body such as WCO 5 to deliver benchmark eye care services, recommend effective recruitment strategy for optometry schools, provide uniform structure to optometry curriculum, assure the quality of academic institutes 49 and enhance the specialty practice guidelines. 50 Implementing all these components could improve the competency of the profession, increase ease of access to eye care services, reduce the burden of avoidable blindness and eventually improve the status of the profession worldwide.

A major limitation of the current study is that it applies to a small number of optometry schools, making it challenging to quantify the awareness and knowledge about optometry for the whole nation. Perceptions are expected to vary from location to location within India due to cultural, educational, environmental and language diversities. Also, there are more tertiary eye care facilities available in urban and southern parts of the country compared to its rural regions, which could lead to different degrees of awareness at different locations. Moreover, factors like academic merit, language, gender and cross-cultural difference of participants were not considered in this study. Thus, there may be a need to conduct a national survey to explore the understanding of optometry among school students. Also, awareness studies about optometry could be planned among career decision influencers such as family members, school teachers, and career counselors.

To conclude, our results provide evidence of an initial lack of awareness and knowledge about optometry among students in India. The frequency of choosing the optometry profession as a preliminary career option is low in the community. Further, it is recommended that public awareness activities should be conducted to motivate school students to seek a career in eye care. Hence, improving the awareness level of the profession may improve the quality of students’ entering optometry course. The findings also suggest that understanding the future perspectives and practice patterns of optometry services available improved considerably with the level of coursework provided at college. The outcomes recommend that trained optometrists in the country should practice optometry in all specialties independently like the developed countries, to improve the awareness level of the profession.

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

The authors would like to thank Dr Andrew Carkeet (Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Health, School - Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Qld., Australia) for his support and guidance in manuscript preparation.

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