research paper about modern philosophy

Login | Register

• Editorial Team
• Editorial Policies
• Research Integrity
• Submissions
• Competing Interests
• Authorship Guidelines
• Start Submission
• Become a Reviewer

Current Issue

Volume 6 • 2024

About this Journal

JMPhil  is an open access philosophy journal that publishes papers on the history of philosophy from the 16th century to the turn of the 20th century. There is no word limit on submissions, although economy of expression is encouraged. We aim to review submissions fairly and quickly. Reviewing is double blind. All submissions that fit the scope of the journal and meet basic norms of scholarly publishing will be sent out for review, and we send submissions to two reviewers whenever possible. We aim for a time to decision of less than eight weeks for all papers. Authors retain copyright under the CC BY-NC license. Accepted papers are published as soon as they are copyedited and typeset.

René Descartes: The Father of Modern Philosophy

9 Pages Posted: 28 Jan 2022 Last revised: 31 Jan 2022

Sunil Dutt Trivedi

Research Scholar

Date Written: January 22, 2022

This article presents a brief summary of René Descartes's life and his core ideas. Early life, education, and major influences on this great philosopher's life have been presented. His core ideas like skepticism and universal methodic doubt have been explained. Criticism of his ideas is also included for enabling comprehensive evaluation by the readers.

Keywords: René Descartes's, Rene Descartes, Father of Modern Philosophy, Dualism, Skepticism, Universal Methodic Doubt

JEL Classification: Y6,Y40

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Sunil Dutt Trivedi (Contact Author)

Research scholar ( email ).

Management city Sunaria Rohtak, Haryana 124010 India

Do you have a job opening that you would like to promote on SSRN?

Paper statistics, related ejournals, history of western philosophy ejournal.

Subscribe to this free journal for more curated articles on this topic

Epistemology eJournal

• Advanced Search
• All new items
• Journal articles
• Manuscripts
• All Categories
• Metaphysics and Epistemology
• Epistemology
• Metaphilosophy
• Metaphysics
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Religion
• Value Theory
• Applied Ethics
• Meta-Ethics
• Normative Ethics
• Philosophy of Gender, Race, and Sexuality
• Philosophy of Law
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Value Theory, Miscellaneous
• Science, Logic, and Mathematics
• Logic and Philosophy of Logic
• Philosophy of Biology
• Philosophy of Cognitive Science
• Philosophy of Computing and Information
• Philosophy of Mathematics
• Philosophy of Physical Science
• Philosophy of Social Science
• Philosophy of Probability
• General Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Science, Misc
• History of Western Philosophy
• Ancient Greek and Roman Philosophy
• Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy
• 17th/18th Century Philosophy
• 19th Century Philosophy
• 20th Century Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy, Misc
• Philosophical Traditions
• African/Africana Philosophy
• Asian Philosophy
• Continental Philosophy
• European Philosophy
• Philosophy of the Americas
• Philosophical Traditions, Miscellaneous
• Philosophy, Misc
• Philosophy, Introductions and Anthologies
• Philosophy, General Works
• Teaching Philosophy
• Philosophy, Miscellaneous
• Other Academic Areas
• Natural Sciences
• Social Sciences
• Cognitive Sciences
• Formal Sciences
• Arts and Humanities
• Professional Areas
• Other Academic Areas, Misc
• Submit a book or article
• Upload a bibliography
• Personal page tracking
• Archives we track
• Information for publishers
• Introduction
• Submitting to PhilPapers
• Frequently Asked Questions
• Subscriptions
• Editor's Guide
• The Categorization Project
• For Publishers
• For Archive Admins
• PhilPapers Surveys
• Bargain Finder
• About PhilPapers
• Create an account

Welcome to PhilPapers

Results of 2020 PhilPapers Survey posted 2021-11-01 by David Bourget We've now released the results of the 2020 PhilPapers Survey, which surveyed 1785 professional philosophers on their views on 100 philosophical issues.  Results are available on the 2020 PhilPapers Survey  website and in draft article form in " Philosophers on Philosophy: The 2020 PhilPapers Survey " . Discussion is welcome in the PhilPapers Survey 2020 discussion group .

• USF Research
• USF Libraries

Digital Commons @ USF > College of Arts and Sciences > Philosophy > Theses and Dissertations

Philosophy Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

On the Possibility of Secular Morality , Zachary R. Alonso

An Ecofeminist Ontological Turn: Preparing the Field for a New Ecofeminist Project , M. Laurel-Leigh Meierdiercks

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Karl Marx on Human Flourishing and Proletarian Ethics , Sam Badger

The Ontological Grounds of Reason: Psychologism, Logicism, and Hermeneutic Phenomenology , Stanford L. Howdyshell

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Interdisciplinary Communication by Plausible Analogies: the Case of Buddhism and Artificial Intelligence , Michael Cooper

Heidegger and the Origin of Authenticity , John J. Preston

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Hegel and Schelling: The Emptiness of Emptiness and the Love of the Divine , Sean B. Gleason

Nietzsche on Criminality , Laura N. McAllister

Learning to be Human: Ren 仁, Modernity, and the Philosophers of China's Hundred Days' Reform , Lucien Mathot Monson

Nietzsche and Eternal Recurrence: Methods, Archives, History, and Genesis , William A. B. Parkhurst

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Orders of Normativity: Nietzsche, Science and Agency , Shane C. Callahan

Humanistic Climate Philosophy: Erich Fromm Revisited , Nicholas Dovellos

This, or Something like It: Socrates and the Problem of Authority , Simon Dutton

Climate Change and Liberation in Latin America , Ernesto O. Hernández

Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa as Expressions of Shame in a Post-Feminist , Emily Kearns

Nostalgia and (In)authentic Community: A Bataillean Answer to the Heidegger Controversy , Patrick Miller

Cultivating Virtue: A Thomistic Perspective on the Relationship Between Moral Motivation and Skill , Ashley Potts

Identity, Breakdown, and the Production of Knowledge: Intersectionality, Phenomenology, and the Project of Post-Marxist Standpoint Theory , Zachary James Purdue

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

The Efficacy of Comedy , Mark Anthony Castricone

William of Ockham's Divine Command Theory , Matthew Dee

Heidegger's Will to Power and the Problem of Nietzsche's Nihilism , Megan Flocken

Abelard's Affective Intentionalism , Lillian M. King

Anton Wilhelm Amo's Philosophy and Reception: from the Origins through the Encyclopédie , Dwight Kenneth Lewis Jr.

"The Thought that we Hate": Regulating Race-Related Speech on College Campuses , Michael McGowan

A Historical Approach to Understanding Explanatory Proofs Based on Mathematical Practices , Erika Oshiro

From Meaningful Work to Good Work: Reexamining the Moral Foundation of the Calling Orientation , Garrett W. Potts

Reasoning of the Highest Leibniz and the Moral Quality of Reason , Ryan Quandt

Fear, Death, and Being-a-problem: Understanding and Critiquing Racial Discourse with Heidegger’s Being and Time , Jesús H. Ramírez

The Role of Skepticism in Early Modern Philosophy: A Critique of Popkin's "Sceptical Crisis" and a Study of Descartes and Hume , Raman Sachdev

How the Heart Became Muscle: From René Descartes to Nicholas Steno , Alex Benjamin Shillito

Autonomy, Suffering, and the Practice of Medicine: A Relational Approach , Michael A. Stanfield

The Case for the Green Kant: A Defense and Application of a Kantian Approach to Environmental Ethics , Zachary T. Vereb

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Augustine's Confessiones : The Battle between Two Conversions , Robert Hunter Craig

The Strategic Naturalism of Sandra Harding's Feminist Standpoint Epistemology: A Path Toward Epistemic Progress , Dahlia Guzman

Hume on the Doctrine of Infinite Divisibility: A Matter of Clarity and Absurdity , Wilson H. Underkuffler

Climate Change: Aristotelian Virtue Theory, the Aidōs Response and Proper Primility , John W. Voelpel

The Fate of Kantian Freedom: the Kant-Reinhold Controversy , John Walsh

Time, Tense, and Ontology: Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Tense, the Phenomenology of Temporality, and the Ontology of Time , Justin Brandt Wisniewski

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

A Phenomenological Approach to Clinical Empathy: Rethinking Empathy Within its Intersubjective and Affective Contexts , Carter Hardy

From Object to Other: Models of Sociality after Idealism in Gadamer, Levinas, Rosenzweig, and Bonhoeffer , Christopher J. King

Humanitarian Military Intervention: A Failed Paradigm , Faruk Rahmanovic

Active Suffering: An Examination of Spinoza's Approach to Tristita , Kathleen Ketring Schenk

Cartesian Method and Experiment , Aaron Spink

An Examination of John Burton’s Method of Conflict Resolution and Its Applicability to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict , John Kenneth Steinmeyer

Speaking of the Self: Theorizing the Dialogical Dimensions of Ethical Agency , Bradley S. Warfield

Changing Changelessness: On the Genesis and Development of the Doctrine of Divine Immutability in the Ancient and Hellenic Period , Milton Wilcox

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

The Statue that Houses the Temple: A Phenomenological Investigation of Western Embodiment Towards the Making of Heidegger's Missing Connection with the Greeks , Michael Arvanitopoulos

An Exploratory Analysis of Media Reporting of Police Involved Shootings in Florida , John L. Brown

Divine Temporality: Bonhoeffer's Theological Appropriation of Heidegger's Existential Analytic of Dasein , Nicholas Byle

Stoicism in Descartes, Pascal, and Spinoza: Examining Neostoicism’s Influence in the Seventeenth Century , Daniel Collette

Phenomenology and the Crisis of Contemporary Psychiatry: Contingency, Naturalism, and Classification , Anthony Vincent Fernandez

A Critique of Charitable Consciousness , Chioke Ianson

writing/trauma , Natasha Noel Liebig

Leibniz's More Fundamental Ontology: from Overshadowed Individuals to Metaphysical Atoms , Marin Lucio Mare

Violence and Disagreement: From the Commonsense View to Political Kinds of Violence and Violent Nonviolence , Gregory Richard Mccreery

Kant's Just War Theory , Steven Charles Starke

A Feminist Contestation of Ableist Assumptions: Implications for Biomedical Ethics, Disability Theory, and Phenomenology , Christine Marie Wieseler

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Heidegger and the Problem of Modern Moral Philosophy , Megan Emily Altman

The Encultured Mind: From Cognitive Science to Social Epistemology , David Alexander Eck

Weakness of Will: An Inquiry on Value , Michael Funke

Cogs in a Cosmic Machine: A Defense of Free Will Skepticism and its Ethical Implications , Sacha Greer

Thinking Nature, "Pierre Maupertuis and the Charge of Error Against Fermat and Leibniz" , Richard Samuel Lamborn

John Duns Scotus’s Metaphysics of Goodness: Adventures in 13th-Century Metaethics , Jeffrey W. Steele

A Gadamerian Analysis of Roman Catholic Hermeneutics: A Diachronic Analysis of Interpretations of Romans 1:17-2:17 , Steven Floyd Surrency

A Natural Case for Realism: Processes, Structures, and Laws , Andrew Michael Winters

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Leibniz's Theodicies , Joseph Michael Anderson

Aeschynē in Aristotle's Conception of Human Nature , Melissa Marie Coakley

Ressentiment, Violence, and Colonialism , Jose A. Haro

It's About Time: Dynamics of Inflationary Cosmology as the Source of the Asymmetry of Time , Emre Keskin

Time Wounds All Heels: Human Nature and the Rationality of Just Behavior , Timothy Glenn Slattery

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Nietzsche and Heidegger on the Cartesian Atomism of Thought , Steven Burgess

Embodying Social Practice: Dynamically Co-Constituting Social Agency , Brian W. Dunst

Subject of Conscience: On the Relation between Freedom and Discrimination in the Thought of Heidegger, Foucault, and Butler , Aret Karademir

Climate, Neo-Spinozism, and the Ecological Worldview , Nancy M. Kettle

Eschatology in a Secular Age: An Examination of the Use of Eschatology in the Philosophies of Heidegger, Berdyaev and Blumenberg , John R. Lup, Jr.

Navigation and Immersion of the American Identity in a Foreign Culture to Emergence as a Culturally Relative Ambassador , Lee H. Rosen

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

A Philosophical Analysis of Intellectual Property: In Defense of Instrumentalism , Michael A. Kanning

A Commentary On Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's Discourse on Metaphysics #19 , Richard Lamborn Samuel Lamborn

Sellars in Context: An Analysis of Wilfrid Sellars's Early Works , Peter Jackson Olen

The New Materialism: Althusser, Badiou, and Zizek , Geoffrey Dennis Pfeifer

Structure and Agency: An Analysis of the Impact of Structure on Group Agents , Elizabeth Kaye Victor

Moral Friction, Moral Phenomenology, and the Improviser , Benjamin Scott Young

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

The Virtuoso Human: A Virtue Ethics Model Based on Care , Frederick Joseph Bennett

The Existential Compromise in the History of the Philosophy of Death , Adam Buben

Philosophical Precursors to the Radical Enlightenment: Vignettes on the Struggle Between Philosophy and Theology From the Greeks to Leibniz With Special Emphasis on Spinoza , Anthony John Desantis

The Problem of Evil in Augustine's Confessions , Edward Matusek

The Persistence of Casuistry: a Neo-premodernist Approach to Moral Reasoning , Richard Arthur Mercadante

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

Dewey's Pragmatism and the Great Community , Philip Schuyler Bishop

Unamuno's Concept of the Tragic , Ernesto O. Hernandez

Rethinking Ethical Naturalism: The Implications of Developmental Systems Theory , Jared J.. Kinggard

From Husserl and the Neo-Kantians to Art: Heidegger's Realist Historicist Answer to the Problem of the Origin of Meaning , William H. Koch

Queering Cognition: Extended Minds and Sociotechnologically Hybridized Gender , Michele Merritt

Hydric Life: A Nietzschean Reading of Postcolonial Communication , Elena F. Ruiz-Aho

Descartes' Bête Machine, the Leibnizian Correction and Religious Influence , John Voelpel

Aretē and Physics: The Lesson of Plato's Timaeus , John R. Wolfe

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

Praxis and Theōria : Heidegger’s “Violent” Interpretation , Megan E. Altman

On the Concept of Evil: An Analysis of Genocide and State Sovereignty , Jason J. Campbell

The Role of Trust in Judgment , Christophe Sage Hudspeth

Truth And Judgment , Jeremy J. Kelly

The concept of action and responsibility in Heidegger's early thought , Christian Hans Pedersen

Advanced Search

• Email Notifications and RSS
• All Collections
• USF Faculty Publications
• Open Access Journals
• Conferences and Events
• Theses and Dissertations
• Textbooks Collection

Useful Links

• Philosophy Department
• Rights Information
• SelectedWorks
• Submit Research

Home | About | Help | My Account | Accessibility Statement | Language and Diversity Statements

Privacy Copyright

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center
• Introduction

The empiricism of Francis Bacon

The materialism of thomas hobbes, the rationalism of descartes, the rationalism of spinoza and leibniz, reason in locke and berkeley, basic science of human nature in hume, materialism and scientific discovery, social and political philosophy, critical examination of reason in kant.

• The idealism of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel
• Positivism and social theory in Comte, Mill, and Marx
• Independent and irrationalist movements

• What is ethics?
• How is ethics different from morality?
• Why does ethics matter?
• Is ethics a social science?

modern philosophy

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• Table Of Contents

modern philosophy , in the history of Western philosophy , the philosophical speculation that occurred primarily in western Europe and North America from the 17th through the 19th century. The modern period is marked by the emergence of the broad schools of empiricism and rationalism and the epochal transformation of Western metaphysics , epistemology , and ethics by the German Enlightenment philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), the greatest figure of the modern period.

The rise of empiricism and rationalism

Empiricism is the view that all concepts originate in experience, that all concepts are about or applicable to things that can be experienced, or that all rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions are justifiable or knowable only through experience. Rationalism, by contrast, is the doctrine that regards reason or the intellect as the primary or fundamental source and test of knowledge. Holding that reality itself has an inherently logical structure, rationalists assert the existence of a class of truths beyond the reach of sense perception and graspable directly by reason or the intellect. The rivalry between empiricism and rationalism dominated the philosophical controversies of the 17th and 18th centuries and was hardly resolved before the appearance of Immanuel Kant.

The English philosopher, scientist, and statesman Francis Bacon (1561–1626) was an outstanding apostle of empiricism in a time bordering the late-Renaissance and early-modern periods of philosophy . Less an original metaphysician or cosmologist than the advocate of a vast new program for the advancement of learning and the reformation of scientific method , Bacon conceived of philosophy as a new technique of reasoning that would reestablish natural science on a firm foundation. In the Advancement of Learning (1605), he charted the map of knowledge: history, which depends on the human faculty of memory; poetry, which depends on imagination; and philosophy, which depends on reason. To reason, however, Bacon assigned a completely experiential function. Fifteen years later, in his Novum Organum , he made this clear. Because, he said, “we have as yet no natural philosophy which is pure,…the true business of philosophy must be…to apply the understanding…to a fresh examination of particulars.” A technique for “the fresh examination of particulars” thus constituted his chief contribution to philosophy.

Bacon’s hope for a new birth of science depended not only on vastly more numerous and varied experiments but primarily on “an entirely different method, order, and process for advancing experience.” This method consisted of the construction of what he called “tables of discovery.” He distinguished three kinds: tables of presence, of absence, and of degree (i.e., in the case of any two properties, such as heat and friction, instances in which they appear together, instances in which one appears without the other, and instances in which their amounts vary proportionately). The ultimate purpose of these tables was to order facts in such a way that the true causes of phenomena (the subject of physics ) and the true “forms” of things (the subject of metaphysics , or the study of the nature of being ) could be inductively established.

Bacon’s empiricism was not raw or unsophisticated. His concept of fact and his belief in the primacy of observation led him to formulate laws and generalizations. Also, his conception of form was quite unlike that of Plato (427/28–347/48 bce ): a form for Bacon was not an essence but a permanent geometric or mechanical structure. His enduring place in the history of philosophy lies, however, in his single-minded advocacy of experience as the only source of valid knowledge and in his profound enthusiasm for the perfection of natural science. It is in this sense that “the Baconian spirit” was a source of inspiration for generations of later philosophers and scientists.

The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was acquainted with both Bacon and the Italian astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). With the first Hobbes shared a strong concern for philosophical method, with the second an overwhelming interest in matter in motion . His philosophical efforts, however, were more inclusive and more complete than those of his contemporaries. He was a comprehensive thinker within the scope of an exceedingly narrow set of presuppositions, and he produced one of the most systematic philosophies of the early modern period—an almost completely consistent description of humankind, civil society , and nature according to the tenets of mechanistic materialism .

Hobbes’s account of what philosophy is and ought to be clearly distinguished between content and method. As method, philosophy is simply reasoning or calculating by the use of words as to the causes or effects of phenomena. When people reason from causes to effects, they reason synthetically; when they reason from effects to causes, they reason analytically. (Hobbes’s strong inclination toward deduction and geometric proofs favoured arguments of the former type.) His dogmatic metaphysical assumption was that physical reality consists entirely of matter in motion. The real world is a corporeal universe in constant movement, and phenomena, or events, the causes and effects of which it is the business of philosophy to lay bare, consist of either the action of physical bodies on each other or the quaint effects of physical bodies upon minds.

From this assumption follows Hobbes’s classification of the fields that form the content of philosophy: (1) physics, (2) moral philosophy, and (3) civil philosophy. Physics is the science of the motions and actions of physical bodies conceived in terms of cause and effect . Moral philosophy (or, more accurately, psychology ) is the detailed study of “the passions and perturbations of the mind”—that is, how minds are “moved” by desire, aversion , appetite, fear, anger, and envy. And civil philosophy deals with the concerted actions of people in a commonwealth—how, in detail, the wayward wills of human beings can be constrained by power (i.e., force) to prevent civil disorder and maintain peace.

Hobbes’s philosophy was a bold restatement of Greek atomistic materialism, with applications to the realities of early modern politics that would have seemed strange to its ancient authors. But there are also elements in it that make it characteristically English. Hobbes’s account of language led him to adopt nominalism and to deny the reality of abstract universals (i.e., a metaphysical entity used to explain what it is for things to share a feature, attribute, or quality or to fall under the same type or natural kind). Bacon’s general emphasis on experience also had its analogue in Hobbes’s theory that all knowledge arises from sense experiences, all of which are caused by the actions of physical bodies on the sense organs. Empiricism has long been a basic and recurrent feature of British intellectual life, and its nominalist and sensationalist roots were already clearly evident in both Bacon and Hobbes.

The dominant philosophy of the last half of the 17th century was that of René Descartes (1596–1650). A crucial figure in the history of philosophy, Descartes combined (however unconsciously or even unwillingly) the influences of the past into a synthesis that was striking in its originality and yet congenial to the scientific temper of the age. In the minds of all later historians, he counts as the progenitor of the modern spirit of philosophy. Descartes was also a great mathematician—he invented analytic geometry —and the author of many important physical and anatomical experiments. He knew and profoundly respected the work of Galileo; indeed, he withdrew from publication his own cosmological treatise , The World , after Galileo’s condemnation by the Inquisition in 1633.

Bacon and Descartes, the founders of modern empiricism and rationalism, respectively, both subscribed to two pervasive tenets of the Renaissance: an enormous enthusiasm for physical science and the belief that knowledge means power—that the ultimate purpose of theoretical science is to serve the practical needs of human beings.

In his Principles of Philosophy (1644), Descartes defined philosophy as “the study of wisdom” or “the perfect knowledge of all one can know.” Its chief utility is “for the conduct of life” (morals), “the conservation of health” (medicine), and “the invention of all the arts” (mechanics). He expressed the relation of philosophy to practical endeavours in the famous metaphor of the “tree”: the roots are metaphysics, the trunk is physics, and the branches are morals , medicine, and mechanics. The metaphor is revealing, for it indicates that for Descartes—as for Bacon and Galileo—the most important part of the tree was the trunk. In other words, Descartes busied himself with metaphysics only in order to provide a firm foundation for physics. Thus, the Discourse on Method (1637), which provides a synoptic view of the Cartesian philosophy, shows it to be not a metaphysics founded upon physics—as was the case with Aristotle (384–322 bce )— but rather a physics founded upon metaphysics.

Descartes’s mathematical bias was reflected in his determination to ground natural science not in sensation and probability (as did Bacon) but in premises that could be known with absolute certainty. Thus his metaphysics in essence consisted of three principles:

• To employ the procedure of complete and systematic doubt to eliminate every belief that does not pass the test of indubitability ( skepticism ).
• To accept no idea as certain that is not clear, distinct, and free of contradiction (mathematicism).
• To found all knowledge upon the bedrock certainty of self-consciousness, so that the cogito ( cogito, ergo sum ; “I think, therefore I am,” or “I think, I am”) becomes the only innate idea unshakable by doubt (subjectivism).

From the indubitability of the self, Descartes inferred the existence of a perfect God, and, from the fact that a perfect being is incapable of falsification or deception, he concluded that the ideas about the physical world that God has implanted in human beings must be true. The achievement of certainty about the natural world was thus guaranteed by the perfection of God and by the “clear and distinct” ideas that are his gift.

Cartesian metaphysics is the fountainhead of rationalism in modern philosophy, for it suggests that the mathematical criteria of clarity, distinctness, and logical consistency are the ultimate test of meaningfulness and truth. This stance is profoundly antiempirical. Bacon, who remarked that “reasoners resemble spiders who make cobwebs out of their own substance,” might well have said the same of Descartes, for the Cartesian self is just such a substance. Yet for Descartes the understanding is vastly superior to the senses, and only reason can ultimately decide what constitutes truth in science.

Cartesianism dominated the intellectual life of continental Europe until the end of the 17th century. It was a fashionable philosophy, appealing to learned gentlemen and highborn ladies alike, and it was one of the few philosophical alternatives to the Scholasticism still being taught in the universities. Precisely for this reason it constituted a serious threat to established religious authority . In 1663 the Roman Catholic Church placed Descartes’s works on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (“Index of Forbidden Books”), and the University of Oxford forbade the teaching of his doctrines. Only in the liberal Dutch universities, such as those of Groningen and Utrecht, did Cartesianism make serious headway.

Certain features of Cartesian philosophy made it an important starting point for subsequent philosophical speculation. As a kind of meeting point for medieval and modern worldviews, it accepted the doctrines of Renaissance science while attempting to ground them metaphysically in medieval notions of God and the human mind. Thus, a certain dualism between God the Creator and the mechanistic world of his creation, between mind as a spiritual principle and matter as mere spatial extension, was inherent in the Cartesian position. An entire generation of Cartesians—among them Arnold Geulincx (1624–69), Nicolas Malebranche (1638–1715), and Pierre Bayle (1647–1706) —wrestled with the resulting problem of how interaction between two such radically different entities is possible.

The tradition of Continental rationalism was carried on by two philosophers of genius: the Dutch Jewish philosopher Benedict de Spinoza (1632–77) and his younger contemporary Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), a Leipzig scholar and polymath. Whereas Bacon’s philosophy had been a search for method in science and Descartes’s basic aim had been the achievement of scientific certainty, Spinoza’s speculative system was one of the most comprehensive of the early modern period. In certain respects Spinoza had much in common with Hobbes: a mechanistic worldview and even a political philosophy that sought political stability in centralized power. Yet Spinoza introduced a conception of philosophizing that was new to the Renaissance; philosophy became a personal and moral quest for wisdom and the achievement of human perfection.

Spinoza’s magnum opus, the Ethics (1677), borrowed much from Descartes: the goal of a rational understanding of principles, the terminology of “substance” and “clear and distinct ideas,” and the expression of philosophical knowledge in a complete deductive system using the geometric model of the Elements of Euclid (flourished c. 300 bce ). Spinoza conceived of the universe pantheistically as a single infinite substance, which he called “God,” with the dual attributes (or aspects) of thought and extension ( see pantheism ). Extension is differentiated into plural “modes,” or particular things, and the world as a whole possesses the properties of a timeless logical system—a complex of completely determined causes and effects. For Spinoza, the wisdom that philosophy seeks is ultimately achieved when one perceives the universe in its wholeness through the “intellectual love of God,” which merges the finite individual with eternal unity and provides the mind with the pure joy that is the final achievement of its search.

Whereas the basic elements of the Spinozistic worldview are given in the Ethics , Leibniz’s philosophy must be pieced together from numerous brief expositions, which seem to be mere philosophical interludes in an otherwise busy life. But the philosophical form is deceptive. Leibniz was a mathematician (he and Isaac Newton independently invented the infinitesimal calculus ), a jurist (he codified the laws of Mainz ), a diplomat, a historian to royalty, and a court librarian in a princely house. Yet he was also one of the most original philosophers of the early modern period. His chief contributions were in the fields of logic , in which he was a truly brilliant innovator, and metaphysics, in which he provided a rationalist alternative to the philosophies of Descartes and Spinoza.

Leibniz conceived of logic as a mathematical calculus. He was the first to distinguish “truths of reason” from “truths of fact” and to contrast the necessary propositions of logic and mathematics, which hold in all “possible worlds,” with the contingent propositions of science, which hold only in some possible worlds (including the actual world). He saw clearly that, as the first kind of proposition is governed by the principle of contradiction (a proposition and its negation cannot both be true), the second is governed by the principle of sufficient reason (nothing exists or is the case without a sufficient reason).

In metaphysics, Leibniz’s pluralism contrasted with Descartes’s dualism and Spinoza’s monism ( see pluralism and monism ). Leibniz posited the existence of an infinite number of spiritual substances, which he called “ monads ,” each different, each a percipient of the universe around it, and each mirroring that universe from its own point of view. However, the differences between Leibniz’s philosophy and that of Descartes and Spinoza are less significant than their similarities, in particular their extreme rationalism. In the Principes de la nature et de la grâce fondés en raison (1714; “Principles of Nature and of Grace Founded in Reason”), Leibniz stated a maxim that could fairly represent the entire school:

True reasoning depends upon necessary or eternal truths, such as those of logic, numbers, geometry, which establish an indubitable connection of ideas and unfailing consequences.

The Enlightenment

Although they both lived and worked in the late 17th century, Isaac Newton and John Locke (1632–1704) were the true fathers of the Enlightenment . Newton was the last of the scientific geniuses of the age, and his great Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687; Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy ) was the culmination of the movement that had begun with Copernicus and Galileo—the first scientific synthesis based on the application of mathematics to nature in every detail. The basic idea of the authority and autonomy of reason, which dominated all philosophizing in the 18th century, was, at bottom, the consequence of Newton’s work.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), Bacon, Galileo, and Descartes—scientists and methodologists of science—performed like people urgently attempting to persuade nature to reveal its secrets. Newton’s comprehensive mechanistic system made it seem as if at last nature had done so. It is impossible to exaggerate the enormous enthusiasm that this assumption kindled in all of the major thinkers of the late 17th and 18th centuries, from Locke to Kant. The new enthusiasm for reason that they all instinctively shared was based not upon the mere advocacy of philosophers such as Descartes and Leibniz but upon their conviction that, in the spectacular achievement of Newton, reason had succeeded in conquering the natural world.

Classical British empiricism

Two major philosophical problems remained: to provide an account of the origins of reason and to shift its application from the physical universe to human nature . Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) was devoted to the first, and Hume’s Treatise of Human Nature (1739–40), “being an attempt to apply the method of experimental reasoning to moral subjects,” was devoted to the second.

These two basic tasks represented a new direction for philosophy since the late Renaissance. The Renaissance preoccupation with the natural world had constituted a certain “realistic” bias. Hobbes and Spinoza had each produced a metaphysics. They had been interested in the real constitution of the physical world. Moreover, the Renaissance enthusiasm for mathematics had resulted in a profound interest in rational principles, necessary propositions, and innate ideas. As attention was turned from the realities of nature to the structure of the mind that knows it so successfully, philosophers of the Enlightenment focused on the sensory and experiential components of knowledge rather than on the merely mathematical. Thus, whereas the philosophy of the late Renaissance had been metaphysical and rationalistic, that of the Enlightenment was epistemological and empiricist. The school of British empiricism—John Locke, George Berkeley (1685–1753), and David Hume (1711–76)—dominated the perspective of Enlightenment philosophy until the time of Kant.

Locke’s An Essay Concerning Human Understanding marked a decisively new direction for modern philosophizing because it proposed what amounts to a new criterion of truth. Locke’s aim in his essay—“to inquire into the origin, certainty, and extent of human knowledge”—involved three tasks:

• To discover the origin of human ideas.
• To determine their certainty and evidential value.
• To examine the claims of all knowledge that is less than certain.

What was crucial for Locke, however, was that the second task is dependent upon the first. Following the general Renaissance custom, Locke defined an idea as a mental entity: “whatever is the object of the understanding when a man thinks.” But whereas for Descartes and the entire rationalist school the certainty of ideas had been a function of their self-evidence—i.e., of their clarity and distinctness—for Locke their validity depended expressly on the mode and manner of their origin. Thus, an intrinsic criterion of truth and validity was replaced with a genetic one.

Locke’s exhaustive survey of mental contents is useful, if elaborate. Although he distinguished between ideas of sensation and ideas of reflection, the thrust of his efforts and those of his empiricist followers was to reduce the latter to the former, to minimize the originative power of the mind in favour of its passive receptivity to the sensory impressions received from without. Locke’s classification of ideas into “simple” and “complex” was an attempt to distinguish mental contents that are derived directly from one or more of the senses (such as blueness or solidity, which come from a single sense such as sight or touch, and figure, space, extension, rest, and motion, which are the product of several senses combined) from complicated and compounded ideas of universals (such as triangle and gratitude), substances, and relations (such as identity, diversity , and cause and effect).

Locke’s Essay was a dogged attempt to produce the total world of human conceptual experience from a set of elementary sensory building blocks, moving always from sensation toward thought and from the simple to the complex. The basic outcome of his epistemology was therefore:

• That the ultimate source of human ideas is sense experience.
• That all mental operations are a combining and compounding of simple sensory materials into complex conceptual entities.

Locke’s theory of knowledge was based upon a kind of sensory atomism , in which the mind is an agent of discovery rather than of creation, and ideas are “like” the objects they represent, which in turn are the sources of the sensations the mind receives. Locke’s theory also made the important distinction between “primary qualities” (such as solidity, figure, extension, motion, and rest), which are real properties of physical objects, and “secondary qualities” (such as colour, taste, and smell), which are merely the effects of such real properties on the mind.

It was precisely this dualism of primary and secondary qualities that Locke’s successor , George Berkeley, sought to overcome. Although Berkeley was a bishop in the Anglican church who professed a desire to combat atheistic materialism, his importance for the theory of knowledge lies rather in the way in which he demonstrated that, in the end, primary qualities are reducible to secondary qualities. His empiricism led to a denial of abstract ideas because he believed that general notions are simply fictions of the mind. Science, he argued, can easily dispense with the concept of matter: nature is simply that which human beings perceive through their sense faculties. This means that sense experiences themselves can be considered “objects for the mind.” A physical object, therefore, is simply a recurrent group of sense qualities. With this important reduction of substance to quality, Berkeley became the father of the epistemological position known as phenomenalism , which has remained an important influence in British philosophy to the present day.

The third, and in many ways the most important, of the British empiricists was the skeptic David Hume. Hume’s philosophical intention was to reap, humanistically, the harvest sowed by Newtonian physics, to apply the method of natural science to human nature. The paradoxical result of this admirable goal, however, was a devastating skeptical crisis.

Hume followed Locke and Berkeley in approaching the problem of knowledge from a psychological perspective. He too found the origin of knowledge in sense experience. But whereas Locke had found a certain trustworthy order in the compounding power of the mind, and Berkeley had found mentality itself expressive of a certain spiritual power, Hume’s relentless analysis discovered as much contingency in mind as in the external world. All uniformity in perceptual experience, he held, comes from “an associating quality of the mind.” The “association of ideas” is a fact, but the relations of resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect that it produces have no intrinsic validity because they are merely the product of “mental habit.” Thus, the causal principle upon which all knowledge rests represents no necessary connections between things but is simply the result of their constant conjunction in human minds. Moreover, the mind itself, far from being an independent power, is simply “a bundle of perceptions” without unity or cohesive quality. Hume’s denial of a necessary order of nature on the one hand and of a substantial or unified self on the other precipitated a philosophical crisis from which Enlightenment philosophy was not to be rescued until the work of Kant.

Nonepistemological movements in the Enlightenment

Although the school of British empiricism represented the mainstream of Enlightenment philosophy until the time of Kant, it was by no means the only type of philosophy that the 18th century produced. The Enlightenment, which was based upon a few great fundamental ideas—such as the dedication to reason, the belief in intellectual progress, the confidence in nature as a source of inspiration and value , and the search for tolerance and freedom in political and social institutions—generated many crosscurrents of intellectual and philosophical expression.

The profound influence of Locke spread to France , where it not only resulted in the skeptical empiricism of Voltaire (1694–1778) but also united with mechanistic aspects of Cartesianism to produce an entire school of sensationalistic materialism. Representative works included Man a Machine (1747) by Julien Offroy de La Mettrie (1709–51), Treatise on the Sensations (1754) by Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715–80), and The System of Nature (1770) by Paul-Henri Dietrich, baron d’Holbach (1723–89). This position even found its way into many of the articles of the great French Encyclopédie , edited by Denis Diderot (1713–84) and Jean d’Alembert (1717–83), which was almost a complete compendium of the scientific and humanistic accomplishments of the 18th century.

Although the terms Middle Ages and Renaissance were not invented until well after the historical periods they designate , scholars of the 18th century called their age “the Enlightenment” with self-conscious enthusiasm and pride. It was an age of optimism and expectations of new beginnings. Great strides were made in chemistry and biological science. Jean-Baptiste de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (1744–1829), Georges, Baron Cuvier (1769–1832), and Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon (1707–88), introduced a new system of animal classification. In the eight years between 1766 and 1774, three chemical elements—hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen—were discovered. Foundations were being laid in psychology and the social sciences and in ethics and aesthetics . The work of Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, baron de L’Aulne (1727–81), and Montesquieu (1689–1755) in France, Giambattista Vico (1668–1744) in Italy, and Adam Smith (1723–90) in Scotland marked the beginning of economics, politics, history, sociology, and jurisprudence as sciences. Hume, the utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), and the British “moral sense” theorists were turning ethics into a specialized field of philosophical inquiry. And Anthony Ashley, 3rd earl of Shaftesbury (1671–1713), Edmund Burke (1729–97), Johann Gottsched (1700–66), and Alexander Baumgarten (1714–62) were laying the foundations for a systematic aesthetics .

Apart from epistemology, the most significant philosophical contributions of the Enlightenment were made in the fields of social and political philosophy . The Two Treatises of Civil Government (1690) by Locke and The Social Contract (1762) by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78) proposed justifications of political association grounded in the newer political requirements of the age. The Renaissance and early modern political philosophies of Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527), Jean Bodin (1530–96), and Hobbes had presupposed or defended the absolute power of kings and rulers. But the Enlightenment theories of Locke and Rousseau championed the freedom and equality of citizens. It was a natural historical transformation. The 16th and 17th centuries were the age of absolutism ; the chief problem of politics was that of maintaining internal order, and political theory was conducted in the language of national sovereignty . But the 18th century was the age of the democratic revolutions; the chief political problem was that of securing freedom and revolting against injustice, and political theory was expressed in the idiom of natural and inalienable rights.

Locke’s political philosophy explicitly denied the divine right of kings and the absolute power of the sovereign . Instead, he insisted on a natural and universal right to freedom and equality. The state of nature in which human beings originally lived was not, as Hobbes imagined, intolerable, though it did have certain inconveniences. Therefore, people banded together to form society—as Aristotle taught, “not simply to live, but to live well.” Political power, Locke argued, can never be exercised apart from its ultimate purpose, which is the common good , for the political contract is undertaken in order to preserve life, liberty, and property .

Locke thus stated one of the fundamental principles of political liberalism : that there can be no subjection to power without consent—though once political society has been founded, citizens are obligated to accept the decisions of a majority of their number. Such decisions are made on behalf of the majority by the legislature, though the ultimate power of choosing the legislature rests with the people; and even the powers of the legislature are not absolute, because the law of nature remains as a permanent standard and as a principle of protection against arbitrary authority.

Rousseau’s more radical political doctrines were built upon Lockean foundations. For him, too, the convention of the social contract formed the basis of all legitimate political authority, though his conception of citizenship was much more organic and much less individualistic than Locke’s. The surrender of natural liberty for civil liberty means that all individual rights (among them property rights) become subordinate to the general will . For Rousseau the state is a moral person whose life is the union of its members, whose laws are acts of the general will, and whose end is the liberty and equality of its citizens. It follows that when any government usurps the power of the people, the social contract is broken; and not only are the citizens no longer compelled to obey, but they also have an obligation to rebel. Rousseau’s defiant collectivism was clearly a revolt against Locke’s systematic individualism ; for Rousseau the fundamental category was not “natural person” but “citizen.” Nevertheless, however much they differed, in these two social theorists of the Enlightenment is to be found the germ of all modern liberalism: its faith in representative democracy , in civil liberties, and in the basic dignity of human beings.

All these developments led directly to the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, whose works mark the true culmination of the philosophy of the Enlightenment. Historically speaking, Kant’s great contribution was to elucidate both the sensory and the a priori elements in knowledge and thus to bridge the gap between the extreme rationalism of Leibniz and the extreme empiricism of Hume. But in addition to the brilliant content of his philosophical doctrines, Kant was responsible for three crucial philosophical innovations: (1) a new definition of philosophy, (2) a new conception of philosophical method, and (3) a new structural model for the writing of philosophy.

Kant conceived of reason as being at the very heart of the philosophical enterprise. Philosophy’s sole task, in his view, is to determine what reason can and cannot do. Philosophy, he said, “is the science of the relation of all knowledge to the essential ends of human reason”; its true aim is both constructive (“to outline the system of all knowledge arising from pure reason”) and critical (“to expose the illusions of a reason that forgets its limits”). Philosophy is thus a calling of great dignity, for its aim is wisdom, and its practitioners are themselves “lawgivers of reason.” But in order for philosophy to be “the science of the highest maxims of reason,” the philosopher must be able to determine the source, the extent, and the validity of human knowledge and the ultimate limits of reason. And these tasks require a special philosophical method.

Sometimes Kant called this the “transcendental method,” but more often the “critical method.” His purpose was to reject the dogmatic assumptions of the rationalist school, and his wish was to return to the semiskeptical position with which Descartes had begun before his dogmatic pretensions to certainty took hold. Kant’s method was to conduct a critical examination of the powers of a priori reason—an inquiry into what reason can achieve when all experience is removed. His method was based on a doctrine that he himself called “a Copernican revolution” in philosophy (by analogy with the shift from geocentrism to heliocentrism in cosmology ): the assumption that objects must conform to human knowledge—or to the human apparatus of knowing—rather than that human knowledge must conform to objects. The question then became: What is the exact nature of this knowing apparatus?

Unlike Descartes, Kant could not question that knowledge exists. No one raised in the Enlightenment could doubt, for example, that mathematics and Newtonian physics were real. Kant’s methodological question was rather: How is mathematical and physical knowledge possible? How must human knowledge be structured in order to make these sciences secure? The attempt to answer these questions was the task of Kant’s great work Critique of Pure Reason (1781).

Kant’s aim was to examine reason not merely in one of its domains but in each of its employments according to the threefold structure of the human mind. Thus the critical examination of reason in thinking (science) is undertaken in the Critique of Pure Reason , that of reason in willing ( ethics ) in the Critique of Practical Reason (1788), and that of reason in feeling ( aesthetics ) in the Critique of Judgment (1790).

Modern Philosophical Views of Self

• First Online: 23 May 2020

Cite this chapter

• Linda A. W. Brakel 2  

179 Accesses

The three foundational philosophical Self questions are again the focus. Modern views investigated include many and varied accounts of (1) Self -Constitution; and (2) the Self that one is concerned with when one is concerned with one’s survival. Under each of these two categories there are a few views that feature evolutionary considerations—Agency views, for example, and an account owing to S. Buss highlighting the Self with respect to constraints of minimal human flourishing. This chapter also explores a number of Classic Thought Experiments designed to reveal the nature of Self —Body-Brain Exchange (B. Williams); Closest Continuer (Nozick); Tele-transporting with Percentage change (Parfit)—experiments which will be adapted for empirical Experimental Philosophy studies in Chapter  7 .

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Durable hardcover edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

There are classical “pruning” views too. These include those of Plato, Kant, and Joseph Butler, as well as contemporary-Kantians such as Tamar Schapiro and Christine Korsgaard. (See the Bibliography for particularly relevant works.) Although Schapiro’s article and the three classic accounts will not be addressed in this project, portions of Korsgaard’s work will be briefly discussed below in the section on Rational- Self . The common feature among all of these accounts, classic, contemporary-Kantian, and modern alike, is actually the “pruning” process itself: Identifying the Self -proper as distinct from aspects that are non- Self , and then pruning away those non- Self components.

See particularly Franfurt’s ( 1992 ) The faintest passion. This is both an address and an article. (See Bibliography for full citation.)

Sripida’s deep self view will be briefly taken up later in the “Cares” category of Self -views. The other accounts are merely listed, and not discussed further.

There might exist a resemblance of some kind between this sort of Knowing- Self and the Self who knows that the natal gender is “wrong” in Trans persons. This similarity could prove useful if ontological and epistemological aspects of the Knowing- Self could be understood. But alas, this is unlikely as is elaborated in the text to follow.

A psychoanalytic treatment is an excellent way, albeit not the only way, to instantiate the Understanding First View of Self .

In addition to the three accounts to be discussed in the subsections on the Conative Self views, see also the works of Nomy Arpaly ( 2003 ) and Thomas Scanlon ( 1999 ). Unprincipled Virtue: An Inquiry into Moral Agency (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003); and Thomas Scanlon, What We Owe Each Other (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).

Before discussing this category, it should be noted that self-integration figures in other categories of Self-constitution too, albeit not as the central feature. This can be seen particularly in the above discussion of Korsgaard’s Rational- Self view, and in a variety of forms in the Central Cares- Self views which will be presented in the next subsection below.

See for instance, Roy Grinker’s New York Times opinion page piece (December 7, 2018), titled, “Being Trans is Not a Mental Condition.” See also Chapter  1 , footnote 5 for more on Grinker’s essay and related material.

For amoebas there are actually two types of reproduction. One is the mitotic division described in the text, in which two genetically identical diploid daughter cells are formed, each also genetically identical to the parent cell. The other form of reproduction is meiotic division. Here the paired chromosomes are split before their genetic material is doubled, forming a pair of haploid daughter cells. Only then is the genetic material doubled with another division occurring after some reassembling. Now, because of this reassembling, there are four non-identical haploid “grandchild” cells, each of which have less aged genetic material then their original progenitors. Parenthetically, the reassembling of genetic material is sufficient to classify this as a sort of “sexual” reproduction. See Ramesh, et al. ( 2005 ) for more on this topic.

See David Lewis ( 1976 , pp. 24–29), Derek Parfit ( 1984 , pp. 261–266), David Wiggins ( 1979 ), Bernard Williams ( 1960 / 1973 ), and Robert Nozick ( 1981 , part I, Chapter 1, pp. 27–114), who each discuss this topic, or matters closely related.

Note that Williams attributes the origin of this Thought Experiment to Sidney Shoemaker ( 1963 , p. 23.)

Here is admission I offer in advance: While the Experimental Philosophy studies will offer clear implications for Trans persons, and will have other demonstrable advantages, answers to the three foundational and vexing questions about the Self raised by the Trans experience will still remain largely out of reach.

On Parfit’s account whatever is important in one’s psychology—one’s intentions, desires, goals, personality, etc.—all of this is caused by brain goings-on.

For an introduction to sorites arguments, and to vagueness, See Brakel ( 2010 , Chapter 3, pp. 53 – 87) “The limits of rationality: vagueness a case study.” This chapter also includes many basic vagueness references for those interested.

Parfit’s Relation-R, particularly the psychological connectedness aspect, might add to our understanding of evolving Self feelings and perhaps even increasing Self satisfaction when Trans persons transition. Thus, returning to our emblematic GB, as a transition progresses GB might feel greater psychological connectedness with some basic GB- Self. The psychological continuity part of Relation R, on the other hand, would not seem to similarly benefit.

Note too however, that Parfit’s Relation-R, as for all the accounts explored so far, cannot supply solutions to the puzzling ontological and epistemological questions about Self occasioned by the trans phenomenon.

From a strictly biological point of view, one would have to say that the drive to continue living is shaped very much by the drive to live long enough to reproduce as successfully as possible.

See Brakel ( 2016 , pp. 1 – 3) for a view of animals as agents.

See Contrast Case 4—Non-human Animals in Chapter  2 . For references to these earlier Brakel works see footnotes 9 and 18 in this chapter.

Note, also that the original concept of these different sorts of explanations owes to Tinbergen ( 1963 ).

The explanation goes beyond this too: The selective fitness of amoebas inheriting the capacity to extrude y-type particles is also improved.

Interestingly, for Hampshire, knowing oneself as a person, distinct from other persons and objects, entails noting the effects of one’s own agential actions. This seems a very Kantian idea from the Critique of Pure Reason ( 1781 / 1787 ), where the unity of the Self rests upon the unity of objects and the perception thereof; while the unity of an object is known only through the several percepts of it all possessed by the same unified perceiving diachronic self.

Ennis’s case does suggest that some intact memory capacity is necessary for maintaining gender identity—both of the Cis and Trans type!

The phenomenon is well described by its name, but see Wittgenstein ( 1958 ) and Shoemaker ( 1968 ), for more discussion on the concept “immune from error through misidentification.”

Bibliography

Alcock, S. (2001). The triumph of sociobiology . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Google Scholar  

Anscombe, G. E. M. (1957). Intention . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Anscombe, G. E. M. (1974/1994). The first person. In Q. Cassam (Ed.), Self knowledge (Chapter 8, pp. 140–159). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Arpaly, N. (2003). Unprincipled virtue: An inquiry into moral agency . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Arpaly, N., & Schroeder, T. (1999). Praise, blame and the whole self. Philosophical Studies, 93, 161–188.

Article   Google Scholar  

Ayer, A. J. (1982). Philosophy in the twentieth century . New York: Vintage Books.

Brakel, L. A. W. (2010). Unconscious knowing and other essays in psycho-philosophical analysis . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

Brakel, L. A. W. (2016). Animals are agents. Commentary on Rowlands: Animal personhood. Animal Sentience, 103, 1–3.

Brakel, L. A. W., & Fileva, I. (unpublished ms). A new view of self-constitution .

Buss, S. (2012). Autonomous action: Self determination in the passive mode. Ethics, 122, 647–691.

Butler, J. (1726). Sermon II: Upon the natural supremacy of conscience . Fifteen Sermons. Cambridge: Hilliard and Brown.

Chen, S., Urminisky, O., & Bartels, D. (2016). Beliefs about the causal structure of the self-concept determine which changes in personal identity. Psychological Science, 27, 1398–1406.

Frankfurt, H. (1971/1988). The importance of what we care about . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Frankfurt, H. (1992). The faintest passion. Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association, 66, 5–16.

Freud, S. (1915). Instincts and their vicissitudes (The Standard Ed., Vol. 14, pp. 111–140, J. Strachey, Ed. & Trans.). London: Hogarth Press, 1957.

Hampshire, S. (1959). Thought and action . New York: Viking Press.

Kant, I. (1781A/1787B/1965). Critique of pure reason (N. K. Smith, Ed.). New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Kant, I. (1785/1997). Critique of practical reason (M. Gregor, Trans. & Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kant, I. (1785/1998). Groundwork of the metaphysics of morals (M. Gregor, Trans. & Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kant, I. (1793/1960). Religion within the limits of reason alone (T. Greene & H. Hudson, Ed. & Trans.). New York: Harpertorch Books.

Korsgaard, C. (1996). The sources of normativity . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Korsgaard, C. (1999). Self-constitution in the ethics of Plato and Kant. Journal of Ethics, 3, 1–29.

Lewis, D. (1976). Survival and identity. In A. Rorty (Ed.), The identity of persons (Chapter 1, pp. 1–40). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.

Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). Phenomenology of perception (C. Smith, Trans.). London: Routledge.

Nagel, T. (1971). Brain bisection and the unity of consciousness. Synthese, 22, 396–413.

Nagel, T. (1986). The view from nowhere . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nozick, R. (1981). Philosophical explanations . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Panksepp, J. (1998). The SEEKING system and anticipatory states of the nervous system. In Affective neuroscience: The foundation of human and animal emotions (Chapter 8, pp. 144–163). New York: Oxford University Press.

Parfit, D. (1984). Reasons and persons . Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Penelhum, T. (1971). The importance of self-identity. Journal of Philosophy, 68, 667–678.

Plato, A. (380 B.C. approx./1997). The Republic (G. Grube, Trans.). In J. Cooper (Ed.), Complete works of Plato . Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company.

Ramesh, M., Malik, S., & Logsdon, J. (2005). A phylogenomic inventory of meiotic genes; evidence for sex in Giardia and an early eukaryotic origin of meiosis. Current Biology, 15, 185–191.

Scanlon, T. (1999). What we owe each other . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Shapiro, T. (1999). What is a child. Ethics, 109, 715–738.

Shevrin, H. (2003, September 15). The psychoanalytic theory of drive in light of recent neuroscience findings and theories . Wilson Memorial Lecture, New York University, New York.

Shoemaker, D. (2003). Caring, identification, and agency. Ethics, 114, 88–118.

Shoemaker, S. (1963). Self-knowledge and self-identity . Ithaca and New York: Cornell University Press.

Shoemaker, S. (1968). Self-reference and self-awareness. The Journal of Philosophy, 65, 555–567.

Sripida, C. (2016). Self-expression: A deep self theory of moral responsibility. Philosophical Studies, 173, 1203–1232.

Strawson, P. F. (1959). Individuals . London and New York: Routledge.

Strohminger, N. (2017). The true self. Perspectives on Psychological Sciences, 12, 551–560.

Tinbergen, N. (1963). On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 20, 410–433.

Watson, G. (1975). Free agency. The Journal of Philosophy, 72, 205–220.

Wiggins, D. (1979). The concern to survive. Midwest Studies in Philosophy, 4, 417–422.

Williams, B. (1956–1957/1973). Personal identity and individuation. In Problems of the self (Chapter 1, pp. 1–18). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Williams, B. (1960/1973). Bodily continuity and personal identity. In Problems of the self (Chapter 2, pp. 19–25). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Williams, B. (1970/1973). The self and the future. In Problems of the self (Chapter 4, pp. 46–63). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wittgenstein, L. (1958). The blue and the brown books . Oxford: Blackwell Press.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Linda A. W. Brakel

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Linda A. W. Brakel .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Brakel, L.A.W. (2020). Modern Philosophical Views of Self . In: Investigations into the Trans Self and Moore's Paradox. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44645-1_3

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44645-1_3

Published : 23 May 2020

Publisher Name : Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-44644-4

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-44645-1

eBook Packages : Religion and Philosophy Philosophy and Religion (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

What Are the New Questions of Philosophy?

2018, in trending philosophical topics.

• Link Copied

“Right now there are few or no regulations, guidelines, or ethical agreements that have addressed many of the real issues that are facing the world,” a Masthead member wrote on our forums last week. His comment stoked a thoughtful conversation about whether established thinking and entrenched institutions can effectively navigate the complexity of the contemporary world, or whether fresh approaches are required. It led my fellow Masthead editors and I to a question: What subjects are now being confronted at the frontiers of philosophical inquiry, breaking from the familiar philosophical concerns of canonical figures like Plato, Locke, and Descartes? In today’s issue, you’ll hear from two philosophers who have thought deeply about the new questions shaping their field, and explore new additions to one of the most robust online resources for budding philosophers.

—Caroline Kitchener

How often do you move?

On Friday, we’ll be looking into geographic mobility, and how you—our members—have come to choose the place you call “home.” Take a few seconds, and fill out our quick survey .

What New Philosophical Questions Can Help Clarify the Modern Day?

By Caroline Kitchener

The canon of well-known philosophers is small, and mostly limited to a demographically homogeneous group of figures such as Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, Hume, and Locke. “Many people just assume we know who the great thinkers are—[the traditional philosophical canon] is not really in question,” said Andrew Janiak, a professor of philosophy at Duke and the editor of Project Vox, a nonprofit devoted to diversifying the field of philosophy. But Janiak, whose work we wrote about in 2015 , told me the canon is starting to diversify, slowly, in two key ways: by broadening the range of voices (especially beyond white men) on the longstanding questions of philosophy, and by broadening the scope of philosophical inquiry to new, more current questions.

The new questions go beyond probing the existence of God and the nature of consciousness to respond directly to the concerns of today, from the lives of marginalized groups to the stresses of modern relationships, said Elizabeth Harman, a professor of philosophy and human values at Princeton. I asked Janiak and Harman, a professor of philosophy and human values at Princeton, to each share an example of an emerging philosophical question, and make a few suggestions for further reading.

1. The Lived Reality of Love

By Elizabeth Harman, Professor of Philosophy and Human Values at Princeton University and co-editor (with Alexander Guerrero) of the forthcoming book, The Norton Introduction to Ethics

While philosophers have traditionally discussed the nature of love, philosophers today are taking seriously its lived reality, and the implications of that reality. Love is not just romantic love between two people. The lived reality of love includes polyamorous love, love between siblings, love between friends, love of fetuses and children, and many other types and forms of love. Considering love as it is actually lived leads us to new questions: such as how we should recognize the loving relationships of others, and how we should treat the objects of love.

Should we privilege two-person, romantic relationships?

Elizabeth Brake, a professor of philosophy at Arizona State University, argues that the benefits of marriage should not be restricted to romantic relationships, and should not be limited to relationships between pairs: Two platonic friends, or three lovers together, should be able to marry.

Reading List :

Elizabeth Brake, Minimizing Marriage

Do we owe our loved ones the benefit of the doubt?

Sarah Stroud and Simon Keller have each compellingly argued that the answer is “yes.” Even when we have sufficient evidence for a friend’s guilt, we should refrain from believing ill of her, except perhaps in the face of overwhelming evidence.

Simon Keller, “ Friendship and Belief ,” Philosophical Papers

Sarah Stroud, “ Epistemic Partiality in Friendship ,” Ethics

How does love affect the ethics of procreation?

I have argued that we can love fetuses from the moment they are conceived, which shows that these fetuses matter morally. This might appear to imply that something bad happens in an early abortion, but I argue that this does not follow. Rather, the moral status of early fetuses depends on whether they actually have futures as persons. (Here’s the actor James Franco interviewing me about this.)

Elizabeth Harman, “ Creation Ethics : The Ethics of Abortion and the Moral Status of Early Fetuses,” Philosophy and Public Affairs

Elizabeth Harman, “‘ I’ll Be Glad I Did It ’ Reasoning and the Significance of Future Desires,” Philosophical Perspectives

2. Gender and the History of Philosophy  

By Andrew Janiak, Professor of Philosophy at Duke University

The old idea that women never produced any important works of philosophy is increasingly being revealed as a sham. The historical record is full of treatises, plays, poems, and letters written by women who contributed to philosophy over the past few centuries, from Margaret Cavendish in England—the first woman to visit the Royal Society in London—to Emilie Du Chatelet in France. Scholars throughout the world are now excavating their works and bringing them into the light. We now have a virtuous circle: The more that scholars search through history for the lost contributions of women to philosophy, the more we find. The more we find, the more we can teach our students about such contributions, thereby generating more interest in new discoveries.

What contributions have women made to modern philosophy?

Through detailed arguments and footnotes replete with citations, Eileen O’Neill has shown that women made numerous contributions to philosophy from 1600-1800, and that their work has been systematically ignored in histories of philosophy. And in the volume Women and Liberty, 1600-1800, Jacqueline Broad and Karen Detlefsen document how women wrote about liberty and gender-based oppression across several centuries, subjects on which many male “canonical” figures were silent.

Eileen O’Neill, “Disappearing ink: early modern women philosophers and their fate in history,” in Philosophy in a Feminist Voice , edited by Janet Kourany

Women and Liberty, 1600-1800 , edited by Jacqueline Broad and Karen Detlefsen

What is the state of gender relations in philosophy today?

The contributions to the collection, Women in Philosophy: What Needs to Change , tackle the dramatic underrepresentation of women in philosophy, suggesting solutions to this increasingly acknowledged problem.

Women in Philosophy: What Needs to Change , edited by Katrina Hutchison and Fiona Jenkins

2018, in Trending Philosophical Topics

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP) is a collection of more than 1,600 online entries of pertinent philosophical topics. In order to decide which topics make it onto the platform, the Encyclopedia “[relies] on the judgments of our subject editors, who sometimes have to make hard decisions,” said Edward Zalta, the principal editor of SEP, and a senior research scholar at Stanford University. The Atlantic ’s Robinson Meyer wrote about the resource in 2012, when a page on the ethics of social networking platforms was added. The Encyclopedia lists their entries chronologically, so we looked into some of its most recent additions, many of which seem to respond directly to the issues of the day. Here are a few of the newer entries, along with brief excerpts from the Encyclopedia.

1. Artificial Intelligence (Added July 12)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the field devoted to building artificial animals (or at least artificial creatures that—in suitable contexts— appear to be animals) and, for many, artificial persons (or at least artificial creatures that—in suitable contexts— appear to be persons). Such goals immediately ensure that AI is a discipline of considerable interest to many philosophers, and this has been confirmed (e.g.) by the energetic attempt, on the part of numerous philosophers, to show that these goals are in fact un/attainable.

2. Sex and Sexuality (Added July 5)

Sex has received little attention in the history of western philosophy, and what it did receive was not good: Plato denigrated it, arguing that it should lead to something higher or better … Aristotle barely mentioned it, and Christian philosophers condemned it: Augustine argued that its pleasures are dangerous in mastering us, and allowed sex only for procreation, while Aquinas confined its permissibility to conjugal, procreative acts.

3. Feminist Philosophy (Added June 28)

As feminist philosophers carry out work in traditional philosophical fields, from ethics to epistemology, they have introduced new concepts and perspectives that have transformed philosophy itself. They are also rendering philosophical previously un-problematized topics, such as the body, class and work, disability, the family, reproduction, the self, sex work, human trafficking, and sexuality. And they are bringing a particularly feminist lens to issues of science, globalization, human rights, popular culture, and race and racism.

​​​​​​​ 4. The Ethics of Manipulation (Added March 30)

To say that Irving manipulated Tonya is commonly taken to be a moral criticism of Irving’s behavior. Is manipulation always immoral? Why is manipulation immoral (when it is immoral)? If manipulation is not always immoral, then what determines when it is immoral?

​​​​​​​​​​​​​​5. Disagreement (Added February 23)

You may disagree with your spouse or partner about whether to live together, whether to get married, where you should live, or how to raise your children. People with political power disagree about how to spend enormous amounts of money, or about what laws to pass, or about wars to fight. If only we were better able to resolve our disagreements, we would probably save millions of lives and prevent millions of others from living in poverty.

Today’s Wrap Up

Today’s Question : What do you think are some of the new philosophical questions worth considering? Are there any topics you think the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy should include that it doesn’t?

What’s Coming : Over on the forums , there has been much talk about the concept of home. How did you come to live where you live, and why do you stay there? On Friday, we’ll look into those questions.

Your Feedback : How are we doing? Take our quick survey and let us know.

We want to hear what you think about this article. Submit a letter to the editor or write to [email protected].

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

•  We're Hiring!
•  Help Center

Modern Political Philosophy

• Most Cited Papers
• Most Downloaded Papers
• Newest Papers
• Last »
• Nation-State Follow Following
• Sociology of Literature Follow Following
• Post-Colonialism Follow Following
• Turkish Literature Follow Following
• Memory Studies Follow Following
• Queer Studies Follow Following
• Political Philosophy Follow Following
• History of Political Thought Follow Following
• Psychoanalysis Follow Following
• Feminism Follow Following

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• Academia.edu Journals
•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Philosophy of Education Research Paper Topics

This page presents a comprehensive list of philosophy of education research paper topics , offering students a profound dive into the intricate intersections of philosophy and educational theory. Spanning across historical viewpoints, modern debates, and ethical considerations, the topics encapsulate the vast spectrum of philosophical inquiry in the realm of education. As the academic landscape continues to evolve, such topics stand testament to the enduring influence and relevance of philosophical foundations in shaping pedagogical practices and beliefs.

100 Philosophy of Education Research Paper Topics

Philosophy of education serves as a critical lens through which we can inspect, understand, and shape the educational landscape. This discipline intertwines historical, ethical, and epistemological strands of philosophy, casting a light on the intentions, methods, and outcomes of educational practices. Choosing the right topic from the vast expanse of the philosophy of education can not only provide a solid foundation for a meaningful academic pursuit but also spark transformative debates that can reshape the future of education.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code.

1. Historical Evolution of Philosophical Thoughts in Education

• The Platonic model of education.
• Aristotelian perspectives on teaching and learning.
• The Renaissance and humanistic education.
• Enlightenment thinkers and their impact on education.
• The Romantic era: A shift towards individualism in education.
• Industrial Revolution: Standardization in schooling.
• Existentialism and its emphasis on individual choice in education.
• Postmodern critiques of traditional education.
• The influences of Eastern philosophies on Western educational thoughts.
• Progressive vs. traditionalist educational philosophies in the 20th century.

2. Educational Theorists and Their Philosophies

• John Dewey and experiential learning.
• Paulo Freire’s “Pedagogy of the Oppressed.”
• Maria Montessori’s child-centric approach.
• Rudolf Steiner and Waldorf education.
• Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
• Lev Vygotsky and socio-cultural learning theories.
• Jerome Bruner’s spiral curriculum.
• Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.
• John Locke’s “tabula rasa” and its implications.
• B.F. Skinner and behaviorism in education.

3. Philosophical Underpinnings of Modern Educational Systems

• The purpose of education: Socialization vs. individualization.
• The banking model of education critique.
• Standardized testing and its philosophical critiques.
• The hidden curriculum in schools.
• Holistic education: A philosophical examination.
• Home schooling: Autonomy and individualized learning.
• The philosophy behind special education.
• The rise and implications of e-learning and virtual classrooms.
• The “factory model” of education: Origins and critiques.
• Lifelong learning and its philosophical significance.

4. Ethics and Morality in Education

• Character education: Purpose and strategies.
• The role of religious education in secular schools.
• Addressing discrimination and bias in educational settings.
• The debate over sex education in schools.
• Punishment and reward systems in education.
• Educating for global citizenship.
• Academic integrity and the cultivation of moral values.
• The ethics of educational research.
• Moral dilemmas faced by educators.
• The purpose and implications of ethical education.

5. The Role of Logic and Critical Thinking in Education

• Logic in curriculum: Why and how?
• The significance of argumentative skills in schooling.
• Philosophy for children: Rationale and outcomes.
• Critical pedagogy and its implications.
• Analytic reasoning in classroom settings.
• Problem-solving skills and their development.
• The Socratic method in modern classrooms.
• Logical fallacies: Identifying and avoiding in educational discourses.
• Teaching philosophy in primary and secondary schools.
• The balance between emotional intelligence and logical reasoning.

6. Political Philosophy and Education

• Education as a tool for political socialization.
• Democratic education: Principles and practices.
• Totalitarian regimes and their educational doctrines.
• The politics of curriculum design.
• Citizenship education and its philosophical underpinnings.
• The school as a microcosm of societal structures.
• Critical theory and its implications for education.
• Neo-liberalism and its influence on educational policies.
• Radical pedagogy: Origins and implementations.
• Education as a means of social justice.

7. Aesthetics and Education: The Role of Art and Beauty in Learning

• The philosophical justification for arts in education.
• Beauty and its pedagogical implications.
• The transformative power of music in education.
• Drama as an educational tool: Benefits and challenges.
• The aesthetic experiences and their cognitive benefits.
• The role of creativity in holistic development.
• The relationship between artistic expression and emotional intelligence.
• Philosophical debates on the art curriculum.
• Aesthetic appreciation as a lifelong skill.
• The balance between arts and sciences in curriculum.

8. Social and Cultural Perspectives in Education

• Multicultural education: A philosophical exploration.
• Gender issues in education and their philosophical roots.
• The philosophical debates on bilingual education.
• Social reproduction theory in education.
• The school as a social system: Dynamics and implications.
• Cultural relativism and its impact on education.
• Indigenous knowledge systems and mainstream education.
• Education and the debate over cultural assimilation.
• Socio-economic factors and their philosophical implications in education.
• Globalization and its impact on educational philosophies.

9. Metaphysical Perspectives on Learning and Knowledge

• The nature of knowledge: A philosophical inquiry.
• Constructivism and its metaphysical roots.
• Realism, idealism, and their educational implications.
• The debate over the existence of innate ideas.
• The metaphysics of learning environments.
• Mind-body dualism and its implications for education.
• The nature of consciousness and its role in learning.
• The metaphysical debates over intelligence.
• Knowledge, belief, and truth in educational contexts.
• The metaphysical underpinnings of experiential learning.

10. Epistemology and Learning Theories

• Empiricism and its educational implications.
• Rationalism in the classroom.
• Pragmatism and its impact on educational practices.
• The epistemological foundations of constructivist teaching.
• Knowledge acquisition: Passive reception vs. active construction.
• The challenge of skepticism in education.
• The role of intuition in knowledge acquisition.
• The epistemological debates on memory and learning.
• The nature and limits of human understanding in educational contexts.
• The balance between subjective experience and objective knowledge in education.

Navigating through the myriad philosophy of education research paper topics showcases the boundless depth and diversity of the field. As the nexus of philosophical thought and educational practice, these topics offer rich avenues for exploration, critique, and transformation. In both academic and practical realms, the philosophy of education remains a pivotal discipline, challenging educators and learners to question, understand, and reimagine the foundations of learning and pedagogy.

The Range of Philosophy of Education Research Paper Topics

Introduction

Education, in its myriad forms, has always been at the core of human civilization, guiding societies towards enlightenment and progress. Yet, it is the philosophy of education that provides the critical compass, helping delineate the underlying principles, methods, and objectives of teaching and learning. Understanding this philosophy is not merely an academic exercise but a foundational endeavor that molds the spirit and structure of educational systems worldwide.

The Multitude of Topics Under Philosophy of Education

At its heart, the philosophy of education seeks to answer foundational questions about the nature, purpose, and methods of education. Is the primary goal of education to transfer knowledge, cultivate virtues, or foster critical thinking? How should educators balance the need for standardized curriculum with the unique needs of individual learners? Such questions span a vast array of philosophy of education research paper topics, each examining specific facets of educational thought and practice.

The Rich Historical Tapestry and Evolution of Educational Philosophies

Historically, the philosophy of education has evolved in tandem with broader philosophical movements. Classical thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle laid the groundwork with their discourses on the ideal state and the nature of knowledge. The Renaissance rejuvenated educational thought, emphasizing the potential of the individual, while the Enlightenment championed reason and empirical knowledge. In the 20th century, existentialists like Jean-Paul Sartre and phenomenologists like Martin Heidegger brought forth questions about freedom, existence, and the essence of learning. This historical journey is not just a chronicle of past ideas but a vibrant dialogue that continues to shape educational practices today.

Impact of Philosophy on Global Educational Systems and Practices

From the Vedic Gurukul systems of ancient India to the liberal arts colleges of modern America, educational systems worldwide have been deeply influenced by philosophy. For instance, Confucian principles emphasizing respect, discipline, and moral integrity have long informed East Asian pedagogies. Meanwhile, the Socratic method, which promotes critical inquiry through question and answer, remains a staple in Western classrooms. Moreover, contemporary global challenges, such as digitalization, globalization, and societal shifts, have given rise to new philosophical inquiries. These include debates on the role of technology in classrooms, the nature of global citizenship, and the purpose of education in an ever-changing world. Every educational system, with its unique practices and priorities, is a testament to the profound impact of philosophical thought.

Significance of Philosophy of Education in Academic Research

Academic research in the philosophy of education serves a dual purpose. On one hand, it promotes a deeper understanding of educational processes, guiding teachers, policymakers, and educators in refining pedagogies. On the other, it acts as a mirror, reflecting societal values, aspirations, and challenges. Engaging with philosophy of education research paper topics equips students and researchers with the analytical tools to dissect educational conundrums, propose innovations, and, importantly, contribute to the rich legacy of philosophical discourse. From examining the ethics of standardized testing to exploring the epistemological foundations of e-learning, these research endeavors are at the forefront of educational transformation.

As we stand at the cusp of unprecedented educational challenges and opportunities, the philosophy of education research paper topics holds more relevance than ever. They beckon scholars, educators, and students to delve deep, question established norms, and chart new frontiers in the realm of education. The exhaustive scope of these topics, spanning historical epochs to contemporary dilemmas, is a testament to the enduring and profound significance of the philosophy of education. As societies evolve, and the nature of knowledge itself transforms, these philosophical explorations will remain a lighthouse, guiding the educational odyssey towards greater horizons.

Custom Writing Services by iResearchNet

In the intricate and thought-provoking domain of the philosophy of education, iResearchNet stands as a paragon of academic excellence and reliability. With an unwavering commitment to quality and a deep understanding of philosophical nuances, iResearchNet offers students an unparalleled advantage in crafting outstanding research papers that resonate with intellectual depth and precision.

• Expert Degree-Holding Writers : At the heart of iResearchNet is a team of seasoned writers, each holding advanced degrees in philosophy and related fields. Their academic credentials are complemented by years of hands-on experience in research and writing, ensuring that every paper stands up to the highest scholarly standards.
• Custom Written Works : Recognizing the unique requirements of each assignment, iResearchNet guarantees fully original papers tailored to the specific needs and guidelines of the client. No two papers are alike, reflecting the individualized care and attention given to each project.
• In-depth Research : Venturing beyond the superficial, the writers at iResearchNet immerse themselves in comprehensive research, harnessing a wide range of reputable sources to build a robust and well-informed argument.
• Custom Formatting : Formatting is an essential aspect of academic writing. Whether it’s APA, MLA, or any other format, iResearchNet ensures meticulous adherence to the stipulated guidelines, lending papers a professional polish.
• Top Quality : Quality is the cornerstone of iResearchNet’s services. Rigorous quality checks, coupled with expert writing, ensure that every paper not only meets but often exceeds the expectations of clients.
• Customized Solutions : Every research inquiry is unique, and iResearchNet celebrates this diversity by offering bespoke solutions that cater to the specific challenges and objectives of each assignment.
• Flexible Pricing : Valuing the diverse financial situations of students, iResearchNet offers a range of pricing options, ensuring that top-tier writing services remain accessible to all.
• Short Deadlines : In the crunch of tight deadlines, iResearchNet emerges as a reliable ally. With the capability to deliver quality papers in as short as three hours, the service is a lifesaver for many students.
• Timely Delivery : Punctuality is a promise at iResearchNet. Every assignment is delivered within the stipulated timeframe, ensuring students never miss their submission deadlines.
• 24/7 Support : Whether it’s a query, concern, or last-minute instruction, the round-the-clock support team at iResearchNet is always ready to assist, ensuring a seamless client experience.
• Absolute Privacy : With a steadfast commitment to confidentiality, iResearchNet guarantees the utmost privacy for all clients. Personal and academic details are held with the highest degree of security.
• Easy Order Tracking : With a user-friendly interface, clients can effortlessly track their orders, staying updated on the progress of their assignments.
• Money-Back Guarantee : Trust and reliability are foundational values at iResearchNet. If, for any reason, a client is not satisfied with the service, a money-back guarantee ensures peace of mind.

In the realm of philosophy of education, where ideas shape futures and thoughts mold perspectives, iResearchNet stands as an academic beacon. By choosing our services, students don’t just receive a paper; they embark on a transformative academic experience, enriched by our commitment to excellence, integrity, and scholarly depth. The choice is clear. For research that resonates, for insights that inspire, turn to iResearchNet.

Dive into the depths of philosophical exploration with confidence and excellence. Choose iResearchNet for your philosophy of education research paper needs, and experience the unmatched blend of quality, expertise, and dedication. Your academic aspirations deserve nothing but the best. Let iResearchNet be your trusted partner in this intellectual journey.

Elevate Your Philosophical Quest with iResearchNet

As you stand at the crossroads of academic exploration, poised to delve deep into the intricate layers of the philosophy of education, consider not just the journey, but the allies you choose for the voyage. Philosophy, with its vast horizons and nuanced intricacies, demands not only passion but precision, not just thought but technique.

iResearchNet is not just a writing service; it’s a partnership in your academic journey. A partnership that provides you with the acumen of expert writers, the assurance of top-quality research, and the confidence of timely and tailored solutions. In the realm of philosophy, where every idea is a universe waiting to be explored, why settle for ordinary when you can attain the extraordinary?

Embrace this opportunity. Let the profound expertise and unwavering support of iResearchNet illuminate your path. Choose excellence. Choose depth. Choose a future where your research in the philosophy of education stands out, not just as another paper, but as a testament to your dedication, intellect, and the impeccable support of iResearchNet. Take that decisive step today. For a brighter academic tomorrow, entrust your philosophical explorations to iResearchNet.

ORDER HIGH QUALITY CUSTOM PAPER

Subscribe to the PwC Newsletter

Join the community, edit social preview.

Add a new code entry for this paper

Remove a code repository from this paper.

Mark the official implementation from paper authors

Add a new evaluation result row.

• INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
• LONG FORM QUESTION ANSWERING
• QUESTION ANSWERING

Remove a task

Add a method

Remove a method, edit datasets, ancient wisdom, modern tools: exploring retrieval-augmented llms for ancient indian philosophy.

21 Aug 2024  ·  Priyanka Mandikal · Edit social preview

LLMs have revolutionized the landscape of information retrieval and knowledge dissemination. However, their application in specialized areas is often hindered by factual inaccuracies and hallucinations, especially in long-tail knowledge distributions. We explore the potential of retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) models for long-form question answering (LFQA) in a specialized knowledge domain. We present VedantaNY-10M, a dataset curated from extensive public discourses on the ancient Indian philosophy of Advaita Vedanta. We develop and benchmark a RAG model against a standard, non-RAG LLM, focusing on transcription, retrieval, and generation performance. Human evaluations by computational linguists and domain experts show that the RAG model significantly outperforms the standard model in producing factual and comprehensive responses having fewer hallucinations. In addition, a keyword-based hybrid retriever that emphasizes unique low-frequency terms further improves results. Our study provides insights into effectively integrating modern large language models with ancient knowledge systems. Project page with dataset and code: https://sites.google.com/view/vedantany-10m

Code Edit Add Remove Mark official

Tasks edit add remove, datasets edit.

Introduced in the Paper:

Results from the Paper Edit Add Remove

Methods edit add remove.